Error! No text of specified style in document. Error!

No t
style in document.

Topic 1

Error: Reference source not found

Preparation for Teaching

Introduction
What is teaching?
Two ways of looking at teaching: as a profession and as an
activity.
A profession is a calling requiring specialized knowledge and often
long and intensive preparation (Merriam – Webster, 2004)
Main characteristics of a profession:
 Adhering to set recognized standards. – Teachers are
required to adhere to certain standards. This is why in many
countries one has to be registered before teaching in any
school. In Kenya, it is illegal to teach without a TSC
number, just like it is against the law for anyone without a
Licence to treat patients
 Specialized knowledge – both professional and
pedagogical. Teachers need to be armed with knowledge of
a wide range of issues in relation to human learning, and
classroom practices.
Teaching as an activity involves the manipulation of the
environment to facilitate learning.
The environment can be physical, social or Intellectual.
Physical: Objects and things that can be responded to by senses.
Social: Interaction and behavior of those around.
Intellectual: Information, knowledge or level of thinking in the
surrounding.
Teaching in both senses requires preparation, hence the need for
the course.
The course shall mainly focus on teaching as an activity.
As an activity, teaching is not:
 merely imparting knowledge to learners or giving advice
 passing information to learners
 Sharing one's experience.
What is the difference between teaching and telling, explaining or
instructing? These don’t require much preparation. Indeed, they can
be spontaneous activities.

1
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Think it through:
Anyone can teach. All that is required is to
know about something, and the ability to tell
others what you know. Do you agree?

However, teaching goes beyond facilitating learning. It affects the

lives of learners beyond the classroom.
The English word teacher can be abbreviated as follows:
T-Talented
E - Excellent
T - Touch the life of the learner
A - Adorable Talented
E - Encourage the learner
C – Charming Educated
A - Accepting the learner
H – Humble Adorable
C - Caring for the learner
E - Encouraging Charming
H - Healing the learner Helpful
R - Responsible.
I - inspire the learner Encouraging
N - Nurture the learner Responsible
G - Guide the learner

What is learning ?
 Learning refers to a process where a person’s knowledge,
skills, attitudes or behavior is modified, reinforced or altered.
 Learning therefore involves change in the learner.
 Teaching should lead to desirable change, not just any change.
 Desirable changes are spelt out in the curriculum which is
implemented through teaching.

 Think it through:

Do you remember any teacher who made a

change in an aspect of your life? Was the
change positive or negative? What did the
teacher do to inspire the change? What can
you learn about teaching from your
experience?

 Learning never ends and effective learning is based on what

the learner already knows.

2
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Learning takes place when the learner interacts with the

content through the material or resources available. Teaching
plays an important role in facilitating this process.
For learning to take place, it is necessary for the following to
happen:
 Motivation- there must be a need, interest or desire to learn
on the part of the student. As a teacher, motivate the student
to learn.
 Inform the learner of what they expect to learn by stating
the instructional objectives (provide an advance organizer)
 Organise the content to be learned. Put the content in a
meaningful sequence that allows the leaner to understand
and follow the presentation.
 Involve the learner emotionally in the delivery of content-
learning that involves personal feelings as well as intellect
is long lasting.
 Participation by the learner is essential. Learning involves a
learner performing some mental or physical activities to
build on the facts, concepts, principles, procedures or skills
presented by a teacher.
 feedback- learning is increased when learners are informed
periodically of their progress
 Reinforcement- when a learner is successful in learning,
they need to be reinforced in order to continue learning
 Practice and repetition- knowledge or skill is confirmed as
an individual's competence when the learner is allowed to
practice in a context different from the one where it was
learned.
 Application- The desired outcome for learning is to increase
the individual ability to transfer the skill or knowledge by
solving a problem in a novel situation.
Common teacher-related problems that hinder learning.
 Most teachers spend more time talking with little time being
given to students to express themselves.
 Many teachers tend to promote rote learning rather than
creative thinking.
 Spending more time giving information and less on clarifying
ideas and giving explanations.
 Spending limited time encouraging learners in class.
 Lack of adequate time for planning and carrying out
instructions.
 Limited mastery of content.
 Lack of stimulus variation.
 Demotivated teacher.
 Poor grooming.
 Substance abuse /alcoholic teacher.

3
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

 Harsh language and unkind words.

These problems can be surmounted if there is some preparation on

the part of the teacher.
Need for Preparation
For successful and effective teaching, adequate preparation is required.
An old adage says ‘failing to prepare is preparing to fail’.
It has also been said that it you prepare for nothing, you will surely get it.
Teaching is a critical communication situation that requires
preparation in many areas. This is mandatory not optional. The
preparation can be either short term or long term. The teacher must
also prepare the student to learn. Teacher preparation and
discipline establish the platform for effective teaching and
transformational learning.
Preparation vs planning
Preparation means, “to get ready to perform certain activity”
Preparation is a wide term that involves physical and psychological
readiness of the teacher to teach and the learner to learn. It is long
term.
Planning on the other hand is the systematic process of deciding
what and how your students should learn (Borich 2004)
A teacher must make important decisions and possess relevant
knowledge to be able to plan effectively.
Preparation for teaching just like any other task require adequate
time and it’s the teacher’s duty and responsibility to ensure
availability of that time from his/her busy schedule hence no
excuse.
The rationale for teacher preparation
1) Preparation helps the teacher to have a clear understanding of his or
her mission (which is the same thing as objectives and
action/activities)
2) Being your best doesn’t happen by accident and thus require
preparation. Teacher preparedness influence learner preparedness
too.
3) Preparation pays off. Research about that presentation jitters and
nervousness can be reduced up to 70% by simply rehearsing and
practicing ahead of time.
4) The more we practice, rehearse and exercise our communication
skills the more influence we have which builds our
communication/teaching momentum.

4
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Athletes and politicians understand the importance of preparing.

Likewise, it is imperative for all teachers to prepare in order to
successfully communicate in the classroom.
 The more you prepare outside class the less you perspire in
class and the more you inspire.
 There are two categories of teachers based on their behavior
pattern of preparation.

a) Grasshopper teacher.
b) Ant teacher.

Grasshopper teacher Ant teacher

1 They are reactionary but they do get loads of Have an organized approac
exercise from jumping around gathering loads of exercise from jump
content and teaching materials for the lesson. system for content delivery

2 Their victims of their behavior for ill prepared They are in control and prep
in handling classroom crisis. any changes for the classroo
Climate or weather.

3 Their balance is offset and productivity The ant teacher thrives exce
well and withstand all weat
conditions in the classroom

4 Due to lack of preparedness they perspire a Due to adequate preparation

lot in class. inspire the learners.

5 Uses a sketchy unworkable lesson plan that is Uses an exhaustive user frie
separated from lesson notes. lesson plan with adequate c
lesson notes.

Figure 1: Difference between a teacher who is a good planner and the other who
is not

5
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

 The bottom line to that communication rules have changed

to information age and even preparation as own new
meaning.
 Being in the classroom unprepared is not an easy place to
be.
Consequences of lack of preparation in classroom.
1) Loss of confidence by the teacher.
2) Teaching content is haphazardly organized.
3) Ineffective use of resources, including time.
4) Indiscipline and confusion in the class.
5) Propensity to present inaccuracies and half-truths is high.
6) Loss of learner confidence.

Lack of preparation not only makes hinders learning, it could even

lead to undesirable learning outcomes! A class with no teacher at
all is better than one with an ill prepared teacher.

Think Through:

What are some of the undesirable learning

outcomes that can result when a teacher is
not prepared?

Preparing for teaching is restrictive in that

it kills creativity and spontaneity in both
the teacher and the learner. Do you agree?
Why or why not?

Topic Summary

Explain the relationship between teaching and learning.

Discuss the importance of preparing for teaching.

Assignment

Assignment

7
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Assessment

1) Outline the central tasks of teaching

2) Describe two categories of teachers based n their

Assessment behavior pattern of preparation.

Topic 2

Daily Preparation for teaching

Planning for Instruction

The evidence for preparation to the availability of and professional
documents namely:
- Syllabus.
- Schemes of work.
- Lesson plan.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 define planning for instruction.

 describe syllabus, scheme of work, lesson plan, record of

work.
Outcomes
 develop professional teaching document.

 plan for a successful lesson.

Planning for • Planning for instruction - Is the

instruction: organisation and professional
management of essential elements of

8
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Terminology instruction(Kafu 2010).

• Organisation and management of
learning environment, media, content
and teaching documents
• Also referred to as instructional
development process-approach to the
design, production, utilisation and
evaluation of appropriate components
and management for using them(Brigg
& Gagne 1978)

Professional Syllabus, scheme of work, lesson plan and a

documents: record of work

Teacher competencies during planning

a) Good attitude towards teaching
b) Mastery of the subject matter/content
c) Devpt, preparation and use of learning facilities and media
resources
d) Knowledge of learner characteristics
e) Organization and mgmt. of learning environment
f) Instructional techniques and strategies

Factors that influence the process of planning for instruction

a) Teacher competence in the process-trained
b) Learner/student characteristics
c) Instructional materials
d) Learning facilities
e) Learning environment-physical and social
f) School administration
g) Staff level
h) Government policies

Importance of planning
a) identify the scope of content to be covered as in the syllabus;
b) Organization of content –termly
c) identify clearly the goals and objectives of teaching a particular
subject;
d) Plan following a system process;
e) helps the teacher to analyze their learners

9
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

f) Helps the teacher to select appropriate resources

g) select appropriate evaluation procedures for the content.
h) Helps bring economy in the teaching-learning process
i) Helps the teacher make use of the principle of correlation and
integration

Planning steps useful for any form of instruction

a) Clarify your purpose in teaching that particular lesson or
topic.
b) Write clear learning outcomes that you want the learners to
achieve from the lesson (provide learning objectives);
c) Determine the constraints (time, resources, etc) within which
you must teach;
d) Select the content that you want learners to understand so that
they can achieve the lesson outcomes;
e) Organize the content into a suitable sequence and select
appropriate examples to help learners understand it;
f) Select the most appropriate methods for presenting the
content or engaging learners in learning activities;
g) Decide how you will assess the learners to determine whether
they have achieved the outcomes, and
h) Plan how you will evaluate the success of the lesson so that
you can decide how to modify your teaching in the future
(Killen, 2000:17).

Professional Documents during Lesson Preparation

1 Syllabus
a) It is a document which shows the content to be covered in a
given subject at a particular level of study.
b) Helps the teacher to have a broad view of subject matter and
to select appropriate content to teach
c) Prepared by KICD and KNEC.
d) Used to prepare the schemes of work.
It contains the following.
a) National unity values
b) General objectives of the subjects.
c) Instructional objectives for each topic.
d) Subject content written as topics, subtopics and occasionally
main supporting details.
e) Suggested teaching learning materials and resources.
f) Suggested teaching and learning activities or
methodologies.
Nb .The teacher should be able to extract from the syllabus the
topics and plan to teach them over a period of time. This is
called preparation schemes of work.

10
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

(2) Schemes of work

- These are written description of the work that has been
planned for the particular content to be covered over a
specified period of time.
- It contains topics and sub-topics from the syllabus that are
broken down to be taught in a school for a year, a term or a
month.
- Preparation of schemes of work is about breaking down the
content of syllabus into meaningful components or units
and arranging them in a logical sequence for teaching.
- Its and effort made by the teacher to plan systematically
while preparing it. You need to pay attention to the
changing times, changing nature of students, available
learning facilities as well as the changes in the subject
matter.
Guidelines for making schemes of work.
1) Familiarize yourself in the topics and sub-topics or content in
syllabus.
2) Establish the number of teaching weeks available in school
term.
3) Find out the number of lessons/period allocated to teaching
particular subject each week and through the term.
4) Check into consideration the lessons used for class tests, for
revision of tests, end of term exams, for other school
activities e.g games & sports, music and drama.
5) Look at the timetable to see the sequence of the lessons.
6) Allocate or distribute the available time to the topics or sub-
topics starting in the first week to the last week.
7) Consider the difficulty of concepts to be taught, the amount
of information to be covered and teaching methods that you
intend to use.
8) Arrange the topics such that a sequence to instruction is
developed. E.g. simple to complex topics, from known to
unknown, familiar to unfamiliar.
Week lesson no: Topic/subtopic: lesson objective: methodology
references remarks.

