EXPERIMENT NO. INSTRUMENT NO.

RM- DATE:
NAME: STREAM: SEC: ROLL:
DETERMINATION OF THE MODULUS OF RIGIDITY OF A WIRE BY STATIC
METHOD USING HORIZONTAL PATTERN OF APPARATUS.

COURSE OUTCOME: Students will be able to understand the application of the concepts of
general properties of matter viz. elasticity, viscosity etc.

APPARATUS: Horizontal pattern of the apparatus (BARTON’s) set, ½ kg weights, screw

gauge, meter scale.

WORKING FORMULA: The modulus of rigidity

1 80M g D  l2  l1 

 2
r
4
 1  2 

where

M = Load suspended (l2 – l1) = The length of the rod

D = Diameter of pulley suffering twist (distance between the two
r = Radius of the experimental rod. pointers).
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.82
m/sec2. (1 - 2) = Difference of the angular twist
produced in the rod.

© ENGINEERING PHYSICS DEPT., NETAJI SUBHASH ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOLKATA 1

 PROCEDURE AND DATA TABLES:
[A] Steps for the measurement of radius of the rod:
1. Find the least count of the screw gauge and also note down the initial error of the
screw gauge.
2. Measure the diameter of the rod at different points (at least five points) by using the
screw gauge and eliminate error.
3. Calculate the mean diameter.
4. Find the radius (diameter/2) of the rod.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS:

TABLE 1: Least count of the Screw Gauge

Distance moved on sleeve
by screw, after giving one divisions on circular scale
complete revolution (Pitch) (n)
l.c. = (pitch/n) (cm)
(cm)

TABLE 2: Measurement of radius of the rod

Initial error of the screw gauge =

Sl. Main scale Circular Total Mean diameter Corrected Mean radius
No. reading scale reading reading (cm) diameter (d) (d/2) (cm)
(M) (cm) (V) (cm) (T=M+V) (cm)
(cm)

© ENGINEERING PHYSICS DEPT., NETAJI SUBHASH ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOLKATA 2

[B] Steps for the determination of the diameter of the pulley by using a rope
of 50 cm (approx):
1. Find out the circumference (2πr) of the pulley by wrapping the rope once around the
pulley and measure the length of the rope by a centimeter scale.
2. Calculate diameter of the pulley.

Let, 2πr = length of the rope around the pulley = x cm.

2r = x/π cm.
D = x/π cm

TABLE 3: Determination of the diameter of the pulley

No. Obs. Length of the rope Diameter of the pulley Mean Diameter D (cm)
around the pulley x x/π (cm)
(cm)

TABLE 4: Measure the distance between two pointers using the meter scale.

Distance of the second pointer from Distance of the first pointer l2 - l1 (cm)
the rotating end of the rod (l2) from the rotating end of the rod
(cm) (l1) (cm)

[C] Steps for the measurement of twist of the wire due to application of load:
1. Put the hanger on the pulley.
2. Fix the pointers attached to the circular scale at the zero position.
3. Put a load of 0.5 kg on the hanger and observe the readings of the two circular scales
( 1 and 2.) accordingly and measure corresponding angle of twist (1 - 2) of the
rod.
4. Increase the load in steps of 500 gm on the hanger up to 3000 gm and observe the
differences of readings (1 - 2) between two circular scales.
5. Now repeat steps 3 and 4 by decreasing the load by 0.5 kg from 3.0 kg to zero load.

© ENGINEERING PHYSICS DEPT., NETAJI SUBHASH ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOLKATA 3

TABLE 5: Measurement of twist of the wire due to application of load:

Twist for first Pointer Twist for the second pointer

Load on the hanger m

Mean reading (Ө2)

Mean reading (Ө1)
while decreasing

while decreasing
while increasing

while increasing
Pointer reading

Pointer reading

Pointer reading

Pointer reading
S No.

(gm)

(Ө1 - Ө2)
load

load

load

load
1 500

2 1000

3 1500

4 2000

5 2500

6 3000

© ENGINEERING PHYSICS DEPT., NETAJI SUBHASH ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOLKATA 4

[D] Steps for the calculation of M/(Ө1 - Ө2):
1. Draw the graph (Ө1 - Ө2) vs. M

(Ө1 - Ө2)

Characteristic of the graph will be a straight line passing through the origin (0,0).

