EXPERIMENT —— 1
AIM —— To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph of
potential difference versus current.
THEORY —— 1) According to Ohm's law, the current I flowing through a
Conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference V applied
across the specific ends provided the physical conditions (temperature
and pressure of the conductor remains unchanged)
Or, VαI
Or, V = IR
Or, R = V/R
Where R is the resistance of the conductor. Obviously the graph between
the current I and the applied voltage V will be a straight line passing
through the origin,
R=1/slope of I-V graph
But the resistance R of a wire of length l, area of cross section A and
specific resistance (roh) is given by,
R=(roh)*l/A =(roh)*l/(pie)r^2
Thus, Specific resistance = R*(pie)r^2/l
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION ——
(((A))) For determination of resistances of wire A and B
Range of voltmeter = (0-3)V
Range of milliammeter = (0-500)mA
Lease count of voltmeter = 0.05 V
Least count of milliammeter = 0.05 mA
Least count meter scale = 0.1 cm
WIRE USED S.NO VOLTMETER MILLIAMMET
ER
1 0.25 0.5
WIRE A 2 0.5 1.5
3 1 3
1 0.33 0.25
WIRE B 2 1.05 0.75
3 1.42 1
VOLTMETER AND MILLIAMMETER READINGS
(((B))) Determination of specific resistance of wire A and B
Length of wire A = 0.35m
Length of wire B = 0.31m
Mean radius of wire A = 0.0018m
Mean radius of wire B = 0.0017m
Specific resistance of wire A = Ra * (pie)r^2/l = 9.5 * 10^-6
Specific resistance of wire B = Rb * (pie)r^2/l = 4 * 10^-3
EXPERIMENT—- 2
AIM —— To find the resistance of a given wire l standard resistor using
meter bridge
THEORY ——With the known resistance P in the left gap and its unknown
resistance S in the right gap of the metre bridge, suppose the null point B
is obtained at a distance ‘l’ centimetre from the left A by the principle of
wheatstone bridge
P/Q= R/S
Or AB wire (resistance)/ BC wire ( resistance) = R/S
Or. L/100-l = R/S
Or. S= (100-l/ l) R
OBSERVATION TABLE ——-
Length of the wire = 21 cm
Radius of the wire = 0.54 cm
S.NO l 100-l R-B R
1 54 46 1 0.80
2 26.7 83.3 3 1.05
3 16.9 83.1 5 1.02
Observation table for resistance
MEAN resistance =(0.80+1.05+1.02)/3
=0.95
EXPERIMENT —- 3
AIM —— To verify the law of parallel combination of resistance using a
metre bridge
THEORY —— 1) Measurement of unknown resistance with known
resistance R in the left gap and the unknown resistance S( R1 and R2 or
parallel combination of R1 and R2) in the right gap of the metre bridge
suppose the balance point is obtained at a distance of l centimetre from
the left end then the unknown resistance is given by
S = R(100-l/ l)
2) The law of parallel combination of resistance when the two resistors R1
and R2 are connected in parallel then the equivalent resistance Rp is
given by
1/Rp = 1/ R1 + 1/R2
Or. Rp = R1R2/R1+R2
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION——
R S.NO l 100-l R.B UNKNOWN
RESISTAN
CE
R1 1 54.0 46.0 1 0.80
2 26.7 83.3 3 1.05
3 16.9 93.1 5 1.02
R2 1 63.1 36.9 1 1.7
2 36.5 63.5 3 2.7
3 41.8 58.2 2 1.81
R1 and R2 1 39.3 60.7 1 0.52
in parallel 2 16.5 83.5 3 0.73
3 10.2 89.8 5 0.55
Foe determination of resistance of R1, R2 and Rp
Mean R1 = 0.956
Mean R2 = 2.070
Mean Rp = 0.60
Experimental value of parallel combination of resistors Rp = 0.60
Theoretical value of parallel combination of resistors R’p =
0.96*2.07/0.96+2.07
= 0.65
Difference = R1- R2 = 0.60- 0.65= -0.05
EXPERIMENT —— 4
AIM —— To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection
method and to find its figure of merit
WORKIN FORMULA —— 1). The resistance G of a galvanometer by half
deflection method is given by
G = RS / R-S
Where R is the resistance in series with the galvanometer and S is the
shunt resistance
2) The figure of merit of the galvanometer is given by