Week Lesson Topic Subtopic Objectives Teaching Learning Resources/ Remarks

No Activities Activities References
1 Logarith Indices By the end *Teacher leads *Learners Ref. 1 pg.67-
m (powers) of the lesson learners in respond to 72
and base the learner reviewing previous teacher’s
should be work related to questions

11
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Week Lesson Topic Subtopic Objectives Teaching Learning Resources/ Remarks

No Activities Activities References
able to: the topic and engage
in
*Define *Teachers assigns
discussions
indices learners,,supervise
on the
(powers) s, and marks work
topic.
on pg 72, Ex 4.1
nos. 6(a)( i)-(iv); * learners
6(b) (i)-(iv),; 6 (c) engage in
(i)-(iv) supervised
practice of
the
assigned
exercise

Figure 2

3. Lesson Plan:
- It is a teacher’s description of the course of instruction for
one class during the lesson.
- It is the teacher’s work plan showing what he/she and his/her
students should cover during a single or double lesson.
- It is the instructor’s road map of what students need to learn
and it would be done effectively during the class time.
- At the lesson planning stage the teacher should visualize the
actual teaching learning situation and prepare an instruction
guide or teaching plan to the content to be taught.
- The teaching of any single lesson a relationship is what the
learner already know, what they were taught in the next and
subsequent lessons.
Before you prepare your lesson you will need to take closer look at
the following.
- The content to be taught. It means:
(i) The topic – the major concept (super ordinate
concept).
(ii) Sub-topics – Are minor concepts.
(iii)Main supportive details – are identified in terms of
what you do.
- They have minor concepts.
(iv) Examples/illustrations –
ANYTHING WITHOUT SUBSTANCE IS NOTHING.
THE CONTENT IS THE SUBSTANCE OF THE
LESSON PLAN. ANY LESSON PLAN WITHOUT
CONTENT IS THEREFORE NOTHING.

1) Your objectives.
2) The learning experiences you hope to offer the learner.

12
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

3) The resources that you hope to use for teaching.

WEEK________________LESSON
NO.______TOPIC_______________
SUB-TOPIC_____________________
OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson the learner should be able
to;
(i)_______________________________________________
(i)_______________________________________________
(iii)______________________________________________

n CONTENT TEACHING ACTIVITIES LEARNING RESOURCE

ACTIVITIES MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION

5 MIN

LESSON STEP1
DEVELOPMENT
STEP 2
30 MINUTES
STEP 3

CONCLUSION

5 MINUTES

Figure 3

SELF EVALUATION
___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________

Steps for preparing a lesson plan

13
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Critical part method:

Each step is accompanied by a set of questions made to prompt
reflection and help you in deciding a workable lesson plan.

(i) Outline the learning objectives.

Use proper action verbs and the respective content. You need two
to three objectives for a single lesson properly numbered. This
helps you to determine what you want learners to learn and be able
to do at the end of the class. The following questions are useful in
specifying your objectives.
a) What is the topic of the lesson?
b) What do I want students to learn?
c) What do I want them to understand and be able to do at the
end of the class? (action and the content)
d) What do I want them to take away from this particular
lesson? (Achievement and attainment).
- Rank the objectives in order of importance according to
taxonomy. This will help you accomplish and manage
your class time if time is limiting.
- What are the most important ideas and skills you want
them to grasp and apply. – By seeing the relevance and
- If I run out of time what thing can’t be emitted? Helps
you to avoid irrelevance information.

(ii)Develop the introduction

 Introduce new material of the day’s lesson in a dramatic way.
To get learner’s full attention and sustainability at the end of
the lesson.
 The teacher may carry out some brief revision of the previous
lesson to ensure that the previous one was mastered well
enough if it has a relation with the current topic.
 It is not compulsory / a must to review previous lesson learnt.
 It also enables the learners to relate the past and the present
learning.
 The teacher can give an oral summary of the main or can give
question.
 Develop a creative introduction to a topic to stimulate interest
and encourage thinking.
 You need to use the variety of approaches to engage the
student. E.g. personal experiences, historical events, real world
examples, short video clips, practical application, probing
question.
a) How will I check whether students know anything
about the topic or have any preconceived nor ties
(misconceptions- entry behaviour).

14
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

b) What are some commonly held ideas or experiences of

the learners about the topic, and what will I do to
introduce the topic?

(iii) Plan for specific activities to deliver the content of the

lesson.
Teaching activities – Didactic
Learning activities – Mathematics
- It referred to as lesson development/main body.
- Arrange and organize content logically.
- Prepare several ways to explaining the materials. e.g
i. Real life examples.
ii. Analogies
iii. Visuals: to catch their attention of more learners and
appeal to different learning and thinking styles.
- Estimate how much time you spend on each activity on piece
of content.
- Difficult content require more time.
- Identify strategies to check for understanding.
Guiding questions:
a) What will I do to explain the topic?
b) What will I do to illustrate the topic in a different way?
c) How can I engage students in the topic?
d) What are some relevant real life examples, analogies and
situations that can help students understand the topic better?
e) What will students need to do to help them understand the
topic?
The lesson plan should unpack the content of the topic.

(iv) Plan to check for understanding and possibility for

application of knowledge.
- This helps to determine whether learning is taking place or
otherwise and can be achieved through use of specific
questions in much be written down in the lesson plan.
- They are supposed to paraphrase so that they are asked in
different ways.
- Try to predict the answers that your questions will generate.
- They are supposed to be written in pint form but decide
whether they are to be answered orally or in writing.
Guiding questions:
i) What questions will I ask students to check for
understanding? –avoid non-questions e.g are you
……………… me? Understood?

15
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

ii) What will students do to demonstrate that they are

following?
iii)What activity can students engage in to confirm
whether each of the learning objectives has been
achieved?
- At this stage you need to anticipate students’ question. It
helps in time management.
Questions the learners will ask.
1) Cheeky questions – they are not related with what is
being discussed.
2) Trivial question. – should throw in back to the one
asked.
3) Serious questions – require serious answers and are
good in discussion. Should be handled with care.
- Decide what kind of questions will be productive
during discussion and those that might side back the
class.
- Think about and decide.
(v)Develop a conclusion and a preview.
- It’s done by going over the material covered in class.
Summarizing the main points of the lesson
1) State the main points yourself.
2) Ask a student to help you summarize them.
3) Ask all students to write down on a piece of paper what
they think they are main points.
4) Ask questions and get understanding from the learners
questions.
5) Preview the next lesson, which help to connect the current
topic to the one coming and help student connect the
different ideas in a larger context.
Importance of lesson conclusion (ngaroga, abwalaba,2010)
(i) Provides a lesson summary
(ii) Consolidates the lesson
(iii) Helps to evaluate the lesson/elicit feedback from
the pupils
(iv) Focus on the next lesson
(v) Give an opportunity to give an assignment
(vi) Provides logical ending of the lesson

4 Record of work covered

• It is necessary to keep a record of the work done as a

reference guide for future planning and teaching. Record of
work is a daily record that is prepared after each planned
lesson has been taught or in case it fails to be taught. The
record specifies the class taught, the topic/sub-topic and
remarks. This is a useful document when you want to

16
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

confirm whether a particular topic was taught and when it

was taught and what challenges might have been
encountered. It can be used in case of handover/take over by
another teacher.

Date Topic Sub topic Remarks Sign

Reasons for maintaining record of work covered

(i) Facilitate supervision
(ii) Show amount of work covered
(iii) Evaluate their own progress
(iv) Facilitate handing over/taking over
(v) Easy picking up of the class by another teacher
(vi) Facilitate assessment of learners
(vii) It is a professional requiurement
5. Lesson notes
- Some teachers hardly prepare lesson plans but rely on lesson
notes
- Lesson notes are products of short notes a teacher makes as
he/she goes about collecting information for teaching a
lesson(Kafu, 2010).
- The details include source of information consulted and the
main points captured from the text.
- The style of writing should conform to established conventions
of writing such as reading, comprehension, structure,
vocabulary, summary making and note making
- Well prepared notes are characterized by(i) titling (ii) good
language use (iii) appropriate paragraphing (iv) punctuations,
(v) emphasis where applicable (vi) readable
- Ideally all teachers should prepare one(Kafu, 2010).
Importance of lesson notes
a) Enable the teacher have full grasp or mastery of the content
and hence have full authority

17
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

b) Allows the teacher to read widely and select appropriate

content
c) Lesson notes facilitate the process of class assessment tools
such as quizzes and examinations, and marking schemes
d) Conduct the lesson topic and task analysis that are essential in
the development of essential instructional design programmes
e) Identification and selection of instructional media and
instructional strategies
Lesson Presentation
As you deliver the lesson, you need to apply certain teaching skills
which will determine the effectiveness of the lesson. Among the
skills that you need to demonstrate during the lesson delivery
include:
 The teacher’s manner is confident, relaxed, self assured,
and generates interest in the lesson.
 The teacher’s questions include a variety of types and are
widely distributed.
 The teacher’s instructions explanations are clear and
matched to the learners’ needs.
 A variety of appropriate learning activities are used to
foster students’ learning.
 Learners are actively involved during the lesson and are
given an opportunity to organize their own learning.
 The teacher shows respect and encouragement to students’
ideas and contributions and fosters their development.
 Materials are appropriately used during the lesson.

Lesson Management
Lesson management is a critical component of your lesson delivery.
You will need to demonstrate the following skills as you manage
the lesson:
 The introduction of the lesson should be stimulating by
creating a positive mental set on the students on what is
to follow.
 Students’ attention, interest and involvement in the
lesson are maintained.
 Students’ progress during the lesson is carefully
monitored.
 Constructive and useful feedback is given to students to
encourage further progress.
 Transitions between activities in a lesson are smooth.
 Time spent on different activities is well managed.

18
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

 The pace and flow of the lesson is adjusted and

maintained at an appropriate level throughout the
lesson.
 Adjustments to the lesson plan when necessary are
made whenever appropriate.
 The lesson is brought to a logical conclusion.

Classroom Climate
You will need to demonstrate the following skills in order to create
a healthy classroom climate:
 The classroom climate should be task-oriented, relaxed, and
with an established sense of order.
 Students should be supported and encouraged to learn with
high positive expectations.
 The teacher-student relationship is based on mutual respect
and rapport.
 The teacher provides feedback to students which foster
student self-confidence and self-esteem.
 There is order, control and sense of direction in the class.

Discipline
Note that good order is largely based on the positive classroom
climate established and by good lesson presentation and
management. Hence the need to ensure that you have the skills
needed to achieve all these.
The skills that you need to attain discipline in your class include:
 The teacher must establish their authority which is
accepted by students.
 Clear rules and expectations regarding students’
behaviour are conveyed to students at appropriate times.
 Students’ behaviour during the lesson is carefully
monitored and appropriate action taken to pre-empt
misbehaviour.
 Confrontations are avoided and skillfully defused.

Assessing students’ Progress

Types of assignments.
1) Whole class assign
2) Small groups of 3-4.
3) Workshops: - students perform tasks simultaneously.

19
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

4) Independent work – done individually.