2. Calculate M/(Ө1 - Ө2) by using the slope of the graph (Ө1 - Ө2) vs. M.

CALCULATION (In CGS unit only):

© ENGINEERING PHYSICS DEPT., NETAJI SUBHASH ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOLKATA 5

STANDARD VALUE:
For Iron: 8x1011 dyne/cm2

For Brass: 3.5 x 1011 dyne/cm2

(Conversion to S.I unit: 10 dyne/cm2 =1 N/m2)

CONCLUSION:

DISCUSSION:

© ENGINEERING PHYSICS DEPT., NETAJI SUBHASH ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOLKATA 6

 Experiment No. Instrument No. BG- Date:
Name: Roll: Stream: Sec:
DETERMINATION OF THE BAND GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR
BY FOUR PROBE METHOD

COURSE OUTCOME:
Application of the theoretical knowledge of semiconductor by measuring Band Gap of a
semiconductor through four probe method.

APPARATUS :
Ge single crystal (n type with thickness (w) = 0.05 cm.), four probe arrangement
[distance between probes (S) = 0.2 cm.], oven and thermometer.

THEORY:
The distance between any two consecutive probes in four probe arrangement, as shown in
the figures below, is S. Current I is passed through the outer probes (1 & 4) and the floating
potential V is measured approx the inner pairs of probes 2 & 3.

S
1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4

Figure : Circuit Used For Resistivity Measurements.

© Basic Engineering Sciences and Humanities, Netaji Subhash Engineering College

The potential difference V between probes 2 & 3 can be written as
𝑉 ∝ 𝐼𝜌 ⋯ (𝑖)

Where 𝜌 is the resistivity of the material, I is the amount of current passing through the
material. Therefore,

∴ 𝜌 = 0.213 ⋯ (𝑖𝑖)

Where, the constant value (0.213) depends on the surface area of the probes.
Thus  may be calculated for various temperatures.
Now, if we plot log 𝜌 vs. , we get a curve which is linear at higher temperatures.

We know resistivity, 𝜌 = 𝐶 exp , where C is a constant. From this expression we can have

ln 𝜌 = + ln 𝐶
Therefore, width of the energy gap may be determined from the slope of the linear portion of
∆ ∆
the experimental curve: ∆( / ) = = . ×
. ∆

Thus we have
∆
𝐸 = 2.303 × 2𝐾 ∆( / )
⋯ (𝑖𝑣)

Where K is Boltzmann’s Constant [K = 8.6 × 10-5 eV/Kelvin]

Procedure:
1. Switch on the circuit (make sure that the oven is switched off).
2. Align the voltmeter/ammeter display changer switch at ammeter position and fix the
value of the probe current to any fixed value (approx. 5 mA).
3. Keep the “Voltage range” switch at “×10” position. The voltage display reading
must be multiplied by 10 to get the exact voltage in mV.
4. Align the display changer switch to voltmeter position and note the temperature and
record the corresponding voltage value at room temperature.
5. Switch on the oven.
6. Rotate the “Temperature” knob to the marked () position. The temperature will
rise continuously.
7. Note down the voltages at different temperatures at an interval of 10 Kelvin.
8. At least 10 data points, including the room temperature, to be recorded.
9. Switch off the oven and rotate the “Temperature” knob to minimum position.
10. Calculate 𝜌, and log 𝜌 values for each data.
𝟏
11. Plot a graph of 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝝆 as a function of 𝑻.
12. Estimate the slope from the linear portion of the mean plot.
13. Complete the calculation to find out the value of the Band gap energy for the given
semiconductor.

2 © Basic Engineering Sciences and Humanities, Netaji Subhash Engineering College

OBSERVATIONS:
Current I = mA (constant)

Sl Temperature Voltage  T–1 × 10–3

(mV) (K–1) log10 
no. (T in K) (Ωcm.)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

CALCULATION:
∆
Slope from the linear portion of the mean graph ∆( / )
=

The Band Gap Energy

∆
𝐸 = 2.303 × 2𝐾 ∆( / )
=

3 © Basic Engineering Sciences and Humanities, Netaji Subhash Engineering College

RESULT: The band gap of the germanium sample is found out to be eV.
(The standard value of band gap for Ge semiconductor is 0.68 eV)

DISCUSSIONS:

4 © Basic Engineering Sciences and Humanities, Netaji Subhash Engineering College

Name: Stream: Sec:
Class Roll No.: University Roll No.:
Instrument No. – ST- Date:

VERIFICATION OF STEFAN’S LAW AND DETERMINATION OF

STEFAN’S CONSTANT

COURSE OUTCOME:

Application of the theoretical knowledge of hot body radiation by measuring Stefan’s constant using a
diode valve.