K= Enot / (R+G) theta
Where theta is the deflection produced with the series resistance
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION——-
S.NO R(roh) Theta S(roh) Theta/2 G
1 6000 18 100 9 101.69
2 4000 26 95 13 97.31
3 3500 28 107 14 210.37
Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection
Mean value of G= 103.12
Emf of the battery = 4V
Resistance of the galvanometer G = 103.12
S.NO R(roh) DEFLECTION K
1 7000 29 0.0000914
2 10000 20 0.0000198
3 9100 22 0.0000197
Figure of merit of galvanometer
Mean value of K = 0.0000436 A div^-1
Total number of divisions on either side of zero mark = 71 div
Current required for full scale deflection = 0.0030 A
EXPERIMENT —- 5
AIM —— Determine the angle of deviation of the glass prism by plotting a
graph between the angle of incidence and angle of deviation [and hence
to find the refractive index of the material of the prism]
WORKING FORMULA —— 1)The ray of light passes through a prism
Angle of prism + Angle of deviation = Angle of incidence + Angle of
emergence
A+§=I+e
§=I+e–A
And I increases , § first decreases, becomes minimum then increases. In
the position of minimum deviation §m the ray of light passes
symmetrically, that is parallel to the base so that. I= e and r = r’
2) The relation between mue and §m is
Mue = [ sin ((A+§m)/2)] / [sin(A/B)]
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION —— Angle of prism, A = 60
S.NO i §
1 30 48
2 35 46
3 40 44
4 45 40
5 50 39
6 55 38
7 60 40
8 65 45
Different values of I and § for a prism
Angle of min deviation, §m = 38
Angle of prism, A = 60
B = 30
REFRACTIVE INDEX = Mue = [ sin ((A+§m)/2)]/(sin(A/B)
= sin 49/ sin 30
= ½(sin49)
EXPERIMENT —— 6
AIM —— To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graph
between u and v or between 1/u and 1/v
WORKING FORMULA —— 1) If an object needle is placed between F and 2F
of a convex lens ,its real, inverted and magnified image is formed beyond
2F on the other side of the lens .By placing another needle called image
needle there we can locate the image of the first needle by removing the
parallax between the image and the second needle itself.
2) The relation between the object distance u, image distance v and focal
length F of a convex lens is given by thin lens formula,
1/f = 1/v + 1/u
Or. F= uv/ u-v
According to new cartesian sign convention u is negative and v is positive
when a convex lens forms a real image. Also, F is positive for a convex
lens.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION——-
Rough focal length of convex lens = 10.5 cm
POSITION OF UPRIGHT OBSERVE DISTANC
S S D E
S.NO OBJECT CONCAVE IMAGE u’ v’ FOCAL
NEEDLE LENS L NEEDLE LENGT
O I H
1 33.8 55 79.5 21.2 24.5 11.36
2 28 55 74.6 27 19.6 11.35
3 20.4 55 73.6 34.6 18.6 12.09
4 16.6 55 71.6 38.4 16.6 11.58
5 39.6 55 96.6 17.8 41.6 12.49
6 37.9 55 81.3 17.1 26.3 10.36
Mean value of f = 11.53 cm
DETERMINATION OF F BY GRAPHICAL METHOD ——-
So at point ,P u= -v
1/f = 1/v – 1/u
=1/v + 1/v
=2/v
Therefore, (i) f =v/2 = OB/2 = 23.5/2 = 11.75 cm
(ii) f = u/2 = OA/2 = 23.5/2 = 11.75 cm
Mean value of f = 11.75 cm
EXPERIMENT——- 7
AIM —— To find I-V characteristics curve of pn junction bias and reverse
bias
OBSERVATIONS ——
(((A))) For forward bias characteristics
Range of the voltmeter = 0 to 1V
Range of the milliammeter = 0 to 25 mA
(((B))) For reverse bias characteristics
Range of the voltmeter = 0 to 1V
Range of the milliammeter = 0 to 10 mueA
PN JUNCTION FORWARD PN REVERSE
JUNCTION
S.NO VF IF VR IR
1 0.4 0 0.05 1.8
2 0.5 0.5 0.10 3.6
3 0.6 3 0.15 5
4 0.7 8.5 0.20 6.8
5 0.8 15.5 0.25 9.2
6 0.9 20 0.30 -Breakdown
Variation of I and V
EXPERIMENT—— 8
AIM —— To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave
mirror and to find its focal length.