5) Peer learning – work together, face to face so as to learn
from each other.
6) Contractual work. – The teacher and student establish
on agreement that the students must perform a certain
amount of work by a deadline.
The following skills are essential in this respect:
 Marking students’ work during and after the lesson is
thorough and constructive and the work returned on time.
 A variety of assessment tools/tasks are used.
 Opportunities are provided for students to foster the
assessment of their own work and progress.
 Assessment of students’ work is used to identify areas of
common difficulties, effectiveness of teaching, and areas
that require remedial action.

Reflection and Evaluation

The following skills are essential in this respect:
 Lessons are evaluated to inform future planning and
practice.
 Current practice is regularly considered with a view to
identify aspects for future development.
 Use is made of a variety of ways to evaluate current
practice.
 Regular reflection of current practice to identify what works
well and what needs to be improved.
 Regular review of instructional strategies and methods in
order to discover problem areas for possible intervention.
 Identifying whether you can organize your time and efforts
better.
Please note that these are not the only skills that you need to
develop. You also need to develop specific skills that relate to a
particular instructional situation. For example, how you ask
questions in class, how to control learner participation, how to use
and give examples, and how to reinforce students. These skills will
be discussed in details later on.

Time management during the lesson.

- The most important skills include:
a) Verbal exposition or communication skill
b) The teacher should talk cleanly.
c) Use of illustrations/examples.

20
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

a. e.g story, instance, riddle, etc.

It helps the concept familiar to the learners.
d) Questioning skill
e) Any statement written.
f) Reinforcement skills.
g) Can be either negative or positive.
h) Set induction/preparation skill (introduction)
i) Mastication skill
j) Stimulus variation
k) Conducting closure skill
l) Improvisation skill.
m) Creativity.

21
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Unit summary

In this unit you learned the process of planning for instruction.

Summary

Assignment

Compare and contrast professional documents bought from the

bookshops, from a neighbouring school and the ones you have
made yourself.

Assignment

Assessment

1) Being in a classroom unprepared is not an easy place to be.

List five consequences of lack of preparation
2) With the use of a sub-topic from one of your teaching
subjects, explain the steps one would use in preparing a
Assessment teaching or lesson plan.

3) Write an illustration of the lesson plan that was envisaged

in question 1 above using the same topic.
4) Discuss the importance of preparation for teaching from
the perspective of:

i) Career development

ii) Every day life of a teacher

22
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Topic 3

Models for Teaching Preparation

Introduction

[Add introductory text here]

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 .Apply different models of teaching preparation

Outcomes

Model: [Term description]

Terminology

The simple Model

- Success in teaching has a formula but only wisdom brings it
out.
- A great teacher is a brilliant and extra-ordinary communicator.
Such teacher behaves like a fisherman.
- Preparation enables a teacher to operate at his/her best and may
need a rehearsal.
S - Stories.
They are like fishing lines or baskets that unite the role content of
the message.
a) They are like casting the net which attract learners’ interest in
order to catch their minds e.g parables, metaphors, and images
to reach out position, protect and build relationship between
concept, the old and new knowledge.
I - Interaction
– it hooks learners’ memory and establishes new files in their
minds.

23
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

 It is like using hooks and boats. In this case the teacher

is supposed to create actions, movement and idea
between him and the learners and also among the
learners themselves.
 Connect with the learners, pull them into the content so
as to help them remember and respond.
 Teacher is supposed to use questions, word, pictures
and riddles
 It attracts attention and engages the learners.
 It draws the learners into the content so that they can
mix with it
 It helps to stimulate and hook learners into listening.
M – Multitrack communication
 To cater for individual differences.
 Differences exist in the following five areas or tracts:
i) Physical – deals with the senses, gender and biological
makeup.
ii) Emotional – matters relating to the health e.g feelings,
memories, relationships etc.
iii) Intellectual – deals with the mind reasoning, logic,
intellect, knowledge.
iv) Intuitive – Instincts that relate to basic needs for survival
and development.
v) Spiritual – personal values, beliefs, truths and
understanding that inspires one and directs life.
 It helps to keep the learners involved. Since there is no
boredom since they reached at the same time.
P – Preparation – it is like wearing the net.
 It makes the teacher to operate at peak performance.
 Preparation and discipline establishes platform for
budging victorious teaching.
L – Love.
 It’s the glue between the teacher and the learners.
 Learners and the subjects.
 Learners, grades and the school.
 It is the driving school to go teaching.
 As a teacher you should love the conte4nt.
 The school and profession.
 Love is the fuel, passion, commitment and reason that a
teacher gets up before the sun rises for teaching.
 It makes the teacher go to class with joy.
E – Execution
 Act with precision to hit the target or reach the goal.

24
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

 The simple model reveals that communication is the universal

key to successful teaching.
 A successful teacher therefore:
1) Prepares his/her presentations or lessons.
2) Mentors his/her learners.
3) Establishes bounderies.
4) The teacher stays on the message.
5) Makes teaching simple yet revolutionary and also plain
(transparent), familiar and unforgettable.
Other models
(i) PDSI model
P - Plan D - Do S - See
I - Improve

P –Plan
Design your teaching or instruction.
 Outline lesson activities based on ASEI principles.
 Consider learners’ background.
D - Do
 Implementing planned activities.
 It must be innovative and interactive introduction,
presentation and conclusion.

S –see
 Monitoring the learning process against planned activities
and lesson objectives.
 It involves lesson evaluation.
I – Improve.
Integration of feedback from evaluation into subsequent
lessons.

(ii) ASEI Model

A – Activity focus learning.
S – Student centered teaching.
E – Experiment and research based learning.
I – Improvisation or innovativeness.
Post teaching phase.
 Lesson evaluations, follow up on assignments.

25
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

 Assign is important because they help to provide students with

time to practice concept.
 Teacher to track the students.
 Practice independent research
 All assignments must be checked.

Unit summary

In this unit you learned models of teaching preparation

Summary

Assignment

Visit a school and try to identify if teachers are using SIMPLE or

ASEI/PDSI models

Assignment

Assessment

1. Explain the SIMPLE procedural model that was designed for

effective use in the delivery of the context of the less

Assessment

26
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Topic 4

Teaching Philosophy Statement

Introduction

[Add introductory text here]

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Define philosophy.

 Application of teaching philosophy.

Outcomes

Philosophy: [Term description]

Terminology

The simple Model

- Philosophy of teaching statement is a narrative that include:-
1) Your conception of teaching and learning.
2) A description of what you teach.
3) Justification for why you teach that way.
- The rationale for having the statement is:
1) To demonstrate that you are reflective and purposeful about
your teaching.
2) To communicate your goals as a teacher and your
corresponding actions in the classroom.
3) To provide an opportunity to express yourself as a professional
- The process of identifying the personal philosophy of teaching
are continuously examined, testifying and verifying this
philosophy through teaching can lead to difference of teaching

27
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

behavior and ultimately faster professional and personal

growth.

It serves
- For personal purpose and pedagogical purpose.
- That is very crucial to your personal sanity and morale for
pedagogical purpose. A well-defined philosophy can help the
teacher remain focused on your teaching goals and to
appreciate the personal and professional rewards of teaching.
General format for writing teaching philosophy
- There is no required content or set format and there is no
right and wrong way.
- Can write in prose, famous quotes, create visions, and
use a question answer format.
- The length is 1-2 pages.
- Use present tense.
- The statement should be written with the audience in
mind.
- Have someone from your field read statement and give
you some guidelines.
- Include teaching strategies and methods to help people
see you in the classroom.
- Make it memorable and unique.
- Own your philosophy by writing about your experiences
and your beliefs. But appear more open to new and
different ideas about teaching.

Unit summary

In this unit you learned philosophy of teaching preparation

Summary

Assignment

What is your philosophy for

a) Teaching

b) Learning
Assignment

28
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

c) Career progression

Assessment

Discuss the significance of the teaching philosophy

Assessment

29
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Topic 5

Learning Resource Project

Introduction

[Add introductory text here]

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Define learning resource project.

 Develop a workable project.

Outcomes

Learning [Term description]

Resource:

Project: [Term description]

Terminology

Characteristic of a good learning resource project

1) The purpose of it is to enable the student teacher to develop
during teaching practice materials to aid in effective teaching
at secondary school level.
2) This facilities and resources are limiting effective teaching.
3) The current syllabus emphasizes the use of cheap and locally
available materials and improvisation to make the teaching of
sciences as practical as possible.
4) The learners are supposed to initiate projects aimed at
developing relevant teaching materials for chosen topics from
the syllabus.

Characteristics of a good Learning Resource Project

1) Should have instructional values – teacher can use it to teach a
number of topics.
2) Should benefit the school, department and community in terms
of learning, finances and supplementing the school teacher.
3) Should solve instructional problems in school.

30
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

4) Should be activities that is completed within the practice

period.
Procedure
1) Determine what is available.
2) Make a list of possible project in conjunction with the regular
teachers.
3) Determine the appropriate cost of each project.
4) Discuss the list with the head teacher.
Should be done during the first week of teaching practice
- There are three stages for project.
1) Writing project proposal.
2) Actual project display/implementation.
3) Writing the project report.
- After choosing a project, prepare a project proposal during the
second week of teaching practice.
- Remember to make copies to be distributed as follows:-
1) Zonal co-ordinator.
2) Principal of school.
3) Personal copy.
Discuss the most important points for budgets, procedure, calendar
of work, revenue projection with the head teacher.
Project proposal.
- To convince the sponsors.
- To show some professionalism is involved in the project work.
- To act as a guide in implementation.
Format
i) Project title.
The title page should be attractive and should contain
three pieces of information
 the title of the project in bold letters about 1.5 inches
 The school for which the project is prepared.
 The author and registration number at the bottom.
 Add address and date.
ii) The inside
There is approval page which contains certificate of
approval.
Statement: this proposal costing ………….. has been
approved for implementation by the principal of
……………………… school.
Signature from head, name and the date and also school
stamp for the head teacher to commit him/herself with
approval.
iii) Abstract page

31
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

- A summary of one page.

- can be done in two ways:
a)
b) Table of contents
iv) chapter one introduction
- introduction
- During introduction explain what you want.
- Justify the choice of the project. Which is based on the
need in the school, availability of the materials, syllabus
requirement.
- It has sub-headings i.e
 Background information: - shows that the proposer
knows the area where the project is located. Thus
possible difficulties during implementation:
Location of the school, attitude, region, county,
physical facilities in the school, community
around.
 The school’s brief history.
Possible projects and why this was chosen.
Justify
The importance of the project.
Objectives of the project which are given in
outline form and must be smart.
v) Chapter 2: project description
- Project description
Take important technical information concerning the
project. e.g procedures, literature review.
vi) Chapter 3: project design.
Talk of project plan that requires diagrammatic
representation of your project.
Resources required.
- Indicate materials and quantities.
 Methods for project implementation.
 Calendar of work.
Date, description of activity, the person
responsible and remarks (work schedule).
 The budget
 Limit expenditure as much as possible.
 Tabulate it.
 G columns:
a) Date.
b) Quantity of the item.
c) Item description.
d) Cost per unit.
e) Total cost.
f) Remarks.
 Revenue projection

32
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

 References – must be written as aba format.

Write in project report.
- Table of contents
- Introduction
- Project description/design
- Description of the method used.
- Problems encountered and how they were overcome.
- Benefits of the project.
- Evaluation and critics.
- Conclusion and recommendation.
- References.
- Appendix.