THEORY
In the experiment we use a commercially available vacuum diode 6X4, which has a cylindrical
cathode made of nickel. Closely fitting inside the cathode sleeve is the tungsten heater filament. On the
outer surface of the nickel sleeve, a coating of BaO and SrO mixture is formed from which the thermo
ionic emission takes place. Cathode is heated by passing electric current through the tungsten heater
filament. Temperature of the filament can be determined by using known resistance (R) – temperature
(T) relationship for tungsten. Since the cathode sleeve and the heater filament are in close physical
contact, we can take the temperature of the cathode to be the same as that of the filament. Applying
Stefan’s law to the heated cylindrical cathode we can verify the Stefan’s law and determine the
Stefan’s constant from the knowledge of the surface area and the emissivity of the cathode.

 Dept. of Basic Engineering Sciences, Netaji Subhash Engineering College. 1

Room temperature resistance of the filament R300 for this tube is 0.6.
Temperature of the Filament determine using the following equation-

Vf Diode If

Battery

The Circuit Diagram

WORKING FORMULA
If we neglect the power loss due to the conduction and convection then we can write Stefan’s law as:
P   S T n (i )

or, log10 P  log10   S   n log10 T (ii)

Where, P  V f I f = power radiated,  = emissivity of the cathode surface = 0.24.

S is the surface area of cathode and S = 1.94 × 10-6 m2

PROCEDURE

1. Check the circuit connections and make all knobs to minimum position before switching the
circuit on.

2. Change the value of filament voltage very carefully. Make sure the each time you set the
voltage by rotating the knob clockwise (never cross the desired value as rotating the knob
anticlockwise might produce backlash error).

3. Note the current reading for each voltage, waiting for about 4 minutes to allow the current
to be steady. Take 10 data starting from 0.5V at the interval of 0.5V.

4. After taking the complete set of data, keep the voltage knob at initial position and switch off
the circuit. Plot T vs RT/R300 to get the value of temperature (T) from resistance estimated
from measured filament voltage and current.

5. Calculate log10 P and log10 T and draw a graph.

 Dept. of Basic Engineering Sciences, Netaji Subhash Engineering College. 2

 6. Find out the value of the slope to get the value of n from equation (ii) [which is similar to the
straight line equation y = mx + C]

7. Find out the value of Stefan’s Constant using values of log10 P and log10 T from the graph.

OBSERVATION AND TABULATION:

Vf
Sl. If RT P = Vf If RT T
in log10 P log10 T
No. in A in Ohm in Watt 0.6 in K
Volt

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

CALCULATION:
The value of slope of log10 P vs log10 T graph is = _______
(Choose a log10P & corresponding log10T value from the straight line and calculate the value of σ)

 Dept. of Basic Engineering Sciences, Netaji Subhash Engineering College. 3

RESULT:
The value of the slope n = _______ ≈ 4. Hence Stefan’s Law is verified.
The value of Stefan’s Constant is found to be ___________________________ W m-2K-4.
(Standard value of Stefan’s Constant = 5.669×10-8 W m-2K-4)

PRECAUTIONS & DISCUSSIONS:

 Dept. of Basic Engineering Sciences, Netaji Subhash Engineering College. 4

EXPERIMENT NO: INSTRUMENT NO. NR_ DATE:
NAME: STREAM: SEC: ROLL:

TITLE: DETERMINATION OF THE RADIUS OF CURVATURE OF THE

CONVEX SURFACE OF A LENS BY MEANS OF NEWTON’S RING

COURSE OUTCOME: Students will be able to understand the application of

physical optics viz. interference, diffraction, polarization etc.

APPARATUS: 1. Sodium lamp

2. Convex lens
3. Plano Convex lens
4. Travelling Microscope
5. Plane Glass plate

Eye
piece
Glass plate
Microscope

o
45

Source of
monochromatic
Light

Plano convex lens

Air film

Fig-1. Expeimental Set up for Newton’s ring

AIR FILM

Fig 2 : Formation of Newton’s ring

© ENGINNERING PHYSICS DEPT. NETAJI SUBHASH ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOLKATA
 AIR FILM

Fig. 3 NEWTON’S RING

THEORY: When a monochromatic beam if light coming from an extended source is incident
on a combination of L and G as shown in fig. 1 a part of it is reflected from the lower
surface of the lens and a part, after refraction through the film between L and G is
reflected back from the surface of the Plate G. These two parts are in a condition to
interfere and give rise to a system of alternate dark and bright rings with O, the point of
contact (between L and G) as centre.
If the angle of incidence of the rays which fall on G is  and  is the refractive index of
th
the film between L and G then the diameter Dn of the n dark or bright ring is given by

D2n / 4 = nR / cos (for dark rings)

And D2¬n / 4 = {(2n + 1)/2 * (R) / (cos) (for bright rings)