WORKING FORMULA —— The relation between the object distance u,
image distance v, and focal length f ,of a concave mirror is given by mirror
formula,
1/f = 1/v + 1/u
Or. F= vu/u+v
According to new cartesian sign convention, u and v are both negative
and a concave mirror forms a real image. Also, F is negative for a concave
mirror.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION——-
Rough focal length of convex lens = 20 cm
POSITION OF UPRIGHT OBSERVE DISTANC
S S D E
S.NO MIRROR OBJECT IMAGE u v FOCAL
NEEDLE NEEDLE LENGT
O I H
1 0 30 76 30 76 20.5
2 0 33.5 65 33.5 65 21.8
3 0 34 60.5 34 60.5 21.9
4 0 35.4 56.7 35.4 56.7 21.7
5 0 40.7 40.7 40.7 40.7 20.35
Mean value of f = 21.25 cm
DETERMINATION OF F BY GRAPHICAL METHOD ——-
So at point ,P u= v
1/f = 1/v + 1/u
=1/u + 1/u
=2/u
Therefore, (i) f =v/2 = OB/2 = 40.7/2 = -20.3cm
(ii) f = u/2 = OA/2 = 40.7/2 = -20.3 cm
Mean value of f = 20.3 cm
ACTIVITY ——- 1
AIM —- To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit (say
ohm’s circuit used to measure resistance)
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED —— A resistor, an ammeter (0-
1.5A), a voltmeter (0-5V), battery eliminator, one way key, rheostat,
connecting wires and a piece of sandpaper.
THEORY ——- For assembling the components of any circuit, it is advisable
to connect the components in the following order
1)Source of power (battery /battery eliminator)
2) Plug key (near the battery)
3)Resistors, bulbs, inductors, or any other load (to be connected end to
end)
4)Measuring instruments ammeter, voltmeter, metre bridge,
potentiometer etc. Ammeter connected in series and voltmeter in parallel
with the load with positive ends of both towards the positive terminal of
the battery.
PROCEDURE —— 1) Draw the circuit diagram required for the given
activity and arrange the components according to the work table
2) Clean the ends of the connecting wire with a piece of sandpaper
3) Collect the battery, Ammeter A, Resistor R, Rheastat ph, and plug key
all in series and Voltmeter V, in parallel with the Resistor. See that the
positive ends of ammeter and voltmeter are connected towards the
positive terminal of the battery
4)Insert the plug in the key see that the ammeter and voltmeter show
deflection are within the scale
5)The deflection in ammeter and voltmeter verifies the continuity of
assembled circuit
CONCLUSION ——The compounds of the given electrical circuit have been
correctly assembled
PRECAUTIONS —— 1) Before making the connections clean the ends of
the connecting wire with a piece of sandpaper.
2)Make neat and tight connections
3)The ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter in parallel
with the resistor
ACTIVITY ——— 6
AIM —— To observe diffraction of light due to thin slit
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED —— Two razor blades, a cello tape,
a source of light, a glass and a piece of black paper
THEORY —— 1) Diffraction of light, it is the phenomenon of bending of
light around the corners of small obstacles or apertures and its
consequent spreading into the region of geometrical shadow. Diffraction
effect is highly pronounced if the size of the obstacle/aperture is of the
order of wavelength of light
2)Diffraction due to single slit, diffraction arises due to light waves from
different parts of the same wavefront. Two razor blades with their sharp
edges held parallel to the single slit consist of central bright band,
surrounded on both sides of coloured bands and alternate dark and bright
bands of decreasing intensity.
PROCEDURE —— 1)