In groups of 10 identify a possible challenge or problem in your area of

specialization that you would wish to solve using a project. Develop a
proposal to solve this challenge(s). Use the marking scheme in appendix
6 to evaluate the quality of that proposal.
Group
activity

Unit summary

In this unit you learned how to identify a learning challenge in a

school and develop a project proposal

Summary

33
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Assignment

Assume you are a headmaster, identify three challenges in your

school that affect learning

Assignment

Assessment

Discuss the project work for teaching under the following

sub-headings:-

i) Characteristics of the project (2 marks)

Assessment ii) Procedure for undertaking the project (3 marks)
iii) Project implementation (5 marks)
iv) Report format (5 marks)

34
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Topic 6: Development of Teaching Skills through

Microteaching

Introduction
What is Micro-Teaching?
MT is a skill training technique. it is used to train inexperienced
student-teachers to acquire the necessary teaching skills.
The term micro-teaching is used in teaching to describe a teaching
situation which is a small scale version of the real one in a
classroom. It is a training concept that is applicable at various pre-
service and in-service stages in the professional development of
teachers.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 define micro teaching.

 List ten microteaching skills.

Outcomes  application of microteaching skills in a lesson.

Microteaching : Micro-teaching is a teacher training

procedure that reduces the teaching situation
to a simpler and more controlled
encounter.
Terminology
Teaching skills: A teaching skill can be described as a pattern
of teaching behaviour which generally tends to
be effective in achieving a particular type of
objective and which a teacher uses sufficiently
often to be able to become automatic in
response to the type of situations for which the
skills are appropriate.

35
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Characteristics of Microteaching
1. Microteaching is achieved by limiting the practice
teaching to a specific teaching skill at a time, reducing the
teaching time and the class size. For example, the micro-
teaching lesson lasts for 5-8 minutes instead of the normal
35-40 minutes, while the number of students is reduced to
between 5-8 students per class instead of the normal 40
students per class.
2. In micro-teaching also, a student teacher teaches his or her
own peers instead of the students in a conventional
classroom set up.
3. Micro-teaching is based on the assumption that by breaking
down the complex act of teaching into more easily
learned skills, the student teacher can gradually acquire
a repertoire of teaching skills to use in the actual classroom.
This is meant to help the student teacher to increase his/her
flexibility and versatility as the teacher has more teaching
techniques at his/her command and can easily vary the
teaching style to suit the students’ needs or lesson
objectives. The flexible teacher is more effective in
producing positive student performance and attitudes than a
teacher who lacks this versatility.
Research indicates that a good teacher is one who is able to
adapt their teaching methods to learners’ needs.
4. Micro-teaching provides a student teacher with a practice
setting for instruction in which the normal
complexities of the classroom are reduced and the student
teacher receives a great deal of feedback on his/her
performance. Micro-teaching serves as a teaching
skills practicum as the student teacher is made aware of the
various teaching skills and practices each one of them
separately in a less threatening situation until they
develop their own skills.
Usually in micro-teaching, there is provision for immediate
feedback, opportunity for re-planning, re-teaching
and re-evaluation.

What is a teaching skill?

A skill is the ability to do something well and in an expert manner.
A teaching skill is a set of teacher behaviours which are specially
effective in bringing about the desired changes in learners.

36
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Teaching skills are the most specific category of teaching

behaviours. They are used constantly as part of the total process of
instruction and they are necessary for procedural purposes and for
structuring appropriate learning experiences for students.
The ability to apply teaching skills automatically results in
effective teaching.

Teaching is a very complex process made up of many different

activities. It is possible however, by frequent observation to
discover that some of these activities occur often enough to form
certain behaviour patterns. For example, when a difficult concept is
mentioned, a good teacher will give some examples to explain the
concept in terms of what the students already know. However, an
inexperienced teacher cannot be asked to vary the presentation or
involve the students without prior practice. The inexperienced
teacher can however achieve this if taken through the skills one at a
time until he/she has built his/her own set of skills.
Origin of Micro-teaching
The term Micro-teaching was first coined in 1963 at the Stanford
University in the USA. It began as an experiment because
conventional teacher training techniques were not very successful
in providing a satisfactory link between theory and practice.
Trainees felt threatened because they were put in situations that
they were ill equipped to face. It was therefore hoped that by
providing a relaxed, friendly and unthreatening atmosphere, a
gradual development of teaching skills was possible as a supervisor
acting as a resource person would work together with the trainees
in a practice situation.
The Stanford model followed a cycle as the trainees first received a
live or taped demonstration of a skill, followed by a teach phase to
a group of students for five minutes. After that, a rating form was
issued on which each student was expected to evaluate his/her
lesson. The supervisor also completed a rating report. A critique
session followed the teach phase with a discussion centred on the
performance of the skill. The critique session was meant to help the
trainee think of ways of improving their performance. This was
followed by a planning stage where the trainee rethought the lesson
in light of the suggestions made. The second phase was a “re-
teach” and critique.
In the School of Education at Pwani University, we do not follow
the Stanford model. Instead the model that we follow has the
following phases.

37
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Phase 1: Acquisition of knowledge (basic information regarding

skills description and analysis) through the introductory lectures.
Phase II: Acquisition of skill through preparation and presentation
of micro-lessons that are video recorded. Usually the student-
teacher practices one skill at a time.
Phase III: Evaluation of performance through playback (review)
and feedback from peers and the supervisor. These critique sessions
with supervisors and peers helps the trainee to evaluate their own
performance.
Phase IV: Transfer of skills through integrated skills practice and
teaching practice. This involves combining several skills at once.
This process involves modelling of good teaching practices and
helps in skills transfer.

The Objectives of Micro-Teaching

The following are the objectives of micro-teaching:
 To stimulate the student teacher to conceptualize basic
classroom teaching skills.
 To introduce the student teacher to having his/her lesson
observed for professional criticisms.
 To constructively criticize both oneself as well as the peers
based on observations from the review of the video
recording.
 To develop self confidence both in knowledge of the
subject matter and in presentation.

Advantages of Micro-Teaching
 It simplifies the complex art of teaching.
 It provides a realistic perception of performance for the
prospective teacher and serves as an effective self-appraisal
device.
 It allows for immediate feedback among the student
teachers and the group facilitator.
 It provides a low risk situation for prospective teachers.
 It provides a low threat situation in which to practice
teaching skills.
 It allows a student teacher an opportunity to perfect certain
skills that he/she is likely to use regularly in a classroom.
 Provides an opportunity to become familiar with and to
demonstrate some basic teaching skills.
 Provides a practice system which combines the elements of
preparation, application, feedback and re-application.

38
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Development of Teaching Skills

Teaching is informed decision making. Every day in their
classrooms, teachers make decisions about instructional
alternatives, students learning, curriculum content, instructional
strategies, and instructional methods.
As we mentioned above, a teaching skill can be described as a
pattern of teaching behaviour which generally tend to be effective
in achieving a particular type of objective and which a teacher uses
sufficiently often to be able to become automatic in response to the
type of situations for which the skills are appropriate. The ability to
apply teaching skills automatically results in effective teaching.
Teaching skills are the most specific category of teaching
behaviours. They are used constantly as part of the total process of
instruction and they are necessary for procedural purposes and for
structuring appropriate learning experiences for students.
Three stages are involved in the process of developing teaching
skills. These are:
 Developing an awareness of what skills are required, the
elements of the skills involved, and the sequencing of the
skill performance. This entails knowing the purpose of
using a particular skill and knowing how it will benefit your
teaching.
 Practicing the skill in a classroom or in controlled setting.
 Provision of feedback that enables a teacher to improve
their performance.

Please note that developing teaching skills depend on your own

motivation as a teacher. Hence teachers vary immensely in the
extent to which they are prepared to invest time, energy and effort
to reflect upon, evaluate and improve their teaching skills.

The essence of being an effective teacher lies in knowing what to

do to foster students learning and actually being able to facilitate
learning. Effective teaching involves setting up a learning activity
for a learner that helps them to achieve the type of learning
intended. Therefore, successful teaching is bound up with
developing both decision- making skills and action skills.
Developing your skills as a teacher is much about developing and
extending the type of decisions you make about your own teaching
as it is about successful execution of those decisions.

39
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Essential Teaching Skills

As a teacher, you need to be aware of the following concerning
decision making as they relate to instructional choice:
 The teacher is responsible for setting and maintaining the
classroom climate.
 The teacher is responsible for setting the purposes for
individuals and groups in a classroom.
 The teacher should believe learners have the desire to
realize the purposes that are meaningful to them, and that
this is a strong motivational force that can lead to
significant learning.
 The teacher has to organize and make available the
widest range of learning resources.
 The teacher recognizes and accepts his/her limitations as
a learning facilitator.
 The teacher is a participant leaner who does not have to
know and tell it all.

Essential teaching skills include:

 Knowledge: Which includes the teacher’ knowledge about
the subject , content, learner characteristics, nature of the
curriculum, instructional strategies and instructional
methods, own teaching skills, educational aims and values
to be inculcated among the learners.
 Decision-Making: This comprises thinking and
decision-making which occurs before, during and after a
lesson concerning how best to achieve the intended learning
outcomes or what should be achieved by the learner after
undergoing a particular instructional process.
 Action: This comprises the overt behaviour that is
undertaken by the teacher in order to foster students’
learning.
 Planning and preparation.
 Lesson Presentation.
 Lesson management.
 Classroom Climate.
 Discipline.
 Assessing Pupils’ progress.
 Reflection and Evaluation.
 Gaining and holding the attention of the class throughout
the lesson.
 Reinforcement.
 Achieving closure in a lesson.
 Stimulus variation.
 Giving instructions.
 giving an explanation.

40
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

 Use of examples.
 Asking questions.
 Obtaining feedback.
 Controlling class participation.
 Establishing frames of reference.
 Etc.

Please note that teaching skills vary from very broad and general
skills such as lesson planning to very specific skills such as
responding to a student’s answer.

Verbal exposition/communication/lecturing skill

Exposition means to explain clearly by giving details. it deals
with processes by explaining how something is done, used, etc.
Although highly criticized by many educationists, it is a skill
that often surfaces in normal classroom teaching. It is
recommended that students of secondary school level should not
be lectured to continuously for more than 15 minutes. The type
of lecture to be emphasized in our training programme is the
informal lecture, which is a two-way kind of communications
and allows listeners to interrupt with questions, suggestions or
comments. The formal lecture which is basically one way (The
lecturer dominates) is highly discouraged for Secondary School
teaching.
Lecturing can be used to introduce a topic, concept etc. as well
as explain a phenomena on. It can also be used to summarize a
topic taught.
Uses of lecture
(i) To convey information
(ii) To reinforce written work
(iii) To change pace
(iv) To combine many information sources
(v) To inform students of expected results
(vi) To convey enthusiasm

Conditions for effective lecturing

(i) Teacher’s personality
(ii) Pupils level of understanding
(iii) Prepare learners
(iv) Good planning and organization
(v) Use appropriate vocabulary
(vi) Repetition of main points
(vii) Develop good speaking techniques (talk to students,
use appropriate tone of voice, make eye contacts,

41
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

gestures, facial expressions, use instructional

media, vary the speech rate, etc)
(viii) Provide transitions to link up key ideas
(ix) Check for students' understanding by asking questions
(x) Develop a chalk board summary as the lesson progresses.
(xi) Use an introduction that captures the learners' attention.
(xii) Provide a variety of activities.

Use of illustrations/examples.
e.g story, instance, riddle, etc.
- It helps the concept familiar to the learners.
This is instrumental to good teaching. Often a teacher has to
explain new and difficult concepts to her/his pupils. This may be
quite abstract to the pupil and the teacher may have to draw
relevant examples from the pupil’s everyday experiences to try and
clarify his explanations. This brings concrete images of the
teacher’s intended picture into the pupils’ minds. The teacher is
advised to always start with simple and familiar examples
particularly relevant to the lesson.

There are two basic approaches to the use of examples;

(i) Deductive approach
It consists of three basic steps
(a) The teacher states the idea or principle he wants the
students to understand
(b) He gives examples which illustrate, clarify or substantiate
the idea either orally, written, visual, picture, book
(c) The teacher relates the example back to the main idea or ask
students to give examples and relate back to the idea.
(ii) Inductive approach
Teacher starts with examples illustrating the idea and try to
generalize and make inferences
(a) Teacher illustrate idea with example
(b) Student study the examples
(c) Student attempt to make generalizations
(d) Teacher clarifies

Guidelines to the use of examples

 Start with simple examples and work towards more
complex ones. A simple example is one which is related to
previous knowledge of a learner.
 start with examples that are relevant to learners' experience
and level of knowledge
 relate examples to the principles, ideas or generalization
being taught

42
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

 Check to see whether you have accomplished your

objectives by asking the learners to give you examples
which illustrate the point you were trying to make.
 You can give the examples using analogies, metaphors, etc.
an analogy means you draw a parallel like when you say the
human mind is like a computer. A metaphor is when you
create an image using something that is familiar and known
to the learners. E.g. when you say he is a lion.

(c)Questioning skill
Purpose of questioning
(i) To arouse interest e. g at the beginning of a lesson
(ii) To provoke though/ stimulate creativity
(iii) Linked questions may help learners reach a
conclusion
(iv) To recapitulate the lesson e.g. questions to end a
lesson
(v) To test accuracy of pupils knowledge at the start of a
lesson
(vi) Used to give assignments
(vii) testing understanding
(viii) to summarize a lesson
(ix) As a discipline control measure
(x) promote critical thinking
(xi) stimulate interaction among students
(xii) To encourage students ask questions
(xiii) to capture attention of learners

Characteristics of good questioning

(i) Ask varied questions that provoke learners' thought
e. g who, what, where, when, who, why then
(ii) Use direct and clear wording
(iii) State the question clearly
(iv) They should make use of the interest and special
abilities of the learners
(v) Avoid “who can tell me questions”, “do you
understand”?
(vi) Avoid leading questions e.g. so and so is the
president of ...isn't it?
(vii) Ask definite questions in order to get definite
answers.
(viii) Avoid yes and no questions
(ix) Avoid guessing questions
(x) ask questions that are within the ability of the
students

43
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

(xi) avoid asking rhetorical questions ( questions whose

answer is already known and you do not want the
students to verbalize the answer).
(xii) Reinforce students adequately and avoid sarcasm,
reprimands or personal attacks whenever students
answer questions in class.

Procedure for asking questions in class

 Ask the question to the whole class, pause for a few seconds
and call on a student by name to respond. Do not use words
like "you!, "the girl wearing a red cardigan"; the "short boy
seating next to...";
The pause is referred to as "wait time". For wait time,
count from one to 15 before calling on an individual to
answer).
Why provide wait time? It allows all students to think
about the answer and to be attentive; allow students to
prepare adequately for the answer.
 Vary the questions that you ask in class across the various
domains and cognitive levels (high level, convergent, or
divergent, structured or unstructured questions ).
 Distribute questions evenly in class including asking
questions to non-volunteers.
 When a teacher asks questions in class, different situations
arise: the student might give no response, might give an
incorrect response, student might give a partially correct
response, or the student might give a correct response.
 How you deal with all these situations effectively is the
focus of this skill.
 Use the various questioning techniques such as :
prompting, refocusing, and redirecting.increasing critical
awareness
Prompt means that you provide additional information that
would assist the student to arrive at the correct answer
whenever they fail to give the correct answer. You provide
a clue or hint to correct answer.
Some useful prompting techniques include:
 rephrasing which is used when a question was not
understood clearly
 hinting where you provide a clue to indicate the
response that you require
 referring to previous knowledge when learners seem
not to realize that they know the answer
 simplifying the content of the question or the
structure of the question.
Refocusing involves linking a topic to other subjects as an
integration of subject matter. it might also involve linking
one question to another answer that had been given

44
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

previously in class. Refocusing is a higher order

questioning technique since learners need to apply previous
knowledge to new situations.
Redirection is when questions are directed to more than one
learner. You ask the same question to other students in
order to compare the responses and to draw more students
into the discussion. You might ask: do you agree with the
answer given by ....why do you say so?
increasing critical awareness is used when the response is
correct and you want to pose a higher order question to
stimulate the student's thinking beyond what he/she knows.
 Plan your questions in advance though emerging questions
should be used.
 Decide on the purpose of asking questions
 carefully choose the level of difficulty of the question based
on ability level of the learners.

Types of questions
i) Probing Questions - This refers to:
a) Asking a pupil to elaborate upon a previous
responses.
b) Requiring a pupil to provide justification for his
answer.
c) Refocusing attention upon an issue related to the
preceding discussion.
d) Involving other pupils by asking them to react to
the first Pupil’s answer.

ii) Higher order questions-These are questions which

cannot be answered merely from memory or by
simple sensory description. It involves a pupils
abstract thinking. Such questions call for the ability
to relate facts, to compare and contrast concepts or
principles, to make inferences and perceive causes
and effects.

iii) Divergent Questions -They have no right answer it

is an open ended question requiring students/pupils
to use both concrete and abstract thinking to
determine for themselves and appropriate response.
divergent questions compel learners to combine
facts, concepts and generalizations in new ways to
create and develop possible answers. They need to
use higher order thinking such as predicting,
reconstructing, inferring, etc.

45
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

(d) Skill of Reinforcement

This is when a teacher provides an incentive to the pupils as
a reward for a desirable behaviour. Teachers mainly rely on
words, gestures and phrases to do this in normal classroom
learning. Reinforcement is an effective means of increasing
pupil participation in the classroom activities and
participation in turn increases learning.
Every learner in class needs social approval for their
behaviour. if you regularly encourage students using words
like "that is good, nod your head affirmatively, (use
affirmations), smile, or pay attention as the student answer
the questions, learner participation is maximized.
The different types of reinforcement that you could use
include the following:
 Positive verbal reinforcement,
 positive non-verbal reinforcement
 Negative verbal reinforcement
 Negative non-verbal reinforcement
 Delayed reinforcement
 Positively qualified reinforcement

(i) Positive Verbal reinforcement – This involves the

use of positive comments given to the learner after
giving a satisfactory response in class. The teacher
uses words and phrases like: good, very good,
excellent, correct. The teacher might also repeat or
rephrase the response given by a student, the
teacher might also use the learner's idea in the
development of the lesson. The teacher could also
use prompts like ; carry on,
(ii) Positive non verbal reinforcement- where the
teacher responds to the responses given by students
in a positive manner but without using words. This
is achieved using different behaviours like:
affirmative nodding the head, smiling, moving
towards the pupil, keeping the eyes on the pupil,
listening carefully to his response, recording the
student's response on the chalk board, etc.
(iii) Positively qualified reinforcement. This entails
reinforcing only the acceptable parts of a response
given by the student but clarifying the parts that is
not acceptable e. g "you are right in saying ……. but
..
(iv) Delayed reinforcement. This involves referring the
students to an earlier response made by one of the
student when it helps to clarify a new response
required. For example, You remember what Mary
said about. . . that is why . .

46
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

(v) Negative Verbal reinforcement- This occurs when

the teacher gives comments on the incorrect or
partially incorrect response by telling the learner
that the response is incorrect or by making sarcastic
remarks like "stupid answer". Such behaviuor
discourages the students from participating.
(vi) Negative non-verbal reinforcement is when a
teacher shows disapproval without using words.
This might involve frowning, staring, looking
angrily at the student.
Note: Reinforcement should be immediate and contingent
with the response. For example, if you asked a student a
simple question, do not reinforce using strong forms of
reinforcement like "excellent"! wonderful answer!

NB: Credit should be given to pupils who give partially

correct answers. Reference should also be made to earlier
correct contributions in the classroom that relate to the
discussions at hand.

- Can be either negative or positive.

Set Induction/Preparation/Introduction
What is a set induction?
A set is a mental state of readiness. Induction means bring it on.
hence a set Induction is meant to get learners thinking and ready for
the lesson. It is also referred to as "Anticipatory Set". It helps to
organize learners' perception in a particular way at the outset of a
learning session.
This is a process that induces a pupil to attend and learn. It is a
pre-instructional orientation.
A set can be defined as a temporary, but often recurrent, condition
of a person that (a) orients them towards certain environmental
stimuli or events rather than towards others and (b) facilitates
certain activities or responses rather than others.

Functions of set induction

 Focusing learners' attention on what is to be learned by
gaining their interest
 As a means of transition from the familiar to the new
 to provide a framework or structure for a lesson
 To give meaning to new concepts or principles.
A set induction should:
 contain a statement of the learning intended
 relate to the lesson objectives

47
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

 Involve the learners in the learning e.g. through

questioning, activity, storytelling, viewing visual materials,
etc.
A set induction provides a reference point between what students
know and the new materials, hence creating a link between one
lesson and another. Relating the objective to some experience past,
present and future helps in retention and transfer at a later time.
A set focuses students' attention on some familiar person, object,
event, condition or idea. the set functions as a point of reference
around which the students and the teacher communicate. The
teacher uses this reference point as a link between familiar and new
or difficult material. An effective set encourages students interest
and involvement in the main body of the lesson.
Types of Set Induction
 Facilitating sets- used to summarize information presented
in previous lessons,
used to summarize information that will occur;
used to emphasize the cognitive aspects of a new lesson by
reviewing or summarizing.
 Motivating sets- used to:
catch the students' attention
arouse curiosity
pose interesting questions
uses dramatic appeal
induces an emotional or effective response

Uses of set Induction

 to begin a new unit of work
 to initiate a discussion
 to introduce an assignment
 to prepare for a field excursion
 to prepare for a practical session in the lab
 to introduce a guest speaker

The teacher would identify sets most appropriate to his purposes

and modify them to fit the specific classroom situation. “Set
induction is more than brief introduction. It can be a demonstration
or posing or an intriguing problem that students can solve. In
classroom teaching it can be used at the beginning of the lesson,
when changing topics and before a question and answer session.

The teacher could use a variety of tricks

(i) Review previous lesson
(ii) Questioning
(iii) Showing an interesting picture
(iv) Asking children to talk briefly on their hobbies
(v) Dramatization etc

48
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

The most effective sets are those that capture students' attention
and interest them in the material being learned.
A set induction could be used either rat the beginning of a lesson or
during the lesson especially when changing from one segment of
the lesson to another.
A set induction will be appropriate whenever the activity, the goal
of the content of the lesson changes so that a new or modified
frame of reference is required. You can also use the set induction to
build continuity from one lesson to another or from one unit to
another.
(f) Stimulus variation
Stimulus variation refers to teacher actions and behaviours
sometimes planned and other times unplanned which are meant to
develop and help maintain a high level of learner attention during
the lesson by varying the presentation. This is the art of attracting
and holding students attention in a classroom situation so that
optimum learning takes place.
Continued use of the same stimulus or activity for a longer period
induces inattention due to monotony or lack of postural mobility.
one of the significant ways to secure and sustain attention is to
introduce the elements of variation in teaching. For example,
varying the teacher's position in the classroom.
It is an important skill that a good teacher can use to achieve the
following:
1) to focus and maintain learner attention on the lesson
2) to place emphasis on important points or ideas in the lesson
3) to change the pace of the lesson

Strategies for varying the stimulus during the lesson

These can broadly be classified into the following:
 Kinesics Variation such as movements, gestures, hand and body
movements,
 Focusing
 Pausing
 Shifting of sensory channels
 changing the interaction styles
 changing the speech pattern
 oral-visual switching
The commonly used techniques in stimulus variation include:
i) Interchanging the visual and oral presentation.
ii) Movement round the classroom.
iii) Using hand and body gestures
iv) Varying the pitch of the voice
v) Focusing: means your ability to control the direction
of learners' attention by drawing pupils’ attention to
major parts of emphasis in the lesson. This is

49
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

achieved through: verbal statements e.g. can you all

please look at this diagram! ; through specific use of
gestures e.g. pointing with your fingers; or a
combination of the two.
vi) Changing the interaction styles: Three interaction
styles are used in class namely: teacher-group,
teacher – learner, learner-learner. You need to vary
these interaction styles.
vii) Pauses: deliberate silence after an important point.
Silence helps to attract learners' attention or to
renew the focus of attention.
viii) Shifting sensory channels-the more the senses the
better. Make sure the learners vary and shift the use
of the various sensory channels in class i.e. eye to
ear, to touch, etc.
ix) Using physical participation such as handling
apparatus, writing, drawing, etc.
x) Switching (oral-visual switching). Using a variety of
media that involve the use of oral and visual sensory
channels.

Caution: The teacher should watch out such that his/her intended
stimulus does not become a destructor e.g. having too many un-
co-ordinate gestures. While variation of the stimulus is desirable,
it should not be at the expense of effective teaching. You should
be clear about the purpose of the changes in stimuli.

(g) Closure (Recapitulation)

The skill of closure is complementary to set induction. It is used
to provide the learner a sense of accomplishment for a portion of
the lesson or for the whole lesson. Therefore closure can be used
at the introduction, during the lesson or at the end of the lesson.
Closure is meant to assist students bring the content together in
their own mind and to conceptualize what has just been taught. It
used to cue students to the fact that they have arrived at an
important point in the lesson and helps to organize students'
learning, form a coherent picture, eliminate confusion and clarify
concepts in relationship to previous learning. Closure also serves
to reinforce the main points learned and aids in establishing a
network of thought relationships that provide cues for retrieval
of information.
Students remember what is presented last and for that closure is
an important component of an effective lesson. closure does not
just mean stating what has been taught in the lesson but rather
requires the students to reflect and articulate what has been
learned in the lesson or activity.

50
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Good closure should engage students and work for all lessons.
Closure does not only come at the end of the lesson. You can
achieve closure in three stages of the lesson. You can have
closure during the introduction where you provide an advance
organiser that tells students what will be covered in the lesson and
how it will be presented and in what sequence. During the
lesson, you could achieve closure by summarizing what has been
presented or asking students too review what has been
covered so far. You could then link that segment of the lesson
with what is to follow as a way of assisting students put the
content and sequence of presentation in focus. Then at the end of
the lesson, you can have closure to conclude the entire lesson. this
could take different forms such as some kind of summary of the
main points covered during the lesson. It could also be in form of
short questions posed to the pupils or concluding statements by
the teacher. Closure at this stage passes the message of ending the
lesson.

(h) Integrated Teaching skills

During micro-teaching, student-teachers build their teaching skills
by practicing separate skills one at a time. However, in a normal
classroom as you will note during teaching practice, you combine
several skills during the lesson. it is therefore prudent to practice
the integrated skills so that you get familiar with actual classroom
teaching situation.
Integrated skills practice involves practicing more than one skill
in a micro- lesson which has been extended to between 15-20
minutes. The student teacher chooses the skills they would like to
practice during the lesson.
This is the final/concluding session in the microteaching
programme that leads to actual teaching during Teaching
Practices.

Watch a video on Microteaching skills then

study the micro teaching preparation and
evaluation guidelines below. Try practicing all
the skills with your group members and assess
Video yourself using the Microteaching assessment
form in Appendix 5.

51
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Topic 7: Micro-teaching preparation and evaluation

guidelines

As you undertake micro-teaching and practice the various teaching skills,

please use the following guidelines to prepare your own presentation and
to evaluate your own performance and that of your colleagues.

For each micro-teaching skill you practice, you will need to prepare a
micro-lesson plan for the stipulated practice period e.g.7-10 minutes. The
normal procedure for preparing lesson plans and for presenting the lesson
should be followed. For example, you need to have prepared a scheme of
work for a specified period like two to three weeks from which you are
able to prepare your micro-lesson plans.

The guidelines also highlight some of the key aspects to pay attention to
as you prepare for micro-teaching and for subsequent teaching practice.

Evaluation guide to verbal exposition/lecturing skill

Consider the following aspects as you evaluate the lecturing skill:
a) Did the student teacher use either the formal or the informal
lecturing technique?
b) Was the skill appropriate for the content presented?
c) Did the student teacher use a language that the students at
that level could understand?
d) Did the student teacher involve the students actively during
the lecture?
e) What did the student teacher do to vary the stimulus situation
in class? For example;
 Did the student teacher use gestures?
 Did the student teacher pause
occasionally?
 Did the student teacher vary the pace of
delivery?
 Did the student teacher use movement in
class?
f) Was media used during the lesson? Did the media help to
clarify or emphasise the main idea?
g) Were the students prepared for the lecture by the student
teacher?
h) Was there evidence of adequate planning, preparation and
organization during the lecture?
i) Did the student teacher allow adequate time to discuss the
main content of the lecture and to summarise the main ideas?
j) Did the student teacher use students’ feedback whether
expressed verbally or non-verbally during the lesson?
k) Did the student teacher seek feedback from the students
during the lecture?

52
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

l) Was the lecturing skill combined with other teaching

strategies?
m) Did the student teacher try to cover too much content during
the lesson?
n) Did the student teacher formulate good examples to illustrate
or clarify the content presented?
o) Did the student teacher consider the interest of the students
during the lecture?
p) Were the recommended guidelines for using lecturing skill
followed?

Evaluation guide to general questioning skill

Consider the following as you evaluate general questioning skill:

a) The frequency of questioning.

b) The number of factual questions asked and their frequency.
c) The number of thought provoking questions asked and their
frequency.
d) The procedure of questioning used.
e) Do the questions used cover the different cognitive levels
based on Bloom’s taxonomy?
f) Did the student teacher follow the correct procedure for
asking questions in class?
g) Did the student teacher follow the principles of questioning?
i.e. distribute questions to all, encourage students to comment
on the answers of classmates follow the overhead technique
(question, pause and call a student by name to respond).
h) Were questions used at the beginning, during and at the end
of the lesson?
i) Are the questions asked purposeful, clear and brief, adapted
to the level of the class, limited in scope, and thought
provoking?
j) How does the student teacher handle students’ responses?
i.e. does the student teacher reinforce the students? Does the
teacher show an accepting attitude to students’ responses?

Evaluation guide to probing questioning skill

Consider the following as you evaluate Probing questioning skill:

a) Did the student teacher ask questions that required the

students to give more information or to clarify their answers?
b) Did the student teacher ask questions that required students
to justify their responses?

53
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

c) Did the student teacher ask questions that required the

students to relate one issue to another?
d) Did the student teacher ask questions that required students
to refocus on a response? E.g. can you relate that response to
the response that was given earlier to the question…
e) If students gave a non-committal answer (e.g. “I don’t
know”), did the student teacher provide an answer, ask
another student to answer, or gave a clue so that the student
could answer the question?
f) Did the student teacher ask questions that brought other
students into the discussion by encouraging them to respond
to other students’ answers (e.g. Safari do you agree with the
answer given by Angela? Why do you say that or what are
your reasons for saying that?
g) Did the student teacher follow the correct procedure for
asking questions in class?
h) Did the student teacher follow the principles of questioning?
i.e. distribute questions to all, encourage students to comment
on the answers of classmates follow the overhead technique
(question, pause and call a student by name to respond).
i) How does the student teacher handle students’ responses? i.e.
does the student teacher reinforce the students? Does the
teacher show an accepting attitude to students’ responses?
j) Does the student teacher ask questions that call for both
convergent and divergent thinking?
k) Does the student teacher apply the various questioning
techniques such as refocusing, redirection and prompting?

Evaluation guide to higher order questioning skill

Consider the following as you evaluate higher order questioning
skill:
a) Did the student teacher ask questions that required the
students first, to set standards and second to answer the
question in light of those standards in order to make
judgement, value and choice?
b) Did the student teacher ask questions that required the
students to make inferences based on previously learned
information using either the deductive or inductive
reasoning?
c) Did the student teacher ask questions that required the
students to make comparisons by determining whether ideas,
persons, ort things were similar, different, unrelated or
contradictory?
d) Did the student teacher ask questions that required the
students to use concepts, principles, or ideas in situations
different from that in which they were learned?
e) Did the student teacher ask questions that required the
students to use previously learned knowledge in order to
solve a problem that they had not faced before?

54
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

f) Did the student teacher ask questions that required students

to look for relationships between events, persons, objects,
ideas or other events?
g) Did the student teacher follow the correct procedure for
asking questions in class?
h) Did the student teacher follow the principles of questioning?
i.e. distribute questions to all, encourage students to comment
on the answers of classmates follow the overhead technique
(question, pause and call a student by name to respond).
i) How does the student teacher handle students’ responses? i.e.
does the student teacher reinforce the students? Does the
teacher show an accepting attitude to students’ responses?

Evaluation guide to set induction skill

Consider the following as you evaluate the use of set induction skill:
a) How interesting was the student teacher’s introduction?
b) What type of set induction did the student teacher use for the
lesson? (i.e. interest approach, putting the lesson in context,
or using advanced organizers).
c) How appropriate was the set induction for that particular
lesson?
d) To what extent did the set induction inspire the students on
what was to follow during the lesson?
e) To what extent did the student teacher provide guidelines in
the introduction to help students understand the main part of
the lesson?
f) Did the set induction help the students remember the
materials covered in the main part of the lesson?
g) Did the set induction relate to the main part of the lesson?
h) Was there evidence of set induction being used when the
content of the lesson changed during the lesson delivery?

Evaluation guide to stimulus variation skill

Consider the following as you evaluate the use of stimulus variation
skill:

a) Was there evidence of stimulus variation being used during

the lesson?
b) Could you clearly identify the behaviours used to vary the
stimulus?
c) Were the behaviours appropriately used during the lesson?
d) Were the various stimulus variation behaviours discussed in
class used? (gestures, focusing, change of interaction styles,
pause, shifting sensory channels, and movement).
e) Did the student teacher vary the kind of participation
required of the students?

55
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

f) What kind of gestures did the teacher use to convey

meaning?
g) Did the student teacher use silence at appropriate times to
give students an opportunity to think or to prepare for new
materials?
h) Did the student teacher use visual materials for students to
use and obtain information?
i) When emphasizing a point, what type of behaviour did the
student teacher use? i.e. gestures, verbal expression or both?
j) Did the student teacher vary the learning activities during the
lesson?
k) Did the student teacher vary the methods, approaches and
techniques, either according to plan or according to feedback
received?

Evaluation guide to reinforcement skill

Consider the following as you evaluate the use of reinforcement skill:
a) Did the student teacher reinforce all students’ responses?
b) What type of reinforcement did the student teacher use?
c) Was the reinforcement appropriately used?
d) Did the student teacher use all the four types of positive
reinforcement namely; positive verbal, positive non-verbal,
positively qualified, and delayed reinforcement)?
e) Was there evidence of negative reinforcement being used
during the lesson?
f) How did the student teacher deal with wrong answers and
lack of effort from the students in class?
g) How effective was the student teacher’s use of the
chalkboard to reinforce students?
h) How did the student teacher handle the need for partial
reinforcement from the students?

Evaluation guide to the skill of closure and concluding a lessson

Consider the following as you evaluate the skill of closure and
concluding a lesson:
a) To what extent did the student teacher give students an
opportunity to gain full insight into the lesson before it
commenced?
b) What type of closure did the student teacher use? i.e.
questioning for feedback, giving an assignment, summarizing
the lesson etc ?
c) Did the student teacher use closure at the introduction, during
the lesson, and at the end of the lesson?
d) How did the student teacher use closure at each stage of the
lesson? i.e. to review previously learned materials, evaluate
FROM understanding, summarise the main ideas, etc ?
e) Did the closure used give students an opportunity to apply
productive thinking?

56
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

f) Did the closure give students an opportunity to apply new

knowledge?
g) Did the student teacher adapt his/her teaching to changing
classroom atmosphere?
h) Did the student teacher make a link, preferably from the
beginning of the lesson with the personal construct of the
learner, and with the learner’s direct personal experiences?
i) Did the student teacher manage to keep as much as possible
to the lesson relevant to the learners?

Evaluation guide to the skill of use of examples

Consider the following as you evaluate the skill of use of examples:

a) Did the student teacher start with simple examples and then
work up to complex ones?
b) Did the student teacher directly relate specific examples to
the main points he or she was supposed to illustrate?
c) How appropriate were the examples given by the teacher for
the content of the lesson?
d) Were the examples within the range of students’ knowledge
and experience?
e) Did the student teacher check to see if the students
understood the main point of the lesson by asking them to
give their own examples?
f) Did the student teacher use any analogy, metaphor or visual
aids to illustrate the idea being presented?
g) Did the student teacher apply both deductive and inductive
approaches when giving the examples?

As you evaluate your own and your colleagues’ performance, you also
need to consider the following

Assessment

General evaluation criteria:

1. Lesson objectives
Acceptable lesson objectives must be clearly stated in observable and
measurable terms. They must satisfy the following four criteria:
(a) Specify who the learner is;
(b) Contain an action verb(s);
(c) Prescribe the standards or minimum level of acceptable performance;
(d) Specify conditions or situations under which the expected learning
outcome will be demonstrated.

57
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Objectives in certain subjects, for instance Literature, are sometimes

stated in expressive (affective) terms especially when the behaviour
expected manifests itself in emotional terms, e.g. empathy, sympathy, etc.
In this case, pupils could be asked to identify words in the text which
evoke such behaviour.

2. Lesson Introduction
Arousing interest
Does the student-teacher:
 Make a successful effort to motivate the students to learn?
 Inspire, encourage, challenge the students and get them
interested in the learning activity on the content?
 Make the correct appeals to higher/lower principles, e.g. reward,
ambition, competitive spirit, playfulness, fascination with the
content, the importance of social responsibility, etc.?
Link with the learner's experience
Does the student-teacher:
 Start from and make occasional reference to the world of
students' own experience?
 Show empathy with the students, with their desire to progress,
their values, feelings and train of thought?
 Adapt to the level of the students in the use of language and
vocabulary?
 Refer to what has been learnt in relevant previous lessons;
perhaps go from the known to the unknown?
3. Instructional Practices
Learners' participation
Does the student-teacher:
 Respect the dignity and abilities of the students?
 Sufficiently allow them to find/discover things for themselves?
Concrete instances to generalizations and back?
 Sufficiently allow them to exercise their critical skills?
 Sufficiently get students involved in learning activities with a
measure of independence?

Use of Groups
Does the student- teacher:
 Allow students to perform talks in groups, such as in small group
discussion, with or without reading, group projects or
assignments, group-study, group competitions?
 Encourage students to assist fellow students in learning?
 Encourage students to rely on fellow students and on the group?
 Encourage students to organize themselves socially for better
efficiency, e.g. by exchange of notes?

58
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Variety of activities
Does the student-teacher:
 Organize a variety of learning activities?
 Use transmission methods with heuristic (discovery) elements in
them, e.g. text reading?
 Use discovery (heuristic) methods such as library research,
laboratory research, comprehension exercises, group enquiry,
summary writings, value sheet, note-making, small group
discussion?
 Use exercises where students themselves have to use induction
(generalizations as conclusions) or deduction (application)?
 Use exercises where students have to choose critically such as
value sheets, valuing methods, predicting on the basis of data,
composition, debate, small group discussion?
 Use exercises which require students to think, write or act
creatively, such as note making, class discussion, small group
discussion, conducting experiments, compositions, mock
sessions, educational drama, role-play games, diagram making,
brain-storming?
 Use exercises which require students to handle equipment
purposefully or to practice skills?
 Involve students in activity projects?
Teacher's language
Does the student-teacher:
 Use clear language and vocabulary, appropriate to the level of the
students?
 Use clear diction, proper pitch, useful stress and with functional
pauses and silence?
 Use gestures, posture, movements and facial expression in
combination with language?
 Use spoken language and chalkboard work to make clear the
various registers, formal and informal language, serious language
and that with a light touch, appropriately?
 Allow for sufficient interaction to ensure real communication?
Encourage students to express themselves in their own words
(spoken or written) about what is taught?
 Express willingness to consider the students' ideas and use of
language even if different from his/her own or the textbook?

Questioning types and techniques

Does the student- teacher:
 Use a variety of effective questioning techniques?
 Use factual questions for testing and revision (who, what, when)?
 Use discussion - generating questions skillfully?
 Prompt students to assist them in answering questions?
 Direct questions to individuals by names, and direct questions to
others?
 Allow for a pause to let students think up answers?

59
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

 Allow students to comment on each other’s answers?

 Allow students to ask questions?

Use of feedback
Does the student-teacher:
 Appear alert to feedback behaviour of the students?
 Clarify where students seem not to understand?
 Encourage further where students show lack of motivation?
 Encourage re-thinking when students show shaky value
judgements?
 Give useful feedback to students' written work?
 Encourage students to try again where they show lack of skill?
 Give useful feedback to any student performance, verbal or
otherwise?
Reinforcement
Does the student-teacher:
 Acknowledge or praise good efforts or correct answers, either by
gestures, posture, facial expression , verbally or by chalkboard
use?
 Partially reward a partially correct answer or good effort?
 Use negative reinforcement without discouraging students?
 Use delayed reinforcement
 Put reinforcing remarks under students' written work?
Effective learning
Does the student-teacher:
 Encourage effectively the achievement of the set objectives?
 Organize learning activities in such a way that students learn with
interest and satisfaction?
 Help students to make some worthwhile achievements in this
lesson, and do the students see them as worthwhile?
 Encourage progress in general education, e.g. regarding methods
of study, procedures, know-how, social relations, learning
attitudes?
 Show concern for, and give guidance in the making of notes for
later study and revision?
 Encourage students to move closer to the achievement of the
general objectives of the course?

Use of resource
Does the student- teacher:
 Use student texts wisely, e.g. first setting a task, problem or
question and then letting students read to find the solution or
answer?

60
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

 Use the various channels of communication to maximum effect,

e.g. the auditory, visual and tactile (the visual including the real
thing, the picture, the diagram or text)?
 Show ability to justify the choice of channels according to the
basic principles of their use: speech and text for the abstract and
linear approach, the tactile, the real and the picture for the
concrete, the diagram for clusters of relations and for a
comprehensive view?
 Show ability to choose/design useful visual aids, and use them
effectively?
 Use equipment, apparatus and materials with confidence and
expertise, and according to safety rules?
Chalkboard
Does the student – teacher:
 Write clearly, ensuring that the writing is large, well spaced and
visible from the back of the class?
 Organize the chalkboard well, e.g. using part of the board (sub-
dividing it into reasonable portions) for building up a lesson
outline- or for structural support for note-making while the rest of
the chalkboard is for rough work sketches and diagrams:
vocabulary and spelling; reinforcement support; assignment.
Personality
Mastery of content
Does the student-teacher:
 Show knowledge and understanding of all the content relevant to
the lesson?
 Show sufficient mastery of content to make applications as the
need arises unexpectedly from students' questions or problems?
 Honestly admit ignorance where this is a fact, and give a promise
of an answer rather than beating about the bush, getting out of
such predicament graciously?
 Show enough wider knowledge to link the lesson content to other
topics, subjects and life situations?
Confidence
Does the student-teacher:
 Show enough confidence to inspire students with confidence in
him/her?
 Show readiness to adapt the planned lesson to unforeseen
problems, questions or needs of the students?
 Give the impression that he/she is purposeful and knows where
the learning exercises are leading them?
 Give students the impression that he/she is concerned and ready
to deal with their problems and needs?
 Create a pleasant learning 'atmosphere in the class so that
learning is fun?
 Encourage enough interaction (formal and informal) among
students to make them feel at home?

61
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

 Encourage frankness and the right mix of formality and

informality in the class for better learning?
 Encourage a sense of responsibility in students for their own
learning and for group learning?
 Deal with deviant behaviour with a wise mix of patience and
firmness?
 Encourage students to adopt self-discipline such as is needed in
our society?
 Vary channels, methods, approaches and techniques?
 Alternate periods of intense mental activity with more relaxed
moments?
 Show sensitivity to the limits of the students' powers of
concentration and need to relax?

Note the following:

 The supervisor is expected to give an opportunity to the student-
teacher to evaluate his/her own performance and think up ways
of improving on it before the supervisor attaches a final grade to
the performance.
 The supervisor is expected to point out strengths and weaknesses
in the performance and give advice on improvements to be made,
both orally and in writing.

4. Personality and Confidence

a) How conducive is the student teacher’s appearance to

effective learning?
b) Does the student teacher exude enough confidence to inspire
the learner with confidence?
c) Does the student teacher give an impression of having a
sense of direction and purposeful teaching?
d) Does the student teacher maintain a pleasant learning
atmosphere and make the students feel sufficiently at home?
e) Does the student teacher show sufficient respect for the
dignity and abilities of students?
f) Does the student teacher show concern for the welfare and
progress of the students?

5. Content Mastery
a) Does the student teacher show knowledge and understanding
of all the content relevant to the lesson?
b) Does the student teacher master the content sufficiently
enough to arrange it in an educationally most effective
manner?
c) Is the student teacher able to answer most of the students’
questions during the lesson?

62
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

d) Does the student teacher show enough professional integrity

to admit mistakes made, and admit ignorance or uncertainty
when these are facts?
e) Does the student teacher show the ability to apply knowledge
in unexpected ways when the classroom situation requires
this?
f) Is the student teacher able to link the lesson content to other
lessons, other fields and students’ daily experience?
g) Does the student teacher master the content well enough to
facilitate motivated students to get involved in the planned
learning activity with interest?
h) Is the content covered adequate enough for the planned
lesson?

6. Clarity of Communication
a) Does the student -teacher leave the students with an
impression that they have learned something worthwhile?
b) Does the student teacher encourage frank communication to
such an extent that frank communication actually takes
place?
c) How encouraging is the student teacher in encouraging
students to react on each other’s contribution?
d) How considerate is the student teacher in encouraging
students where they tend to fail or make a mistake?
e) How loud and clear is the student teacher when delivering the
content in class?
f) How appropriate is the pace adopted by the student teacher in
delivering the lesson?
g) How adept is the student teacher at prompting and giving
clues to help students find answers to questions and solving
problems?
h) How genuine is the teacher in listening and trying to
understand the students?
i) How considerate is the teacher in allowing students time to
think and reflect on presentations, tasks and questions?
j) How effectively does the teacher use the non-verbally
expressed modes of communication during the lesson?
k) Does the student teacher bring the entire lesson to a logical
conclusion?

Unit summary

In this unit you learned the development of teaching skills through

micro teaching

Summary

63
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Assignment

In groups of five practice all the microteaching skills and evaluate

yourself using the forms in the appendix

Assignment

Assessment

[Add assessment text here]

Assessment

[Continue your body text here]

64
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Reading Core Reading materials

1 Arends.R.LC (2007). Learning to teach. ih edition. The Me
Grow-Hill New York companies
2 Herreid, C.F (2007) start with a story: the case method of
teaching college science, Arlington. VA: NSTA press. teaching,
engineering & mathematics, Washington.
3 National Research Council (NRC) (2003). Improving
undergraduate Education in science, teaching, engineering &
mathematics, Washington.
4 Tanner, K.D and Allen, D.E (2002). Approaches to teaching
Biology and learning.
5 Scarborough, L.W (2009). The master communications change
your world with the S.I.M.P.L.E steps. Snehesh printers. Mumbai.
6 Gamon, D and Allen, D.B (2002). Learn faster and remember
more. Magna publishing Co. LTD. Mumbai.
7 Walters, R.A (1987) micro-teaching and teaching practice. A
guide for student teacher, Maskew- miller Longman.Cape town.
8 Namasaka, F.W (2011). Teaching practice. Remedy for the 35
common Errors student Teachers. make. Bookshelf Publishers.
Eldoret.
9 Pwani University(2017). Teaching Practise Guidelines for
Students and Examiners. P.U. Press
10 Ngaroga, J.M & Abwalaba, N(2010). Education: PTE revision Kit.
EAEP. Nairobi, Kenya.
11 Kafu, P.A(2010). Planning for Instruction: the secret of effective
teaching. JKF. Nairobi, Kenya.

Referencing reading materials/JOURNAL ARTICLES

1 EBSCOHOST – ERIC journals

65
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

APPENDICES

Appendix A: Sample Scheme of Work for Mathematics

SAMPLE SCHEME OF WORK FOR MATHEMATICS
School: Kasukuma Secondary School
Class: Form Two
Teacher: Mr Hesabu
Period: Term One
Duration:13 Weeks (11 teaching + 2 Examinations)
Lessons: 66

General Instructional Objectives

By the end of the term learners should be able to:
1. The learners should be able to find the cube and cube root
of a number through various methods
2. Evaluate expressions involving cubes and cube roots, and
apply the knowledge to real life situations
3. Find reciprocals of numbers
4. Use tables of common logarithms and antilogarithms in
computations
5. Apply knowledge of equations of a straight line in solving
various problems
6. Apply reflection and congruence in relevant planes
7. Apply properties of rotation in the Cartesian Plane
8. Deduce Congruence from Rotation
References
1. K.I.E Secondary Mathematics Pupils Book Two, second
edition, Second Edition, 2001
2. Patel, N.M., Form 1 Mathematics For Kenya Schools, Elimu
Publications, 1986
3. Channon, J.B . et. al., General mathematics for Secondary
Schools Book Two

66
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Week Lesson Topic Subto Objectives Teaching Activities Learning

pic Activities

Indices
and
logarith
m

1 Indice By the end of the *Teacher leads learners *Learners resp

s lesson the learner in reviewing previous to teacher’s
(powe should be able to: work related to the topic questions and
rs) engage in
*Define indices *Teachers assigns
and discussions on
(powers) learners,,supervises, and
base topic.
marks work on pg 72, Ex
4.1 nos. 6(a)( i)-(iv); 6(b) * learners enga
(i)-(iv),; 6 (c) (i)-(iv) in supervised
practice of the
assigned exerc
2 Laws By the end of the Teacher through Learners work
of lesson the learner exposition and use of several examp
Indice should be able to: examples explains the given by the
s Laws of indices teacher on the
*state the laws of
chalkboard to
indices Teacher through
relate to the La
supervision assigns
of indices
learners own examples
on the chalkboard for
more practice
Homework: Teacher gives
from own examples on
CB

2 Laws By the end of the Teacher through Learners work

of lesson the learner exposition and use of several examp
Indice should be able to: examples explains the given by the
s Laws of indices teacher on the
*state the laws of
chalkboard to
indices Teacher through
relate to the La
supervision assigns
of indices
learners own examples
on the chalkboard for
more practice
Homework: Teacher gives
from own examples on
CB

2 Laws By the end of the Teacher through Learners work

of lesson the learner exposition and use of several examp
Indice should be able to: examples explains the given by the
s Laws of indices teacher on the
*state the laws of
chalkboard to
indices Teacher through
relate to the La
supervision assigns
of indices
learners own examples
on the chalkboard for
more practice
Homework: Teacher gives
from own examples on
CB

67
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Week Lesson Topic Subto Objectives Teaching Activities Learning

pic Activities
2 Laws By the end of the Teacher through Learners work
of lesson the learner exposition and use of several examp
Indice should be able to: examples explains the given by the
s Laws of indices teacher on the
*state the laws of
chalkboard to
indices Teacher through
relate to the La
supervision assigns
of indices
learners own examples
on the chalkboard for
more practice
Homework: Teacher gives
from own examples on
CB

2 Laws By the end of the Teacher through Learners work

of lesson the learner exposition and use of several examp
Indice should be able to: examples explains the given by the
s Laws of indices teacher on the
*state the laws of
chalkboard to
indices Teacher through
relate to the La
supervision assigns
of indices
learners own examples
on the chalkboard for
more practice
Homework: Teacher gives
from own examples on
CB

Figure 4

68
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Appendix B: Sample scheme of work in history

Week Ls Topic Subtopic Objectives T/l activities Ref/rs

4 1 INTRODUCTION Meaning of By the end of the Questioning and Evolving
TO HISTORY AND history lesson the learner answer world-b
GOVNT should be able Discussion 1-2
-define history Note taking KLB sec
-name and explain history
the 3 branches of govnt b
history 1-2
2
3
5
Figure 2

69
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Appendix C: Mpango wa Somo

DARASA:________________________________SOMO____________
WIKI_____NAMBARI YA SOMO_______
MADA KUU________________ MADA NDOGO:_______________
SHABAHA: Kufikia mwisho wa somo mwanafunzi aweze;
(i) _______________________________________________________
( ii)________________________________________________________
(iii)_________________________________________________________
HATUA/ YALIYOMO SHUGHULI ZA SHUGHULI ZA NY
MUDA MWALIMU MWANAFUNZI

Figure 5

KUJITATHMINI
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

70
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Appendix D: Sample Theory Lesson Plan

OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to: (i) State the main
causes of crop diseases (ii) Describe the harm caused by diseases to the crops, (iii)
Explain stages of development of a disease
STEP/TIME CONTENT LEARNING RESO
ACTIVITIES MAT
1 Why it is necessary to know the causes of crop Teacher to ask BB
INTRODUCTION diseases? questions,
5 min In order to be able to protect crops by controlling learners to
diseases respond.
To ensure that diseases are controlled in time and Teacher to
avoid wastage summarize
responses on BB
suggestions on
BIB
II What are the main causes of crop diseases? Teacher to ask Chal
MAIN BODY (i)Fungi question, sakir
10 MIN (ii)acteria(ii)viruses(iv)nematodes(v)protozoa(vi)insects reinforce level
other than vectors(vii)mycoplasma (viii) learners Ref I
Heterogeneous responses & phot
group including mineral deficiencies, and excesses of summarize show
sun, wind, frost air pollution and unsuitable crop learner Learners vario
variety to answer path
question and crop
take notes.
III STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF DISEASE Teacher to A cha
20 MIN 1.introduction stage describe and the f
The disease causing agent(pathogen gets into contact explain using of di
with crop) appropriate deve
2. the pathogen enters the plant through the stomata examples as
or cuticle which cover the cells of the plant learners listen,
The entry can be by physical force involving piercing observe, ask &
and cutting. Disease-causing agents (pathogens) can answer questions
also use/release enzymes which dissolve the cellulose & take notes.
so that pathogen can enter tissue.
3.Infection stage
Pathogen gets in contact with plant cells for food.
Interaction of pathogen with plant tissue cause
malfunctioning of cells. Malfunctioning starts with one
cell then spreads to others hence causing disease
4.Incubation
Manifested by appearance of disease symptoms
II.
APPLICATION What harm is caused to crops by diseases? Teacher to Ref.
10MIN 1. Destruction of photosynthic area. facilitate whole Page
2. Destruction of transportation mechanism class or small 46 R
3. Destrcution of food reserves. group discussions BB
4. Interferes with essential process e.g. respiration, & summarize
reproduction etc. main points on
5. Poor plant health-loss of vigour. BB. Learners to
6. The Plant may die. points in their
7. Lowers quantity of products. notebooks.
8. Destruction of plant tissues. Brainstorm
IV 1.What are the main causes of crop diseases? Teacher to
CONCLUSION 2.Highlight stages and events in development of crop conclude the
5MIN disease lesson by asking
questions as

71
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

STEP/TIME CONTENT LEARNING RESO

ACTIVITIES MAT
learners respond.

Figure 4

LESSON EVALUATION: Good learning experience with satisfactory

learner participation.

72
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Appendix E: Sample Test Lesson Plan

NAME…………………… REG. NO……………………….
SCHOOL…………… ZONE……………...DATE…………
CLASS:…………….SUBJECT……………TIME…………..
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this test the learner should be able to attempt all questions.
STEP/TIME CONTENT TEACHERS ACTIVITIES LEARNERS RESOURCE
ACTIVITIES MATERIALS
Introduction Introduction to -question
Instructions to - Sitting
(before the Bio candidates-distribution arrangements paper
test) The cell of question papers learners to - calculator,
(0-2min) Cell Physiology remain seated,
Teacher ensures
students are seated quiet to receive
such that they cannot the question
copy from each other papers
nor from written
material Note starting
Timing of test - time
Test Supervise the exam Exam
- Clarity of Answer
administration questions from fully examination paper/answer
(length of valid topics in questions sheet
- Clarity of instructions
paper eg 1 the Table of in question paper Sign exam
hour) Specification attendance sheet
- Test atmosphere
Introduction to
Bio - circulate the exam
The cell attendance sheet
Cell Physiology
Conclusion -Teacher asks students Exam
Adherence to
(0-2min) to stop at the end of closing paper/answer
the test instructions sheet
- collection of -hand over the
scripts/Question papers answer sheet to
-Gives a specific date the teacher-
when he will return the
scripts- Marking
proposal
Figure 4

SELF EVALUATION
Report how the exam went on;
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

73
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

Appendix F: Microteaching Assessment Form

item performance Max. Actual

score Score
PLANNING
Availability of Scheme of Work and Lesson Plan 2
Followed Scheme of Work 2
Clarity of objectives in LP and SOW 3
Appropriateness of methodology 3
Appropriate lesson plan format adopted 5
SUB-TOTAL 15
PRESENTATION
Lesson Introduction 3
Lesson development 5
Followed the suggested methodology 5
Adherence to time frame 4
Learner involvement 4
Conclusion 3
Application of Skill being practiced 6
Questioning
Set induction & Closure
Reinforcement
Use of examples
Verbal exposition
Stimulus variation
closure
Integrated skills practice
Creating interest and variety
communication
sensitivity
Subject specific skills
Age specific skills
SUB-TOTAL 30
RESOURCES
Relevance 3
Effective Use 3
Adequacy 2
Resourcefulness/ Creativity/ Improvisation 2
Use of Chalk Board 3
References 2
SUB-TOTAL 15
SUBJECT MATTER (CONTENT)
Mastery of Content 5
Depth of coverage 5
Relevance 5
Systematicism 5
SUBTOTAL 20
TEACHER PERSONALITY
Confidence 4
Interaction with the class and with-it- ness 4
Voice 2
SUBTOTAL 10
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Room Preparation 4
Class control 2
Discipline 4

74
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

SUBTOTAL 10
TOTAL 100

Appendix G: Marking scheme for Learning Resource Projects

Project Title………………………………….Zone……………………
Item Performance Max. score Score
PROPOSAL
Background 4
Justification 3
Clarity of objectives 3
Problem statement 4
Clarity of Methodology 3
Originality and novelty of ideas 4
Work plan 2
Budget 2
TOTAL 25
ACTUAL PROJECT
Layout 8
Originality 8
Fineness in finish 6
Oral presentation 7
Relevance 6
Learner participation 3
Contribution to Teaching and Learning 3
Relationship between actual and 3
proposed budget
Adherence to time frame 3
Participation of administration 3
TOTAL 50
PROJECT REPORT
Format 3
Writing style 3
Clarity of language 3
Flow of ideas 2
Description of project 3
Applicability 3
Usefulness 3
Conclusions and recommendations 3
References 2
25
TOTAL 100
Remarks…………………………………………………………………

75
 Error! No text of specified style in document. Error! No t
style in document.

[Continue your body text here]

76