Where  is the wavelength of the light used and R is the radius of curvature of the lower
surface of the lens L.
For normal incidence ( = 0) as in the arrangement shown in fig.-1 and with  = 1 i.c.
with an air film between L and G we have
D2n = 4nR / (for dark rings)
And D2n = 2(2n + 1)/R (for bright rings)

Knowing  and measuring the diameter of the nth dark or bright ring R, the radius of
curvature of the convex surface of the lens in contact with the plate G, may be determined.
But it is always found that due to deformation of the surface near the point of contact, a
few rings round the central dark spot are not circular. Further, due to presence of dust
© ENGINNERING PHYSICS DEPT. NETAJI SUBHASH ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOLKATA
particles the central fringe may not be dark. In order to eliminate difficulties arising out of
these factors the following procedure may be adopted for the determination of R.
th
If Dm+n and Dn be the diameters of the (m+n) and nth dark or bright rings then,
D2m+n – D2n = 4mR (for the dark or bright rings).
The above relation indicates that R may be determined even without knowing the exact ring
number (m+n) or n.
Thus by measuring the diameters of any dark or bright rings by means of a microscope and
counting the number of dark or bright rings lying between them R may be determined.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND DATA TABLES:

1) Level the traveling microscope.
2) Adjust the positions of the Collimating Convex Lens and Plano Convex Lens (Newton’s
Apparatus) on the wooden platform to form the Newton’s Ring.
3) Place the crosswire of the eyepiece of the traveling microscope on the tangent position
of the 10th dark ring at the left position from the centre ring.
4) Take the scale reading on the horizontal scale of the traveling microscope.
5) By only using the tangent screw of the traveling microscope place the crosswire on
the 8th dark ring and record the scale reading on the horizontal scale of the traveling
microscope.
6) Repeat the step (5) for 6th, 4th and 2nd dark rings.
7) Now place the crosswire of the eyepiece on the tangent position of the 2nd dark ring
at the right side from the centre ring.
8) Take the scale reading on the horizontal scale of the traveling microscope.
9) Repeat the step(7) and step( 8) for 4th ,6th ,8th and 10th dark rings at the right
hand side .

© ENGINNERING PHYSICS DEPT. NETAJI SUBHASH ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOLKATA

 10) Calculate diameter of the rings from Table 2.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS:

TABLE 1: Least count of the circular scale of the microscope:

Distance moved on sleeve by divisions on circular scale l.c. = (pitch/n) (cm)
screw, after giving one (n)
complete revolution (Pitch)
(cm)

TABLE 2: Measurement of the diameter of the rings:

READING OF THE MICROSCOPE

Diameter
LEFT SIDE RIGHT SIDE Dn

Ring Vernier/Cir Vernier/Cir

no. Main Total Main Total (Rl ˜ Rr)
cular cular
scale (Rl) scale (Rr)
scale scale
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm) (cm)

10

© ENGINNERING PHYSICS DEPT. NETAJI SUBHASH ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOLKATA

TABLE 3: To draw the graph of Diameter2 vs Ring No.

RING NO. Dn (cm) Dn2 (cm2)

10

2
11) Use Table 3 to draw the graph between Diameter vs Ring No. By using slope of the
graph calculate Radius of Curvature of the Plano Convex Lens.

CALCULATION OF SLOPE:

CALCULATION OF RADIUS OF CURVATURE:

Mean wavelength of sodium light () = 5893 Å

D2 m+n – D2n
R = ------------ =
4m

© ENGINNERING PHYSICS DEPT. NETAJI SUBHASH ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOLKATA

CONCLUSION:

DISCUSSIONS:

© ENGINNERING PHYSICS DEPT. NETAJI SUBHASH ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOLKATA

EXPERIMENT NO. INSTRUMENT NO. PC_ DATE:
NAME: STREAM: SEC: ROLL:
TITLE: DETERMINATION OF PLANK'S CONSTANT USING
PHOTOCELLS
COURSE OUTCOME: Students will be able to understand the application of quantum
physics.
APPARATUS: a. Photo Sensitive Device: Vacuum photo tube.
b. Light Source: Halogen tungsten lamp 12V/35W.
c. Color Filters: Red (635nm), Yellow – I (570nm), Yellow – II
(540nm), Green (500nm) & Blue (460nm).
d. Digital Meter: Show current (μA), or voltage (V).
e. Display mode switch : For switching the display between voltage
and current mode.
f. Light intensity switch : Switch for choosing light intensity.
g. Accelerate voltage adjustor : Knob for adjusting accelerating
voltage.
h. Voltage direction, switch : Switch for choosing voltage direction.
±15V accelerating voltage is provided.

Panel Diagram: 1-Light source, 2-Guide, 3-Scale, 4-Drawtube, 5-Cover, 6-Focus

lens, 7-Vacuum Phototube, 8-Base for holding the Phototube, 9-Digital Meter, 10-Display mode
switch, 11-Current range selctor,12-Light intensity switch, 13-Filter set, 14-Accelerate voltage
adjustor, 15-Lens cover, 16-Voltage direction switch, 17-Power switch, 18-Power indicator.

© ENGINEERING PHYSICS DEPT, NETAJI SUBHASH ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOLKATA

 THEORY:
It was observed that most metals under influence of radiation, emit electrons. This
phenomenon was termed as photoelectric effect. The detailed study of it has
shown
1. That the emission process depends strongly on frequency of radiation.
2. For each metal there exists a critical frequency such that light of lower
frequency is
unable to liberate bound electrons, while light of higher frequency always does.
3. The emission of electron occurs within a very short time interval after arrival
of the radiation and number of electrons is strictly proportional to the intensity of
this radiation.
The experimental facts given above are among the strongest evidence that
the electromagnetic field is quantified and the field consists of quanta of energy
E = hυ where υis the frequency of the radiation and h is the Planck’s constant.
These quanta are called photons.
Further it is assumed that electrons are bound inside the metal surface with
an energy eϕ, where ϕis called work function. It then follows that if the
frequency of the light is such that hυ > eϕ it will be possible to eject
photoelectron, while if hυ < eϕ, it would be impossible. In the former case, the
excess energy of quantum appears as kinetic energy of the electron, so that
1
hυ = mv2 + eϕ (1)
2
which is the famous photoelectrons equation formulated by Einstein in 1905.
The energy of emitted photoelectrons can be measured by simple retarding
potential techniques as is done in this experiment. Retarding potential at which the
photo current stop, we call it stopping potential Vs and is used to measure kinetic
energy of electrons Ee ,we have,
1
Ee = mv2 = eVs
2
Putting this in equation (1), we get,
hυ = eVs + eϕ
or, eVs = hυ - eϕ
h
or, Vs = υ - ϕ …(2)
e
So when we plot a graph Vs as a function of υ, the slope of the straight line
h
yields and the intercept of extrapolated point υ = 0 can give work function .
e
ΔV
So, Planck’s constant h = e s (Working Formula) …(3)
Δν

Photoelectric
Effect

© ENGINEERING PHYSICS DEPT, NETAJI SUBHASH ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOLKATA

PROCEDURE:

1. Adjust the light source about 250 mm from the vacuum phototube.
2. Insert the red color filter (635 nm), set light intensity switch (12) at strong light,
voltage direction switch (14) at ‘–’ side, display mode switch (10) at current display.
3. Adjust to de-accelerating voltage/stopping potential to 0 V and set current range
selector (4) at X 0.001. Now increase the de-accelerating voltage to stop the running
photons until the photo current is decreased to zero. Take down the reading of de-
accelerating voltage (Vs) corresponding to zero photo current for photons having 635 nm
wavelength.
4. Now set the light intensity (12) to minimum again and make the de-accelerating
voltage to zero. And change the filter and repeat the steps 2 to 4.
5. Thus by changing the different coloured filters, get the corresponding Vs for other
wavelengths yellow – I (570nm), yellow – II (540nm), green (500nm) & blue (460nm),
in the same way.
6. Now plot frequency along x-axis and stopping potential along y-axis on a 1mm
graph paper. This would give you a straight line. Find the slope. Also extend the line
along negative axis and find work function potential/ binding potential energy of the
metal.

OBSERVATIONS:

Sl. Filter Colour Wavelength Frequency (υ) Stopping Potential

No. (nanometer) (X 1014 sec-1 ) (Vs)
1. Red 635
2. Yellow I 570
3. Yellow II 540
4. Green 500
5. Blue 460

CALCULATIONS:
ΔVs
Slope = Volt-S
Δν
ΔVs
Planck’s Constant, h = e [Where e = charge of the electron]
Δν

Work Function ϕ = …… electron-Volts (Measure from the graph)

© ENGINEERING PHYSICS DEPT, NETAJI SUBHASH ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOLKATA

SAMPLE GRAPH:

PRECAUTIONS AND CONCLUTIONS:

PROVOKING THOUGHTS:
From this instrument you can also measure
1. Charge of the electrons when the Planck’s constant value is known.
2. Verify inverse square law of radiation as Intensity I(photoelectric current) ∝
1 r2 (r=Distance of light source)

© ENGINEERING PHYSICS DEPT, NETAJI SUBHASH ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOLKATA