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Solutions text problems

Smart Materials and MEMs (Visvesvaraya Technological University)

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MEMS and Microsystems

Design, Manufacture, and Nanoscale
Engineering (2nd Edition)*

SOLUTION MANUAL
Tai-Ran Hsu, Professor**
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
San Jose State University
San Jose, CA 95192-0087
USA

August 15, 2008

_____________________________________
* John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, USA
©2008, ISBN 978-0-470-08301-7
** Telephone: (408)924-3905; Fax: (408)924-3995
E-mail: [email protected]

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Contents

Chapter 1 Overview of MEMS and Microsystems 3

Chapter 2 Working Principles of Microsystems 3

Chapter 3 Engineering Science for Microsystems Design

and Fabrication 9

Chapter 4 Engineering Mechanics for Microsystems Design 12

Chapter 5 Thermofluid Engineering and Microsystems Design 27

Chapter 6 Scaling Laws in Miniaturization 36

Chapter 7 Materials for MEMS and Microsystems 36

Chapter 8 Microsystems Fabrication Processes 41

Chapter 9 Overview of Micromanufacturing 50

Chapter 10 Microsystems Design 51

Chapter 11 Assembly, Packaging, and Testing of Microsystems 52

Chapter 12 Introduction to Nanoscale Engineering 55

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Chapter 1
Overview of MEMS and Microsystems
(P. 32)

1. (b); 2. (a); 3. (b); 4. (c); 5. (a); 6. (c); 7. (c); 8. (c); 9. (b); 10. (c)
11. (a); 12. (a); 13. (b); 14. (a); 15. (b); 16. (c); 17. (c); 18. (a); 19. (a); 20. (c)

Chapter 2
Working Principles of Microsystems
(P. 77)

Part 1. Multiple Choice

1.(a); 2. (c); 3. (a); 4. (b); 5. (b); 6. (c); 7. (a); 8. (a); 9. (a); 10. (b); 11. (c); 12. (a); 13. (c);
14. (c); 15. (b); 16. (b); 17. (a); 18. (c); 19. (a); 20. (c); 21. (b); 22. (b); 23. (b); 24. (c);
25. (c); 26. (a); 27. (a); 28. (c); 29. (b); 30. (a); 31. (b); 32. (a); 33. (b); 34. (b); 35. (a)

Part 2. Description Problems

Problem 2:

Transducers Advantages Disadvantages

Piezoresistors High sensitivity. Sensitive to temperature.
Small sizes. Produced by doping foreign
substances to silicon substrates.
Capacitors Simple in structure, hence less Exhibit nonlinear input/output
expensive to produce. relationship-require careful calibration
Not sensitive to temperature- prior to applications.
suitable for operations at elevated Much bulkier than piezoresistors-takes
temperatures. up precious space in micro devices.

Problem 3: The three principal signal transduction methods for micro pressure sensors are:

(a) Piezoresistors.
(b) Capacitors.
(c) Resonant vibrating beams.

Advantages of (a) and (b) have been presented in Problem 2. Advantage of (c) is high
resolution and sensitivity, especially for high temperature applications. Principal
disadvantages of this method are the high cost involved in manufacturing and the bulky size.

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Problem 5:

The assembly of minute overlapped electrodes (known as “comb drives”) can produce
electrostatic forces. The scaling laws in Chapter 6 will prove that electrostatic force actuation
scale down two orders of magnitude better than electromagnetic force for actuation. A major
drawback of electrostatic forces is their low magnitudes, which make them impractical for
actuation in macroscale.

Problem 6:

The natural frequency of a device is related to its geometry, which governs the stiffness of the
device, and its mass. Varying the stress state in the device made of an elastic solid, such as the
sensing element of a micropressure sensor will result in the change of its geometry, and thus the
shifting of its natural frequency.

Problem 7:

These holes in the back plate can mitigate the change of gap between the thin diaphragm and the
back plate. Such gap change can produce unwanted output in capacitance change, and thus
malfunctioning of the microphone

Problem 8:.

We may compute and tabulate the ratios of the output voltage, Vo to the input voltage, Vi vs. the
corresponding gaps between a pair of parallel electrodes and follow the procedure as outlined in
Example 2.2 on P. 47:

Gap, d 2 1.75 1.50 1.00 0.75 0.50

Vo/Vi 0 0.033 0.071 0.167 0.227 0.300

We may plot the relation of the gap, d versus Vo/Vi using the above data in the table. The curve
in Vo/Vi vs. the gap d is close to be a straight line. We realize that Vo/Vi → ∞ when d → 0.

Problem 9:

The output voltage from a thermopile with 3 thermocouple pairs can be obtained from Eq. (2.4)
as:
∆V = Nβ∆T

with N = 3, and ∆T = (120 – 20) + 273 = 373 K, the Seebeck coefficient, β = 38.74x10-6 V/oC
for copper/Constantan from Table 2.3.

Thus, the output voltage is: ∆V = 3x38.74 x10 −6 x373 = 0.04335 volt or 43.35 mv

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Problem 10:

Actuation techniques Advantages Disadvantages

Thermal force Simple in structure. Response may not be instant due to
thermal inertia of the material.
Shape-memory alloys Actuation is more precise. Same problem as in the thermal actuation
case. It is functional only with a thermal
source.
Piezoelectric Simple and it is less costly Cannot maintain the actuated movement
to produce. Usually for sustained period of time due to
provides precise actuation. overheating.
Electrostatic force Takes up the least amount Low in magnitudes.
of space. Actuation is
instant.

Problem 11:

We assume that there is no friction between the electrodes and the dielectric Pyrex glass. By
following the geometry and the dimensions given in Example 2.1 on P. 45 with:

L = W = 800x10-6 m; εo = 8.85x10-9 F/m; εr = 4.7 (Table 2.2); V = 70 v; and d = 2x10-6 m

From Equation (2.10), we may compute the electrostatic force in the width-direction: Fw =
0.0815 N.
From Equation (2.11), for the force in the length-direction: FL = 0.0815 N

Problem 12:

We will model the comb drive actuator from a simplified model as illustrated below:

Spring constant Spring constant

k k

Moving electrodes Moving electrodes

Fixed electrodes

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The required traveling distance of the moving electrodes is δ = 10x10-6 m, which corresponds
to the spring force with a spring constant, k = 0.05 N/m:

F = kδ = 0.05x10x10-6 = 0.5x10-6 N

There are five pairs of electrodes by each of the two moving electrodes. The force needs to
be generated by each pair of electrodes is thus equal to:

f = F/10 = 0.05x10-6 N
From Eq. (2.11),
εrεo
1 W
FL = 2 d V
2

with FL = f = 0.05x10-6 N; εr = 1.0; εo = 8.85x10-12 C/N-m2; W = 5x10-6 m; d = 2x10-6 m:

1 1x8.85 x10 −12 x5 x10 −6 2

0.05 x10 −6 = V
2 2 x10 −6

We may solve for the required voltage to be V = 21.26 volts

Problem 13:

The geometry and dimensions of the microgripper is shown in Figure 2.45 below.
“A”
Flexible “Drive Arm”
Req’d tip
movement:
“A” 5 µm
Rigidly held
“Closure Arm” Width of electrodes, W = 5µm

Req’d tip
movement:
5 µm
Gap, d = 2 µm 10 µm
150 µm 8 µm 5 µm

300 µm 10 µm

View “A-A”

We will first find the necessary voltage supply to the electrodes on both drive arms to provide a 5
µm movements at the free end of each of these two arms. We will treat the Drive arms as two
elastic cantilever beams and the generated electrostatic forces by the electrodes as concentrated
forces acting at the distance that equals to a distance b = 150 + 0.5x8 = 154 µm away from the
support-end as illustrated below:

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b = 154 µm F

δmax = 5 µm
L = 300 µm

Since the expression for the maximum deflection at the free-end of the cantilever with a load, P
applied at a distant, b from the support (see the illustration above) is:
2
Fb
δ max = 6 EI (3L − b )
with the Young’s modulus, E = 1.9x1011 Pa from Table 7.3 for silicon, and the area moment of
inertia, I = 4.17x10-22 m4 (for the cross-section of the beam shown in View “A-A”in the sketch of
the gripper), we will have the following relationship for the equivalent force, P:

−6
=
( )( 2
F 154 x10 −6 3 x300 x10 −6 − 154 x10 −6 )
5 x10
(
6 x 1.9 x1011 4.17 x10 − 22 )( )
Solve for the equivalent applied force, F = 0.1343x10-3 N

We are now ready to estimate the voltage supply to the electrodes to generate the above actuation
force.

There are 5 pairs of electrodes for each arm. From Equation (2.11), the electrostatic force is:
1 ε r ε oW 2
FL = 2 d V

with εr = 1.0; εo = 8.85x10-12 C/N-m2; W = 5x10-6 m; and d = 2x10-6 m

Since the electrostatic force in Equation (2.11) is for a single pair of electrodes, the total
electrostatic force generated by n-pair of electrodes can be expressed to be:

⎛ 1 εr εo W ⎞ 2
FL = n⎜ ⎟V
⎝2 d ⎠

We thus have:
1 1x8.85 x10 −12 x5 x10 −6 2
0.1343x10 −3 = 5 V
2 2 x10 −6

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We may solve for the supply voltage to be V = 1558.2 volts, which is an unusually high voltage
for a microgripper. The reduction of required voltage supply to the microgripper can be achieved
by a combination of increase the number of pairs of electrodes, as illustrated in Figure 2.29 for
Example 2.4, and the geometry and dimensions of the microgripper. Reduction in the length, or
the depth of the drive arm would result in the reduction of the required voltage for actuation too.
However, with the current geometry and dimensions of the microgrupper in Figure 2.45, it is not
realistic to drop the required actuation voltage to 40 volts.

Problem 14

Let us first show Equation (2.13) as Fc = 2m V x Ω , in which Fc is the induced Coriolis force, V
is the velocity vector, and Ω is the angular displacement of the object.

Expressing Equation (2.13) in a full-length form, we have the following:

i j k
Fcx i + Fcy j + Fcz k = 2m V x Vy Vz
Ωx Ωy Ωz

where i, j, and k = unit vector along x-, y- and z-coordinate respectively in a Cartesian
coordinate system. Vx, Vy and Vz = velocity component along x-, y- and z-coordinate
respectively, and Ωx, Ωy, and Ωz = angular rotation component about x-, y- and z-coordinate
respectively.

Expansion of the above expression will lead to the following relations:

Fcx i + Fcy j + Fcz k =

[
2m (V y Ω z − V z Ω y )i + (V x Ω z −V z Ω x ) j + (V x Ω y −V y Ω x )k ]
We observe from the setup illustrated in Figure 2.39 with the following zero quantities:

Vy = Vz = 0 and Ωx = Ωy = 0

We thus from the above equality, the only non-zero Coriolis force component to be:

Fcy = - 2m Vx Ωz in the y-direction

The numerical value of the Coriolis force can be obtained with the substitution of the mass m = 1
mg = 10-6 kg and Vx = 2 (maximum amplitude of vibration)/period of vibration.

We get Vx = 2 x (100 x 10-6) m/0.001 s = 0.2 m/s

The corresponding Coriolis force with an angular displacement Ωz = + 0.01 rad in

counterclockwise direction is:

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Fcy = -2x10-6 x 0.2 x 0,01 = -4x10-9 N

Problem 15

With a given equivalent spring constant k = 100 N/m, we have the displacement of the proof
mass in positive y-direction as:

δy = Fcy/k = 4x10-9/100 = 4 x 10-11 m

where the value of Fcy is obtained from Problem 2.14.

Chapter 3
Engineering Science for Microsystems Design and Fabrication
(P. 105)

Part 1: Multiple Choice:

1.(b); 2. (b); 3. (a); 4. (a); 5. (a); 6. (a); 7. (b); 8. (c); 9. (b); 10(c); 11. (c); 12. (a); 13. (b); 14.(a);
15. (c); 16. (a); 17. (a); 18. (c); 19. (b); 20. (a); 21. (a); 22. (c); 23. (c); 24. (a); 25. (b); 26. (a);
27. (b); 28. (a); 29. (b); 30. (a); 31. (b); 32. (c); 33. (b); 34. (a); 35. (c); 36. (a); 37. (c); 38. (b);
39. (c); 40. (a); 41. (b); 42. (b); 43. (b); 44. (a); 45. (b).

Part 2: Descriptive Problems:

Problem 1:

We have learned from this chapter that the mass of a proton in an atom is 1.67x10-27 kg, which is
1800 times greater than the mass of an electron. We may thus assume that the total mass of
protons in an atom to be the mass of the same atom. We are also aware of the fact that a neutron
in the nucleus of an atom has the same mass as that of a proton.

Since each hydrogen atom has one proton and one electron, and each silicon atom has 14 each
protons and neutrons, we may thus obtain the mass of a single hydrogen atom to be 1.67x10-27
kg, whereas (14+14)x1.67x10-27 = 46.76x10-27 kg to be the mass of a silicon atom.

The radii of hydrogen and silicon atoms are available in Table 8.7, from which we may obtain
radii at 0.046 nm and 0.117 nm for hydrogen and silicon atoms respectively.

Problem 3:

A reasonable resistivity of a conductor is 10-5 Ω-cm, the same as that of platinum as indicated in
Table 3.3.

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Problem 4:

The negative signs in these equations mean that the concentration of the diffused substance
decreases as the distance of diffusion into the base substance increases.

Problem 5:

Doping process allows engineers to humanly manipulate the electric resistivity of

semiconductors by creating localized positive or negative junction in the bulk material. With
such arrangements, engineers can control the way how electric current flow in the material,
which is the basic function of transistors in miniaturization.

Problem 6:

Advantages Disadvantage
Ion implantation A faster process at room Hard to control (see Figure 8.4)
temperature.
Diffusion Easier to control the diffusion A slow process at high temperature
zone (see Figure 8.6)

Problem 7:

By following what is shown in Figure 3.11, the optimum temperatures for As, P, and B are the
temperatures at which the maximum solubility of diffusion take place. Thus, the corresponding
optimum diffusion temperatures are ≈ 1220oC, ≈1200oC and ≈1330oC for As, P and B
respectively. The corresponding solid solubility of these materials are: 12x1020 for As, 5.5x1020
for P and 7.5x1020 for B with unit of atoms/cm3.

Problem 8:

Equation (3.5) is used for the solution of this problem:

⎛ x ⎞
C ( x, t ) = C s erfc⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 Dt ⎠
The coefficient Cs in the above equation is maximum possible input concentration. Inthis case,
we have the solubility of phosphorus at the given diffusion temperature of 1260oC at 5.45x1020
atoms/cm3 as obtained from Figure 3.11.

The concentration of phosphorus at the depth x = 0, 0.2, 0.4,……2.0 µm at selected time of t =

0.5, 2, and 3 hrs can be computed from the above equation with (D)1/2 = 1.05 µm/(h)1/2 from
Figure 3.12. The equation that we will use to compute the distribution of phosphorus
concentration at the above 3 selected time instants will thus take the form:

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 0.4762 x ⎞
C ( x, t ) = 5.45 x10 20 erfc⎜⎜
x
⎟⎟ = 5.45 x10 20 erfc⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 x1.05 t ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠

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in which x is in µm and t is in hr. The value of complementary error function erfc(X) in the
above expression may be obtained by using the curve shown in Figure 3.14.

We may summarize the computed results in the flowing table:

x-depth (µm) t = 0.5 hr t = 2 hr t = 3 hr

0 5.45 5.45 5.45
0.2 4.69 5.07 5.18
0.4 3.82 4.69 4.77
0.6 2.86 4.2 4.52
0.8 2.45 3.82 4.09
1 1.91 3.49 3.87
1.2 1.42 3.11 3.49
1.4 0.95 2.73 3.16
1.6 0.68 2.45 2.89
1.8 0.53 2.18 2.73
2 0.33 1.96 2.4

Graphical representation of the distribution of phosphorus concentration in the silicon substrate

at various times is presented below:

Diffusion of Phosphorus into Silicon

0.5 hr 2 hrs 3 hrs

6
Phosphorus (atims/cm )
3

5
Concentration of

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Depth in Silicon (micrometers)

The curves in the above figure are not “smooth” due to approximated values of the erfc(X) value
obtained by visual means from Figure 3.14. The trend of more even distributions of the
phosphorus in the silicon substrate at larger times into the diffusion follows what has been
depicted in Figure 3.10.

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Problem 9:

We will first assume that diffusion process takes place at the same temperature of 1250oC as in
Example 3.1. The corresponding solubility for boron is Cs = 7x1020 atoms/cm3 as given in Figure
3.11. Let the time required to dope boron into silicon substrate at a depth of 2 µm to be tf. We
obtained the corresponding concentration of boron at resistivity of 10-3 Ω-cm from Figure 3.8 to
be C = 1020 atoms/cm3. Thus by using Equation (3.5), we have the following relation for tf:

⎛ 2 ⎞
( )
C 2µm, t f = C s erfc⎜
⎜2 D
⎟
⎟
⎝ tf ⎠
in which, tf has a unit of hr.

The diffusivity, (D)1/2 in the above expression for boron in silicon at 1250oC is 1.05 µm/(h)1/2
from Figure 3.12.

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 0.4762 ⎞
⎜ 1 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
10 20 = 7 x10 20 erfc⎜ ⎟ = 7 x10 20
erfc
⎜ 2 x1.05 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ t f ⎠ ⎝ tf ⎠

⎛ 0.4762 ⎞ 1
From which we have erfc⎜ ⎟ = = 0.1429
⎜ t ⎟ 7
⎝ f ⎠
The corresponding value of the argument X in complementary function erfc(X) = 0.1429 from
Figure 3.14 is X ≈ 1, which leads to:

0.4762
≈ 1 , and thus tf ≈ 0.2268 hr
tf

Chapter 4
Engineering Mechanics for Microsystem Design
(P. 178)
Part 1. Multiple Choice

1. (b); 2. (c); 3. (a); 4. (a); 5. (b); 6. (c); 7. (c); 8. (a); 9. (b); 10. (a)
11. (c); 12. (a); 13. (c); 14. (a); 15. (c); 16. (a); 17. (b); 18. (c); 19. (a); 20. (a)
21. (b); 22. (c); 23. (a); 24. (c); 25. (b); 26. (c); 27. (a); 28. (c); 29. (b); 30. (c)

Part 2. Computation Problems

Problem 1:

We have d = 600x10-6 m, a = d/2 = 300x10-6 m, and P = 20x106 N/m2.

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The Young’s modulus, E = 0.7x1011 N/m2 for aluminum from Table 7.3 on P. 257. The
Poisson’s ratio, ν = 0.3 for aluminum from a metal handbook.

The maximum deflection of the circular diaphragm with a thickness, h = 13.887x10-6 m is

obtained from Equation (4.7) as:

wmax =−
( )
3W m 2 − 1 a 2
16 π E m 2 h 3

in which W = (πa2)P = 3.14(300x10-6)2(20x106) = 5.652 N, m = 1/ν = 1/0.3 = 3.33.

One may thus calculate the maximum deflection, wmax = -1.4745x10-4 m, or 147.45 µm.

Problem 2:

The geometry of the die as illustrated below:

3 mm
Applied Pressure, P=75 MPa

3 mm h
H
a
∆L L = 3000µm ∆L

Plan View Cross-section of the Die

We will then designate the dimension of the thickness of the die h and the size of the foot print
∆L as shown below:
h

H = 500 µm o
74
54.

∆L = 250 µm ∆a Edge Length of Diaphragm, a

L =3000 µm

Detail Dimensions of Foot Print

The assigned die thickness, H = 500 µm is the standard thickness of 100 mm diameter wafer as
indicated in Section 7.4.2 on P. 249, whereas the footprint ∆L = 250 µm is given.

In order to make use of Eq. (4.10) for the required thickness of the diaphragm, we need to
determine the edge length of the diaphragm, a, first. Referring to the diagram of the footprint as
illustrated above can do this.

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( H − h)
It is clear from the diagram that = tan(54.74 o ) , in which H = 500 µm. We thus have:
∆a
H −h
∆a = = 353.6 − 0.707h
tan(54.74 o )

Consequently, the edge length of the square diaphragm, a is:

a = L – 2∆L - 2∆a = 1792.786 + 1.414h µm

From Eq. (4.10) with σmax = 350 MPa, we will have:

0.308 p[(1792.78 + 1.414h) x10 −6 ] 2

2
= 350 x10 6
h
350 x10 6 h2 1.1364 x10 21 h2
or p = −12
= N / m2 or Pa
0.308 x10 (1792.78 + 1.414h) 2
(1792.78 + 1.414h) 2

We may tabulate the results of the diaphragm thickness vs. applied pressure as follows:

Diaphragm thickness (µm) 500 300 200 100 50

Maximum pressure (MPa) 88.47 31.85 14.16 3.54 0.88

Any combination of maximum applied pressure and the diaphragm thickness will produce a
maximum stress of 350 MPa at the mid-span of the edges of the square diaphragm.

Problem 3:

The equivalent spring constant of elastic beams can be obtained from the following expression:
F
k eq =
δ
where F = applied load to the beam
δ = deflection of the beam under the load

Case 1 Simply-supported beams:

F

L
From the strength of materials theory, we have the deflection of the beam under the concentrated
force, F to be:
FL3
δ =
48EI

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from which we may obtain the equivalent spring constant, keq to be:
F 48 EI
k eq = = 3
δ L

where E = Young’s modulus of the beam material

I = Area moment of inertia of the beam cross-section

Case 2 Beams with fixed-ends:

The deflection of the beam under the concentrated force, F is:

F L3
δ =
192 EI

Hence the equivalent spring constant is:

F 192 EI
k eq = =
δ L
3

Case 3 Cantilever beams (Extra, not requested in Problem 3):

The deflection of the beam at the free-end is:

F L3
δ =
3EI

which leads to the following expression for the equivalent spring constant:

F 3EI
k eq = = 3
L L
Problem 4:
The mass, m attached to the beam is 5 g, or 5x10-3 kg; The equivalent beam spring constant keq
in the arrangement shown below, and from Case 2 of Problem 3 is 18240 N/m

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20x10-6 m

y
(a) From Eq. (4.16), we have the equivalent natural frequency,

k eq 18240
ωn = = = 1910 rad / s
m 5 x10 −3

(b) The equivalent motion of the mass in the y-direction, according to Eq. (4.14) is:
2
y (t )
m d 2 + k eq y (t ) = 0
dt
with y(0) = 5x10-6 m, and y’(0) = 0. Substitute these values into the above equation:
2
d y(t ) + 3.648x10 6 y(t ) = 0 (a)
2
dt

The solution of the differential equation is:

y (t ) = C1 cos1910t + C 2 sin 1910t (b)

From the condition y(0) = 5x10-6, we get C1 = 5x10-6

From y’(0) = 0, we have C2 = 0

Thus, the amplitude of vibration, y(t) is:

y (t ) = 5 x10 −6 cos1910t (c)

The maximum amplitude of vibration is the coefficient of the cosine function in the solution in
Eq. (c), or ymax = 5x10-6 m, or 5 µm.

Problem 5:

By referring to the forced vibration analysis in Section 4.3.2, we have the following differential
equation to solve for the amplitude of the vibrating mass:

d 2 y( t ) F
+ ω y( t ) = cos ωt
2 o
2 o
dt m

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with the specified conditions: y(0) = 5x10-6 m and y’(0) = 0.

The proper differential equation as derived from Problem 4 is:

2
d y (t ) + 3.648 x10 6 y (t ) = 5 cos1910t
d t2 5 x10 −3
in which the natural frequency of the beam spring system, ω o
= 3.648x10 6 = 1910 rad / s

The solution of the above differential equation is:

Ft
y( t ) = c cos ω t + c sin ω t +
1 o 2 o
o

2m ω
sin ωt
o

with ω = ωo = 1910 rad/s at the resonant vibration situation and Fo = 5 N

Use the first condition, i.e. y(0) = 5x10-6 m will result in c1 = 5x10-6. The other condition y’(0)
will result in c2 = 0. Thus the solution for the amplitude of the vibration mass being:

y (t ) = 5 x10 −6 cos1910t + 0.2618 t sin 1910t

Now, if we let tf = the time at which the beam spring breaks at y(tf) = 1 mm = 10-3 m, we will
have:

10 −3 = 5 x10 −6 cos1910t f + 0.2618 t f sin 1910 t f

We may solve for tf from the above equation, or by an approximate relationship of 10-3 ≈
0.2618tf from the above expression. This approximation is justified by letting sin1910tf = 1.0
and cos1910tf = 0. This approximation leads to tf = 3.82 ms, which is the time the strip spring
will reach a breaking amplitude of 1 mm.

Problem 6:

The beam is loaded as illustrated in Example 4.8

1 µm
Dynamic force

h µm
L=600µm

Beam Cross-section

The area moment of inertia of the beam cross-section is:

10 −24 3
I=
1
12
( )(
10 −6 10 −6 h )
3
=
12
h m4

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in which h is in micrometers.

The equivalent spring constant, keq is as computed in Case 2 of Example 4.8 and 4.9 for fixed-
ends as:

k eq =
(
192 EI 192 1.9 x1011 10 −24 h3
=
)( )
= 0.014074 h3 N / m
L
3
12 600 x10 −6(3
)
The proof mass of the vibrating beam m = 16.1x10-11 kg as computed in Example 4.9.

The corresponding circular frequency of the balanced force accelerometer is:

3
2 k eq 2x 0.014074 h
ω= = = 13220.54
3

m 16.1x10 −11 h rad / s

From Example 4.9, the amplitude of vibration of the beam is:

X( t ) = c1 cos ωt + c 2 sin ωt

in which the arbitrary constants c1 and c2 can be determined by the initial conditions:

dX (t )
X (t ) t =0 = 0 and = 50 km / h = 13.8888 m / s
dt t =0

We thus have:

c1 = 0 and c2 = 13.8888/ω = 1.051x10-3 h-3/2

Thus, we have the amplitude of vibration to be:

−1.5
X( t ) = 1.051x10 −3
3
h sin 13220.54 h t

With the given condition X(tf) = 5 mm = 5x10-3 m for the beam to break, mathematically as:

−1.5
5x10 −3 = 1.051 x 10 −3
3
h sin 13220.54 ht f

1.051 x 10 −3
=
1.5 1.5
or h −3
sin (13220.54 h t f )
5x10
The approximate value of tf is when sin 13220.54 h t f = 1.0 for a maximum value of h, which
1.5

leads to h = 0.21 µm.

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Problem 8:

We may illustrate the balanced force accelerometer system below:

Beam Springs

5 µm m
0µ
40 Beam Mass

10 µm

From Example 4.12 on P. 139, we get the damping coefficients for the balanced force
accelerometer to be:

cair = 2.625x10-12 N-s/m for air as the damping fluid, and

csi = 1.036x10-10 N-s/m for silicone oil as the damping fluid.

We further have the mass of the silicon beam to be: m = ρv, in which the mass density, ρ = 2.3
g/cm3 or 2.3x103 kg/m3 from Table 7.3 on P. 257, and the volume of the beam = v.

By referring to the geometry and dimensions of the beam in Example 4.11, we have

v = bBLb = (1x10-6) (10-4) (7x10-4) = 7x10-14 m3

Consequently, the beam has a mass, m = (2.3x103)(7x10-14)= 16.1x10-11 kg

We will use the model illustrated in Fig. 4.7(b) on P. 119 to assess the motion of the beam mass,
and Eq. (4.19) with the spring constant k = 2keq in Example 4.9 is used to compute the
displacement of the beam mass, X(t) in the equation.

The solution of Eq. (4.19) depends on the cases with the values of (λ2 - ω2) as described in Eq.
(4.20a), (4.20b) or (4.20c). We will thus need to compute both λ2 and ω2 first in order to select
which of the above solutions for the case under consideration.

Let us assume that both beam springs have fixed ends, and the equivalent spring constants can be
computed from the following expressions as presented in Case 2 on P. 131:

192 EI
k eq = 3
L

with E = 1.9x1011 N/m2 (Table 7.3) and I =

1
12
(
5 x10 −6 10 x10 −6 )( )
3
= 4.167 x10 − 22 m4

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Thus, k eq =
( )(
192 1.9 x1011 4.167 x10 −22 ) = 237.52 N /m
(400 x10 ) −6 3

2 k eq 2x 237.52
and ω = = −11
= 1.7177 x10 6 rad / s
m 16.1x10

which leads to ω2 = 2.95x1012 rad2/s2

The damping parameters:

2.625x10 −12
λ air
= c = air
−11
= 8.152 x 10 −3 for air
2m 2 x 16.1x10

c 1.036x10 −10
λ si
= si

2m
=
2x16.1x10 −11
= 0.32174 for silicone oil

from which we have:

λ
2
air
2
(
− ω = 8.152 x 10 −3 )2
− 2.95x1012 < 0

λ −ω = (0.32174) − 2.95x1012 < 0

2 2 2
si

The values of (λ2 - ω2) shown above for the two distinct damping media of air and silicone oil
will lead to the use of Equation (4.20c) for the movement of the beam mass. The movement of
the proof mass will be of an undesirable oscillatory nature as illustrated in Figure 4.11.

Problem 9:

The balanced-force accelerometer is illustrated in Fig. 4.25, and also as below:

L = 700 µm

h = 5 µm
Beam Mass, m

b = 1 µm
Dimensions of the Beam Mass

The dimensions of the two beam springs are not given in the problem. We may either assume the
unspecified dimensions are identical to those given in Example 4.8 and 4.9, or by using an open

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size of the beam springs that will withstand the specified conditions as described in Example
4.12. We will assume the dimensions of the beam springs as shown below:

Dimensions of the Beam Springs

600µm

5 µm
1 µm

We may compute the area moment of inertia of the beam springs to be:

I=
(10 )(5 x10 )
−6 −6 3
= 10.4167 x 10 − 24 m 4
12

The equivalent spring constant for beam springs with fixed-ends is

k eq = =
( )(
192 EI 192 1.9 x 1011 10.4167 x 10 −24 )
= 1.76 N / m as in Case 2 of Example 4.9.
L3 (
600 x 10 −6
3
)
Since the maximum deceleration of the car in the present case is X&& = − 22.22 m / s 2 from
Example 4.14. By neglecting the mass of the beam springs, we may express the dynamic force
associated with the moving beam mass as:

F (t ) = mX&& (t )

The mass of the beam mass, m = 16.1 x 10-11 kg as computed in Example 4.9. The force acting
on both beam springs at the time of deceleration of –22.22 m/s2 is:

&& = (16.1 x10 −11 kg )(22.22 m / s 2 ) = 35.77 x10 −10 kg − m / s 2 = 35.77 x10 −10 N
F = mX

The induced deflection of the beam springs by the above dynamic force of the magnitude is:

P = F/2 = 35,77x10-10/2 = 17.885x10-10 N

with L = 600x10-6 m, I = 10.42x10-24 m4 (from Example 4.9), E = 1.9x1011 N/m2 (Table 7.3), and
keq = 1.76 N/m, we will calculate the maximum movement of the proof beam mass from a simple
beam with both ends rigidly fixed and subject to an equivalent concentrate force P in the middle
span. Mathematical expression for the maximum deflection under the load is available in
handbooks such as (Roark 1965) as:

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δ max =
PL3
=
( )(
17.885 x 10 −10 600 x 10 −6 )3

= 1.0166 x 10 −15
( 11
)(
192EI 192 1.9 x 10 10.4167 x 10 − 24
) m

which is a too small a movement to be detectable.

Problem 10:

This bi-layer strip is subjected to a uniform temperature rise, T as illustrated below:

SiO2 strip
1000µm 5 µm

Silicon strip 5 µm

The width of the bi-layer strip b = 5 µm and the overall depth h = 10 µm.

The radius of curvature, ρ from Equation (4.51) is:

2h
ρ =
3(α 2 − α 1)T

where α1 and α2 are coefficients of thermal expansion of SiO2 and silicon strips respectively
(available in Table 7.3), and h is the thickness of the individual strips.

Let us express the radius of curvature of the bi-layer strip in a different form from the above
expression:
C
ρ =
T
2h 2 x10 x10 −6
in which the constant C = = = 3.643
3(α 2 − α 1) 3(2.33 − 0.5)x10 −6

where α2 = coefficient of thermal expansion of silicon = 2.33 x 10-6/oC, and α1 = coefficient of

thermal expansion of SiO2 = 0.5 x 10-6/oC, as obtained from Table 7.3.

From Example 4.17, we have the movement of the free-end, δ to be:

δ ≈ ρ (1 − cos θ )
360 L
where θ = with L = 1000x10-6 m
2πρ
360 x1000 x10 −6 5.7325 x10 −2
Hence θ = = and the movement of the free-end of the bi-layer
6.28 ρ ρ
beam can be obtained from the following expression:

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δ = 3.643(1 – cosθ)/T in which T is temperature in oC.

We may tabulate the values of the temperatures vs. the movement of the free-end of the beam
actuator as follows:

T (oC) ρ = C/T (m) θ(o) δ = ρ(1 - cosθ) (µm)

10 0.3643 0.1574 1.373
20 0.1822 0.3147 2.747
30 0.1214 0.4720 4.120
40 0.0911 0.6294 5.496
50 0.0729 0.7880 6.890

The plot of the above tabulated data is shown below.

Movement of Free-end of a Contilever Beam

6
Movement (micrometer)

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Temperature (oC)
Problem 11:

The beam has the following geometry and dimensions:

y
b = 5 µm

Silicon x H = 10 µm
2h = 10 µm 0
Beam

L = 1000 µm

The temperature variation in the beam is:

T(z) = 2x106z + 30 o
C

At the top face, i.e. z = 5x10-6 m, we have T(5x10-6) = 40 oC, and

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at the bottom face at z = -5x10-6 m, the temperature is T(-5x10-6) = 20 oC.

Material properties of the silicon beam are given in Example 4.19 on P. 161:

Mass density, ρ = 2.3 g/cm3; Specific heats, c = 0.7 J/g-oC; Thermal conductivity, k = 1.57 J/cm-
o
C-s; Coefficient of thermal expansion, α = 2.33x10-6/oC; Young’s modulus, E = 1.9x1011 N/m2;
Poisson’s ratio, ν = 0.25.

We will first compute the thermal force, NT and the thermal moment, MT from the respective
Equations (4.55a) and (4.55b) as:

N T = (2.33x10 )(1.9 x10 )∫−5 x10− 6 (2 x10 z + 30)dz = 132.81 N

−6 11 5 x10
6 6

M T = (2.33x10 )(1.9 x10 )∫−5 x10− 6 (2 x10 z + 30)zdz = 73.78 x10 N − m

−6 11 5 x10
6 6 −6

From Example 4.19, we have A = 5x10-11 m2 and I = 4.167x10-22 m4.

From Equation (4.56), we have the thermal stress along the x-direction to be:
bN z (b M T )
σ xx (x, z ) = − αET (z ) + A T + I
with σxx,max occurs at z = 5x10 m.
-6

Thus, σxx,max = σ(x,5x10-6) = -2600 Pa

We will compute the associate thermal strains from Equations (4.57a) and (4.57b) with
maximum values occurring at z = 5x10-6 m:
1 ⎡b N ⎤
ε xx (x, z ) = E ⎢ A T + I (b M T )⎥
z
⎣ ⎦

which leads to εxx,max = εxx(x,5x10-6) = 0.00932%

ν ⎡b N ⎤ ⎛1 +ν ⎞
ε zz (x, z ) = − E ⎢ A T + I (b M T )⎥ + ⎜ E ⎟αT ( z )
z
⎣ ⎦ ⎝ ⎠

results in εzz,max = εzz(x,5x10-6) = -0.0023%

The deflection of the beam in the x-direction = u (x,z) can be computed from Equation (4.58a)
as:
x ⎡b ⎤
u ( x, z ) = ⎢ N T + (b M T )⎥
z
E⎣ A I ⎦
with umax at x = 500x10-6 m and z = 5x10-6 m:

umax = u(500x10-6, 5,10-6) = 0.0466 µm

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The deflection of the beam in the z-direction, w(x,z) is obtained from Equation (4.58b):
b ν ⎡b 2 ⎤ ⎛1 +ν ⎞ z
w( x, z ) = − M T x2 − ⎢ N T z + z (b M T )⎥ + α ⎜ ⎟ ∫0 T ( z )dz
2 EI E⎣ A 2I ⎦ ⎝ E ⎠
-6 -6
with wmax occurs at x = 500x10 m and z = 5x10 m, we have:

wmax = w(500x10-6, 5x10-6) = -0.582 µm

Problem 12:

The width of the beam has been increased to 100x10-6 m. The “wide” beam now is effectively a
“plate”. As such, the thermal stress formulation for thin plates will be used to solve this
problem, with the temperature variation across the plate thickness, i.e.

T(z) = 2.1x106z + 28.8 in degree C

We realize that the thermal force, NT = 127.5 N and the thermal moment, MT = 77.4725x10-6 N-
m remain unchanged as in Example 4.19 on P. 163 and P. 164.

The thermal stresses in both x- and y-directions can be computed from Equation (4.52) as:

σ xx = σ yy = − 5.9027 x10 (2.1x10 z + 28.8) + 17 x10 + 1.2396 x10 z

5 6 6 12

The associated thermal strains are obtained from Equation (4.53a):

−5
ε xx = ε yy = 6.711x10 + 4.893z
ε zz = − 0.3509 x10 (12.75 x10 + 0.9297 x10 z ) + 3.8833x10 (2.1x10 z + 28.8)
−11 6 12 −6 6

with εxy = εyz = εzx = 0

The induced displacements of the plate in the x-direction, u(z) and that in the y-direction, v(z),
and w(x,y,z) in the z-direction can be computed from Equations (4.54a,b and c):

u (z ) =
x
1.9 x10
(
11
12.75 x10 6 + 0.9297 x1012 z )
v( z ) =
y
1.9 x1011
( 12.75 x10 6 + 0.9297 x1012 z )
( ) (
and w( x, y, z ) = − 2.4465 x2 + y + 0.7018 x10 −11 96.84 − 6.375 x10 6 z − 0.2324 x1012 z 2
2
)
The maximum values of stress, strains and displacements occur at: x = 500x10-6 m, y = 50x10-6
m and z = 5x10-6 m. Thus, we will have the following maximum stress, strains and
displacements:
σxx,max = σyy,max = 4000 Pa
εxx,max = εyy,max = εzz,max = 0.00915%

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umax = 0.046 µm; vmax = 0.0046 µm; wmax = -0.6173 µm

We have realized that by extend the beam into a plate with a width of 100 µm has not produced
significant difference in the results from those obtained from a beam with a width of 5 µm.

Problem 14:

We have the dimensions of the specimen as shown in the diagram below, in which s = 1 cm =
10-2 m; b = 5 mm = 5x10-3 m; and the width, B = 24x10-4 m, and c = 100 µm = 10-4 m.

Pcr = 40 MN B = 2400 µm

b = 5000 µm

s = 10000 µm

The critical load, Pcr that breaks the specimen is 40x106 N/m2.

We will use Equation (4.65a) for the function F(c/b) as s/b = 2 < 4, as indicated in Section 4.5.2
on P. 168:

2 3 4
⎛c⎞ ⎛c⎞ ⎛c⎞ ⎛c⎞ ⎛c⎞
F ⎜ ⎟ = 1.09 −1.735⎜ ⎟ + 8.2⎜ ⎟ − 14.18⎜ ⎟ + 14.57⎜ ⎟
⎝b⎠ ⎝b⎠ ⎝b⎠ ⎝b⎠ ⎝b⎠

with c/b = 0.02

Hence F(c/b) = 1.0586

Equation (4.64) is used to compute fracture toughness:

⎛c⎞
K c = σ c πc F ⎜ ⎟
⎝b⎠
The σc in the above expression is obtained from the bending stress in a “solid” beam subjected
to three-point bending as follows:

Mc
σc = I
Bb 3
where c = b / 2 = 2.5 x10 −3 m and I= = 250 x10 −13 m 4
12
⎛s⎞
The bending moment, M = Pcr ⎜ ⎟ = 2 x10 5 N − m
⎝2⎠
Thus, we have the critical stress corresponding to Pcr to be:

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σc =
(2 x10 )(2.5x10 ) = 2000
−5 −3
Pa
250 x10 −13

which leads to the fracture toughness, Kc to be:

K c = 2000 3.14 x10 (1.0586) = 37.52 Pa m

−4

Problem 15:

For the width of the specimen, B to be increased to 100x240 µm, we will have I = 2.5x10-9 m4.
This new value will change the critical stress according to the following expression:

σc =
(2 x10 )(2.5x10 ) = 20
−5 −3
Pa
2.5 x10 −9

Kc = 0.375 Pa m , which is 100 times smaller than the case in Problem 14. This result, of
course, is computed on the basis that the enlarged specimen breaks at the same critical load, Pcr,
which is not quite a realistic hypothesis. We would expect a much greater value of Pcr for larger
specimens. It nevertheless underlines the importance of the size effect on the measurement of the
fracture toughness of specific materials. A credible Kc for design purpose must be independent
of the specimen geometry and size. A great deal of research effort is needed in the
measurements of Kc for microsystems materials in micro scale.

Chapter 5
Thermofluid Engineering and Microsystem Design
(P. 221)

Part 1. Multiple Choice

1. (c); 2. (a); 3. (b); 4. (b); 5. (c); 6. (a); 7. (b); 8. (a); 9. (a); 10. (c); 11. (b); 12. (c); 13. (b); 14.
(a); 15. (c); 16. (a); 17. (b); 18. (c); 19. (c); 20. (b); 21. (a); 22. (a); 23. (c); 24. (b); 25. (b); 26.
(a); 27. (b); 28. (a); 29. (b); 30. (c); 31. (c); 32. (a); 33. (b); 34. (c); 35. (a); 36. (c); 37. (a); 38.
(c); 39. (c); 40. (b).

Part 2. Computational Problems

Problem 2:

We have d1 = 500x10-6 m and d2 = 50x10-6 m

The flow rate is Q = 1x10-6 cm3/min = 1.67x10-14 m3/s

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A1 = π(500x10-6)2/4 = 19.64x10-8 m2

A2 = π(50x10-6)2/4 = 19.64x10-10 m2

Q 1.67 x10 −14

V1 = = = 0.085 µm / s
A1 19.64 x10 −8

Q 1.67 x10 −14

V2 = = −10
= 8.503 µm / s
A2 19.64 x10

Problem 3:

m
0µ
The opening of the valve may be illustrated as follows:

30
=
,W
th
Valve Plate Thickness: Ve

id
city,

W
4 µm velo
00 µ
m Ex it
L=4

15o

Valve Opening, H
Fluid Flow

(a) The opening of the valve is H = (L sin15o)cos15o = 400x10-6x sin15ocos15o = 100x10-6 m

(b) We will next estimate the velocity of the gas flow at the exit of the valve, i.e.Ve. Base on the
law of continuity, we have:
M x1
Ve =
ρ Ae
in which ρ = mass density of the H2 gas = 0.0826 kg/m3 (from Example 5.2)
Mx1 = the mass flow rate in the direction of Ve = 15.3x10-6 kg/s (from Example 5.2)

The exit cross-sectional area, Ae = HW, in which W is the width of the plate valve = 300 µm, or
300x10-6 m.

Hence Ae = (100x10-6)(300x10-6) = 3x10-8 m2.

Thus, the exit velocity is:

15.3 x10 −6
Ve = = 6174.33 m / s
0.0826 x3 x10 −8

NOTE: This exit velocity is unrealistically high for a microvalve. This high value on the
velocity is a result of extremely small opening at the exit (Ae = 3x10-8 m2), and large mass flow
rate (Mx1 = 15.3x10-6 kg/s)

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(c) The volumetric flow at the exit can be computed as follows:

15.3 x10 −6
Q = M x1 = = 185.23x10 −6 m3 / s
ρ 0.0826

or Q = 11,113.8 cm3/min, which is significantly smaller than the intended design capacity of
30,000 cm3/min.

Problem 4:

The uniformly distributed load that is required to bend a cantilever beam (plate) such as the
closure plate with a free-end displacement of H = 100x10-6 m in Problem 3 (see illustration
below) can be obtained by the following expression:
L = 400 µm 4
wL
δ max
=
8EI
W N/m

in which δmax is the maximum deflection of a cantilever beam at the free-end due to uniformly
distributed load, w per unit length; E is the Young’s modulus of the beam material; I is the area
moment of inertia of the beam cross-section.

The cross-section of the plate is 300 µm wide x 4 µm thick, which leads to an area moment of
inertia, I to be:
I =
1
12
( )( 3
)
300 x10 −6 4 x10 −6 = 16 x10 − 22 m4

with a Young’s modulus, E = 1.9x1011 N/m2 from Table 7.3 for silicon, and δmax = H = 100x10-6
m as shown in the figure in Problem 3, we may determine the required load, W from the
following relation:

(100 x10 ) = 8x(1.w9(x400 x10 ) −6 4

−6

10 )(16 x10 )
11 − 22

which leads to w = 9.5 N/m

The force required to lift the plate of 400 µm long at the free end is wL, or 9.5x(400x10-6) =
3800x10-6 N. However, there is a fluid-induced force acting on the plate too. This force is Fy =
40x10-8 N as computed from Example 5.2. The net required electrostatic force is thus equal to
the difference of the above two forces, or Fd = 3800x10-6 – 40x10-8 ≈ 3.8 mN.

The corresponding required voltage to generate such force can be obtained by using Eq. (2.8) to
give:

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V =
2 2d2 Fd
=
( )(
2
2 x 6 x10 −6 3.8 x10 −3 )
= 29.443x10 4
( )(
ε r ε o WL 1x 8.85 x10 300 x10 350 x10
−12 −6 −6
)( )
which leads to V = 542 v – a rather high voltage.

Problem 5:
m
0.1
The problem is illustrated below: L=
V2

/s
60 0 µm µm
V1 = 50
d 2=
µm
1 00
d1= d ave

Assume that the average velocity of the fluid is computed at the cross-sectional area of the
conduit at its mid-section is used. The 30o inclination is neglected.

From Example 5.3 on P. 194,

V2 = 2.4x10-3 m/s.

We may calculate the Vave in the mid-cross section to be:

Vave = 0.5 (V1 + V2) = 1.5x10-3 m/s

Let dave = 0.5 (d1 + d2) = 75x10-6 m, which leads to the radius at the mid-section, aave = 37.5x10-6
m. The pressure drop, ∆P in the conduit using the Hagen-Poiseuille equation in Equation (5.17)
is:
8µLQ
∆P =
πa 4

where µ = dynamic viscosity of the fluid = 1199.87x10-6 N-s/m2 (Table 4.3 on P. 138 for
alcohol)

L = length of the conduit = 0.1 m, and

( )
Q = Aave V ave from Eq. (5.6 ) = π a 2ave (V ave ) = 3.14 37.5 x10 −6 ( ) (1.5x10 ) = 66.2343x10
2 −3 −13 3
m /s

We will have the approximate pressure drop, ∆P to be:

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8 x1199.87 x10 −6 x0.1x66.2343x10 −13

∆P = = 1024 Pa
(
3.14 37.5 x10 −6 ) 4

The pressure drop, ∆P obtained from the Hagen-Poiseulle’s equation is about 2.5 larger than that
by the Bernoulli’s equation in Example 5.3. This indicates that the scaled down effect of the
conduits on the pressure drop of a fluid flowing in a small conduit is significant.

Problem 6:

The purpose of this problem is to compare the estimated pressure drop in a fluid (water in this
case) flowing through a capillary tube computed by using the Hagen-Poiseuille’s equation and
that induced by the surface tension in the minute water cylinder. The capillary tube section is
illustrated below:
1000 µm
The radius of the capillary tube is
a = d/2 = (20x10-6)/2 = 10-5 m

20 µm dia.

Since the volumetric flow rate of the water is not given in the problem, we will first work on an
hypothesis that water flows in the capillary tube in a laminar flow pattern. This pattern of flow of
water requires the Reynolds number, Re, be kept below 1000, which leads to the following
relationship:
ρDV
Re = = 1000
µ
with the density of water, ρ = 1000 kg/m3, and the inside diameter of the tube, D = 20x10-6 m, and
the dynamic viscosity, µ = 1001.65x10-6 N-s/m2 from Table 4.3, we will have, from the above
expression, the velocities of flow to be:

V = 50 m/s for Re = 1000, and

V = 5 m/s for Re = 100.

If we use the lower bond velocity, V = 5 m/s with Re = 100, the volumetric flow, Q would be:
Q = AV =
π
4
(20 x10 ) x5 = 15.708x10
−6 2 −10 3
m /s
The corresponding pressure drop, ∆P by the Hagen-Poiseuilli’s equation is:

8 x(1001.65 x10 −6 )(10 −3 )(15.708 x10 −10 )

∆P = 4
= 400,000 Pa
⎛ 20 x10 −6 ⎞
3.14⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠

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To maintain a water flow with this enormous pressure drop is beyond the capability of most
volumetric pumping devices. Consequently, let us assume a typical velocity flow at V = 10 µm/s
in the capillary tube.

This water flow velocity of V = 10 µm/s, which leads to a volumetric flow rate, Q = AV =
31.4x10-16 m3/s, in which A is the cross-sectional area of the tube.

Substituting the above values into the Hagen-Poiseuille’s equation, will lead to a pressure drop of:

∆P =
( )( )(
8 x 1001.65 x10 −6 10 −3 31.4 x10 −16 ) = 0.8013 Pa
4
⎛ 20 x10 −6 ⎞
3.14 x⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠

Now, we will consider the pressure difference between the inside and outside of the water
cylinder in that section of the capillary tube, namely the surface tension of the water. We will
recognize that the pressure required to overcome the surface tension is the sum of that for the
length of the two ends of the “water cylinder” in the tube, and the same surface tension between
the circumferential surface and the tube wall. The surface tension of water in these areas can be
found in Eqs. (5.24a) and (5.24b), or the required pressure is:
3γ
∆Pst =
a

in which γ = surface tension coefficient of water = 0.073 N/m as in Eq. (5.23) and a = the radius
of the tube.

We will thus have the required pressure:

3 x0.073
∆ P st = = 21,900 Pa
10 −5

We realize that the pressure required to overcome the surface tension of the water in the capillary
tube section is much greater than that for driving that tiny volumetric flow of water through the
tube as predicted by the Hagen-Poiseulle’s equation. The above computations have underlined
the dominance of the effect of surface tension in water (liquid) flowing in capillary tubes.

Problem 7:

The situation of a capillary tube inserted in the water is illustrated in Fig. 5.16 on P. 183. The
tube has a diameter of 20 µm, which gives a radius, a = 10-5m. By following the same procedure
for the solution in Example 5.6, we have the rise of water level in the capillary tube, h to be:

2γ cosθ 2 x0.073 x cos(0)

h= = = 1.488 m, which is unrealistically high, as the total length of
wa 9810 x10 −5
the capillary tube in only 1 mm.

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Problem 8:

Thermal diffusivity defined in Eq. (5.39) should be used as effective measure of materials’
response in thermal actuation. The listing should thus be constructed on this basis.

Problem 9:

Equation (5.45) provides:

v
∂T (r , t ) h r
+ T (r , t ) rr = rrs = T f
h
r
∂n r = rs k
r r k

which leads to the following special cases:

(A) When h = 0:

Equation (5.45) becomes:

r
∂T (r , t )
r =0
∂n rr =rrs

which is equivalent to have qin and qout = 0 in Eq. (5.44a) and (5.44b) respectively. This means
r r
that no heat is allowed to flow across the boundary at r = rs .

(B) When h → ∞:

By dividing each term in Eq. (5.45) by h and then letting h → ∞, we will have:
r
T (r , t ) rr = rr = T f
s

which is the prescribed surface temperature boundary condition as shown in Eq. (5.43).

Problem 10:

We assume that the copper film is so thin and ductile that it only generates heat to the SiO2/Si
bilayer strip, but does not impose any mechanical constraint on the overall structure. One end of
the strip is maintained at 20oC whereas the other end and the top and bottom surfaces are
surrounded by stagnant air as illustrated in the figure below.

We further postulate that heat flows in the strip predominantly in the y-direction with some
dissipation through the left end at x = 0. This postulation on the heat flow is justifiable as the

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dimension of the strip in the x-direction far exceeds that in the y-direction. Further, the
assumption of thermal insulation of the right end at x = 1000 µm and the bottom surface (y =60
µm) is also reasonable. These surfaces are in contact with the surrounding stagnant air at 20oC.
The surrounding air temperature is not expected to change significantly enough during the brief
period of actuation to induce a natural convection that will dissipate heat from the strip through
these surfaces.
Heat supply
2 µm thick copper film
x
SiO2 4 µm
20oC

silicon
20 µm

1000 µm
y Stagnant air at 20oC

We will assign T1(x,y,t) and T2(x,y,t) to be the temperature distributions in the SiO2 and silicon
strips respectively.

Equation (5.48a) and (5.48b) are used to determine the respective temperature distributions,
T1(x,y,t) and T2(x,y,t) with the following initial and boundary conditions:

The initial conditions:

T 1 (x, y, t ) t =0 = T 2 [x, y, t ] t =0 = 20 C
o

The boundary conditions for the temperature distribution in the SiO2 layer are:
T 1 (x, y, t ) x =0 = 20 C at the left end, and
o

∂ T 1 ( x, y , t )
= 0 thermally insulated at the right end, and
∂x x =1000 µm

T 1 (x, y, t ) y =4 µm = T 2 (x, y, t ) y =4 µm for compatibility at SiO2 and silicon interface, and

∂ T 1 ( x, y , t ) i
2
R
=− for heat input at the top surface of SiO2 layer, in which R = the
∂y y =0 k1
electric resistance of copper film, (Ω), and i = the passing electric current (amp), and k1 =
thermal conductivity of SiO2 (W/m-oC)

The boundary conditions for temperature distribution in the silicon strip are:

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T 2 (x, y, t ) x =0 = 20 C at the left end, and

o

∂ T 2 ( x, y , t )
= 0 thermally insulated at the right end, and
∂x x =1000 µm

∂ T 2 ( x, y , t ) ∂ ( x, y , t )
= T1 for compatibility at the silicon and SiO2 interface, and
∂y y = 4 µm
∂y y = 4 µm

∂ T 2 ( x, y , t )
=0 for thermally insulated at the bottom surface.
∂y y = 24 µm

Problem 11:

The respective heat conduction equations for SiO2 and silicon stripes are:

∂ T 1 ( x, y , t ) + ∂ T 1 ( x , y , t ) = 1 ∂ T 1 ( x , y , t )
2 2

∂ x2 ∂y
2
α1 ∂t

for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1000 µm and 0 ≤y ≤ 4 µm; t > 0

and

∂ 2 T 2 ( x, y , t ) ∂ 2 T 2 ( x, y , t ) 1 ∂ T 2 ( x, y , t )
+ =
∂x 2
∂y
2
α2 ∂t

for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1000 µm, 4 µm ≤ y ≤ 24 µm, and t > 0.

The constant α1 and α2 in the above differential equations are the thermal diffusivities of SiO2
and silicon respectively. The appropriate initial and boundary conditions are presented in
Problem 11.

Problem 12:

The differential equations are as shown in Problem 13, and the initial conditions are given in
Problem 11. The following boundary conditions apply:

(A) In SiO2 strip:

T 1 (x, y, t ) x =0 = 20 C
o

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∂ T 1 ( x, y , t )
+ T 1 ( x, y, t ) x =1000 µm = (20 )
h h
∂x x =1000 µm k1 k1

∂ T 1 ( x, y , t ) 2
R
= −i
∂y y =0 k1

T 1 ( x , y , t ) y = 4 µm = T 2 ( x , y , t ) y = 4 µm

∂ T 1 ( x, y , t ) ∂ ( x, y , t )
= T2
∂y y = 4 µm
∂y y = 4 µm

(B) In silicon strip:

T 2 (x, y, t ) x =0 = 20 C
o

∂ T 2 ( x, y , t )
T 2 ( x, y , t ) (20)
h h
+ =
∂x x =1000 µm k2 x =1000 µm k2

∂ T 2 ( x, y , t )
T 2 ( x, y , t ) (20)
h h
+ =
∂y y = 24 µm k2 y = 24 µm k2

where k1 and k2 are thermal conductivity of SiO2 and silicon respectively, and h is the specified
heat transfer coefficient.

Chapter 6
Scaling Laws in Miniaturization
(P.244)

1.(a); 2. (b); 3. (a); 4. (c); 5. (b); 6 (a); 7. (a); 8. (a); 9. (a); 10. (c); 11. (a); 12. (c); 13. (a); 14. (a);
15. (b)

Chapter 7
Materials for MEMS and Microsystems
(P.281)
Part 1. Multiple Choice

1.(b); 2. (c); 3. (b); 4. (a); 5. (a); 6. (a); 7. (b); 8. (a); 9. (b); 10. (a); 11. (b); 12. (c); 13. (c); 14.
(b); 15. (a); 16. (a); 17. (b); 18. (a); 19. (c); 20. (a); 21. (c); 22. (b); 23. (c); 24. (c); 25. (b); 26.

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(c); 27. (a); 28. (c); 29. (b); 30. (c); 31. (a); 32. (b); 33. (a); 34. (c); 35. (a); 36. (c); 37. (3); 38.
(a); 39. (a); 40. (a); 41. (c); 42. (a); 43. (c); 44. (a); 45. (b).

Part 2. Computational Problems

Problem 2:

The planar area of a circular wafer, A, can be computed by:

π
A= 2
d in which d = the diameter of the wafer.
4

The ratio of plane areas of wafers with 300 mm and 200 mm diameters is:

2
A2 = Area of 300 mm wafer = ⎛⎜ 300 ⎞⎟ = 2.25
A1 Area of 200 mm wafer ⎝ 200 ⎠

Hence a wafer with 300 mm diameter has 2.25 times greater area than that of a 200 mm
wafer.

Problem 3:

By following the same expression used in Example 7.1, the number of atoms per cubic mm of
silicon is:
3
⎛V ⎞ ⎛ 0.001 ⎞
N =⎜ ⎟n= ⎜ −9
⎟ x18 = 1.12 x10 atoms / mm
20 3

⎝ ⎠
v ⎝ 0.543x10 ⎠
in which v = the volume of a single silicon crystal.

Likewise, the number of atoms per cubic micrometer of silicon is:

3
⎛ 10 −6 ⎞
N = ⎜⎜ −9
⎟ x18 = 1.12 x1011 atoms / µm 3
⎟
⎝ 0.543x10 ⎠

Problem 4:

A piezoresistor has the following geometry and dimension:

σmax 10
µm
σmax = 235.36x106 Pa

2 µm 4 µm

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The area on which the maximum normal stress exists is: A = 2 x 10 = 20 µm2 = 20x10-12 m2.

From Equation (7.8), we have:

∆R
= π Lσ L + π T σ T
R

Since the piezoresistor is attached to the cantilever beam as illustrated in Figure 7.18, we will
have: σL = σmax = 235.36x106 Pa, and σT = 0 as in Example 7.4.

Piezoresistive coefficients for several orientations of p-type silicon crystals is available in

Table 7.9.

Let us assume that the piezoresistor of (100) plane in the <100> orientation is used in this
case. We will have the coefficient πL = 0.02π44, with π44 = 138.1x10-11 Pa-1 from Table 7.8.
We will thus have the piezoresistive coefficient πL = 2.762x10-11 Pa-1.

The corresponding rate of the change of electric resistance by the piezoresistor is:

∆R 6
= π L σ L = (2.762 x10 −11 ) x(235.36 x10 ) = 6.5 x10 −3
R

But since the resistance of a material is defined as:

ρL
R= in which ρ is the resistivity of the material, which is a p-type piezoresistor. We find
A
the values of ρ vary from 10-3 to 104.5 Ω-cm from Table 7.1. We will adopt a value of ρ =
7.8 Ω-cm = 7.8x102 Ω-m from Table 7.8.

Thus, with L = 4x10-6 m and A = 20x10-12 m2, the resistance R in the piezoresistor is:

R=
(7.8x10 )(4 x10 ) = 1.56 x10
2 −6
8
Ω or 156 MΩ
−12
20 x10

The net change of resistance in the piezoresistor at 235.36 MPa stress is:

( )( )
∆R = 6.5 x10 −3 1.56 x10 8 = 10.14 x10 5 Ω or 1.014 MΩ

Problem 5:

The piezoelectric coefficient, d, for PVDF polymer films can be found to be 18x10-12 m/v from
Table 7.14. Consequently, the induced voltage by the induced strain of 123.87x10-5 m/m from
Example 7.4 is:

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V =
ε
=
ε max = 123.87 x10 −5 = 6.88 x10 7 v / m
−12
d d 18 x10

with the piezoelectric film being 4 µm long as shown in Figure 7.18, the output voltage is:

v = Vl = (6.88x107)(4x10-6) = 275.3 v

Problem 6:

If the length of the imaginary lattice is (a) in the (100) plane, then 2a = 1.414a is the lattice for
both diagonal (110) and inclined (111) planes in Figure 7.8.

Problem 7:

The lattices for the three planes in a single silicon crystal are:

a 0.707a 0.707a

7a
0
0.7
7a
a L a

0
0.7
La L La
a La
0.707a 0.707a 0.707a 0.707a

(a) The (100) Plane: (b) The (110) Plane: (c) The (111) Plane
1 3
L= 2a = 0.707a La = 4 a = 0.433a
2

Problem 8:

The angle is 54.74 degree.

Problem 9:

We have been using ν = 0.25 as the Poisson’s ratio for silicon in our problems solving. By using
this value for the Poisson’s ratio and the shear modulus of elasticity, G in Table 7.2, we will have
the following values for the Young’s moduli, Eth, of silicon in the three orientations by using the
relationship: Eth = 2(1 + ν)/G:

Orientations G , GPa ν Eth, GPa Etable , GPa

<100> 79.0 0.25 197.50 129.5
<110> 61.7 0.25 154.25 168.0
<111> 57.5 0.25 143.75 186.5

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We may make the following observations:

(1) The Young’s moduli Etable in the above Table are the measured values as given in Table 7.2.
These values are lower than those calculated from linear theory of elasticity in the <100>
orientation, but are higher in the other two orientations.
(2) The computed Young’s moduli, Eth in the <111> has the lowest value of the three. This is
contrary to the measured values.

We thus conclude that the three elastic properties, E, G and ν of silicon do not follow the
relationship established for isotropic elastic materials.

Problem 10:

We will use the geometry and the dimensions of the inkjet printer head as presented in Fig. 7.19
in Example 7.5.

For a printing resolution of 600 dots per inch (DPI), we should have the diameter of the dots
to be D = 1 inch/600 = 25.4 mm/600 = 42.333 µm.

The corresponding radius of the spherical ink dot (r) that is ejected by the printer head is:

4 3 ⎛π 2 ⎞
πr = ⎜ D ⎟ t in which t is the thickness of ink dot on the paper.
3 ⎝4 ⎠

Again we will use t = 1 µm as in Example 7.5. This assumption will lead to r = 6.954x10-6 m

The volume of the ink dot is computed by using the right-hand-side of the above expression
to be Vdot = 1408x10-18 m3.

The corresponding expansion of the piezoelectric cover for the ejection of ink volume, Vdot
is:

4Vdot 4 x1408 x10 −18

W = = = 448 x10 −12 m
π∆ 2
(
3.14 2000 x10 )
−6 2

The corresponding strain in the piezoelectric cover is

W 448 x10 −12

ε= = −6
= 44.8 x10 −6 m / m
L 10 x10

The required voltage for 1 m thick cover is:

ε 44.8 x10 −6
V = = = 9.3418 x10 4 v/m
d 480 x10 −12

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The required voltage for the present case for a 10 µm thick cover is thus:

v = LV = (10x10-6)(9.3418x104) = 0.9342 v

Chapter 8
Microsystem Fabrication Processes
(P. 318)

Part 1. Multiple Choice

1.(c); 2. (c); 3. (b); 4. (b); 5. (b); 6. (c); 7. (b); 8. (a); 9. (a); 10. (b); 11. (b); 12. (a); 13. (a); 14.
(b); 15. (b); 16. (a); 17. (b); 18. (a); 19. (a); 20. (b); 21. (c); 22. (b); 23. (b); 24. (a); 25. (c); 26.
(c); 27. (c); 28. (a); 29. (c); 30. (b); 31. (c); 32. (b); 33. (a); 34. (b); 35. (c); 36. (a); 37. (b); 38.
(b); 39. (b); 40. (c); 41. (c); 42. (b); 43. (a); 44. (c); 45. (a); 46. (c); 47. (c); 48. (c); 49. (c); 50. (a)

Part 2. Computational Problems

Problem 1:

We have phosphorous as the dopant and the doping is carried out with 30 KeV energy.

From Table 8.2, we will have:

Rp = 42x10-9 m, and ∆Rp = 19.5x10-9 m = 19.5x10-7 cm

We further have the maximum concentration, Nmax = 30x1018 atom/cm3 as given in Example 8.1.
It is at x = Rp = 42x10-9 m = 0.042 µm.

(a) The supplied dose is:

Q= 2π ∆Rp N max = 6.28 x(19.5 x10 −7 )(30 x1018 ) = 1.466 x1014 atoms / cm 2

(b) We will use the following relationship to find the concentration at x = 0.15 µm:

⎡ (0.15−0.042)2 ⎤
N (0.15 µm) = 30 x10 exp ⎢−
18
2 ⎥
= 6.57 x1012 atoms / cm 3
⎣ 2 x(0.0195) ⎦

(c) Let xo be the depth at which the dopant concentration is 0.1% of the maximum value. This
depth may be obtained by solving the following equation:

1.466 x1014 ⎡ ( x − 0.042) 2 ⎤

N ( xo) = 0.0001x(30 x1018 ) = exp ⎢− o 2 ⎥
2 x3.14 x19.5 x10 −7 ⎢⎣ 2 x(0.0195) ⎥⎦

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Solve for xo = 0.1257 µm

Problem 2:

We have energy level for the ion implantation to be 100 KeV and maximum concentration Nmax
= 30x1018 atom/cm3. We need to find the concentration of P and As at 0.15 µm beneath the
surface.

Let us first tabulate the projected range Rp and the scatter or straggle ∆Rp aat this energy level
from Table 8.2:

Rp (nm) ∆Rp (nm)

B 307 69
P 135 53.5
As 67.8 26.1

By following the procedure outlined in Example 8.1, we have:

1) The dose of ion beams by Q = 2π ∆Rp / N max

We thus have:

Qp = 2π (53.5 x10 −7 )(30 x1018 ) = 4.022 x1014 atom/cm2 for phosphorus

QA = 2π (26.1 x10 −7 )(30 x1018 ) = 1.962 x1014 atom/cm2 for arsenic

2) Concentration of P and As at x = 0.15 µm beneath the surface of silicon substrate by using

Equation (8.1):

⎡ (0.15 − 0.135)2 ⎤
N p (0.15 µm ) = (30 x10 ) exp ⎢−
18
⎥ = 28.84 x10 atom/cm for phosphorus
18 3

2 (0.0535) ⎦
2
⎣
⎡ (0.15 − 0.0678)2 ⎤
N A (0.15 µm ) = (30 x10 ) exp ⎢−
18
⎥ = 0.21 x10 atom/cm for arsenic
18 3
2 (0.0261)
2
⎣ ⎦

3) Location xo at which N(xo) = 0.01 Nmax = 3 x 1016 atom/cm3:

We may derive the following relationship by using Equation (8.1):

For the case of phosphorus with Qp = 4.022x1014 atom/cm2:

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N p (x op ) =
4.022 x1014
exp ⎢−
op (
⎡ x − 135 x10 −7 2 ⎤
⎥
)
(
2 x 3,14 53.5 x10 −7
)⎢
⎣ 2 53 . 5 x (
10 −7 2
⎥
⎦ )
= 29.999 x10 exp ⎢−
18 op (
⎡ x − 135 x10 −7 2 ⎤ )
⎥ = 3 x1016
−11
⎢ 5 . 7245 x 10 ⎥
⎣ ⎦

from which we solve for xop = 0.334 µm for phosphorus.

For the case of arsenic with QA = 1.962 x 1014 atom/cm2:

N A ( xoA ) =
1.962 x1014 (
⎡ x − 67.8 x10 −7
exp ⎢− oA
)
2
⎤
⎥
(
2 x 3.14 26.1 x10 −7 ) ⎢⎣ (
2 26.1 x10 −7
2
) ⎥⎦

= 30 x10 exp ⎢− oA
18 (
⎡ x − 67.8 x10 −7 2 ) ⎤⎥ = 3 x10 16

⎣⎢ 1362.42 x10 −14 ⎦⎥

from which we solve for xoA = 0.1648 µm for arsenic.

Observations on the results:

We may summarize the computed results, combining that from Example 8.1 as follows:

Dopants Dose of ion beam (Q) Concentration at xo = 0.15 Depth at which N(xo)
( 1014 atom/cm2) µm beneath surface = 1% of Nmax
(1018 atom/cm3) (µm)
Boron (P) 5.2 2.27 0.5635
Phosphorus (P) 4.022 28.84 0.334
Arsenic (As) 1.962 0.21 0.1648

It appears phosphorus has the deepest penetration into the substrate of all three common dopants.
Arsenic is definitely the worst of all.

Problem 3:

From Table 8.3, we have the constants required to evaluate the diffusion coefficient, D in
Equation (8.6) to be: a = -19.982 and b = 13.1109.

(a) From Equation (8.6), ln( D ) = aT ' + b with T’ = 1000/T = 0.8525, in which T = 900 + 273.

( )
Hence ln D = − 19.982 x0.8525 + 13.1109 = − 3.924 → D = 0.01976 or D = 0.0003904
µm2/h, or D = 0.10844x10-6 µm2/s

(b) Equation (8.4) can be used to obtain the concentration function, N(x,t) follows:

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⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎛ 1518 x ⎞
N ( x, t ) = 1011 erfc ⎢
x
⎥ = 1011
erfc ⎢ ⎥ = 1011 erfc⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
−6
⎣ 2 Dt ⎦ ⎣⎢ 2 0.10844 x10 t ⎦⎥ ⎝ t ⎠
or

⎡ ⎛ 1518 x ⎞⎤
N ( x, t ) = 1011 ⎢1 − erf ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ t ⎠⎦

For x = 0.1 µm and t = 1 h = 3600 s:

⎡ ⎛ 151.8 ⎞⎤
N (0.1µm,1h ) = 1011 ⎢1 − erf ⎜ ⎟⎥ = 10 [1 − erf (2.53)] = 10 (1 − 0.99999) ≈ 0
11 11

⎣ ⎝ 60 ⎠⎦
1000
(c) For diffusion to take place at 800oC, we have T ' = = 0.932 . This will lead to the
800 + 273
computation of the diffusivity, D as follows:

ln D = − 19.982 x0.932 + 13.1109 = − 5.51165 → D = 0.000163 µm 2 / h

The diffusivity, D is so low in this case that it leads to a negligible concentration at x = 0.1 µm
after 1 hour into the diffusion process.

(d) Let us raise the diffusion temperature to 1100oC:

We will have T’ = 1000/(1100 + 273) = 0.72833, which leads to D = 0.05584 µm2/h,

or 15.5x10-6 µm2/s. This diffusivity will result in a concentration at x = 0.1 µm and t = 1 h to be:
⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
N (0.1 µm,1 h ) = 1011 ⎢1 − erf ⎜⎜ ⎟⎥ = 1011 [1 − erf (0.21167 )] =
0 .1
−6 ⎟
⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 15.5 x10 x3600 ⎠⎦⎥
1011 (1 − 0.2352 ) = 7.648 x1010 atoms / cm 3

Tabulation of the results on the concentrations at x = 0.1 µm after 1 h into the diffusion process
at various temperatures is given below:

Temperature, oC 800 900 1000 1100

Diffusivity, D, µm2/h 0.000163 0.0003904 0.005676 0.05584
Concentration, N(0.1 µm, 1h), 0 ≈0 3.482x1010 7.648x1010
atoms/cm3

It is clear from the above tabulation of results that the higher the diffusion temperature, the
higher the diffusivity. Consequently, one can expect much higher concentration of the dopants
beneath the surface of the substrate at higher temperatures.

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Problem 4:

The time required reaching the same concentration of dopant of 3.482x1010 atoms/cm3 as in
Example 8.2 at 0.2 µm beneath the surface at 1000oC can be obtained by solving the following
equation:
⎡ ⎛ 398.21x0.2 ⎞⎤
3.482 x1010 = 1011 ⎢1− erf ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ t ⎠⎦

By using Figure 3.14 and solve for the time, t = 13661.73 s, or 3.795 h

Problem 5:

Estimate the required time to achieve 1 µm thick SiO2 on a silicon substrate.

The constants used in estimating the rate of oxidation in Equations (8.9) and (8.10) are available
in the Table established in Example 8.3:

Dry oxidation Wet oxidation

B/A, µm/h 0.04532 0.6786
B, µm/h 0.006516 0.2068

Now if we let x = 1 µm in Equations (a) and (b) in Example 8.3, we will have the time
required to oxidize the silicon substrate with 1 µm thick SiO2 obtained from Equations (8.9)
and (8.10) to be:

Time for dry oxidation, h Time for wet oxidation, h

Equation (8.9) for small time 22.065 1.474
Equation (8.10) for larger time 153.47 4.836

Problem 6:

The dilution of the hydrogen gas is η = 1%, and the deposition takes place at 800oC. We assume
that the process is used to deposit thin SiO2 film, and that other conditions for this CVD process
are identical to those specified in Example 8.5.

(a) The number of molecules in one cubic meter volume of the gas mixture (NG):

We may follow the procedure in Example 8.4 and find the molar density of the gas mixture at
800oC to be:

⎛ T1 ⎞ ⎛ 20 + 273 ⎞
d 2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ d 1 = ⎜ ⎟ x 44.643 = 12.1905 mol / m
3

⎝T2 ⎠ ⎝ 800 + 273 ⎠

The concentration of H2 per cubic meter is:

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NG = (6.022x1023)x12.1905 = 73.4111x1023 molecules/m3

(b) The density (ρ) of the carrier gas, H2 is:

ρ = (2 g/mol)(12.1905 mol/m3) = 24.38 g/m3

(c) The Reynolds number (Re):

ρDV
Re =
µ
with the gas density, ρ = 24.38 g/m3, the diameter of the reactor, D = 20 cm = 0.2 m, the gas
velocity, V = 50 mm/s (as given in Example 8.5), and the viscosity, µ = 214 µP = 0.0214
g/m-s from Table 8.6 for H2 gas at 825oC.

We may compute the Reynolds number to be Re = 11.39

(d) The thickness of the boundary layer (δ):

L 0.2
δ = = = 0.0593 m
Re 11.39

(e) The diffusivity of the carrier gas (D):

We may use the same equation presented in Example 8.5 as shown below:
v
δN
D=
η (N G − N s )
r
with N = 1024 molecules/m2-s (given)
NG = 73.4111x1023 molecules/m3 (in Part (a))
Ns = 0 and η = 1% = 0.01

We thus have the diffusivity, D to be:

0.0593 x10 24
D= = 0.8078 m 2 / s
(
0.01 73.4111x10 − 0
23
)
(f) The surface reaction rate (ks):

Following the expression used in Example 8.5, this rate can be computed from the
expression:
v
DN 0.8078 x10 24
ks = v = = 0.1376 m / s
D N G − δN 0.8078 x73.4111x10 23 − 0.0593 x10 24

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(g) The deposition rate (r):

We first compute δks = 0.0593x0.1376 = 0.00816 << D = 0.8078

This will justify us using the expression for estimating the rate of deposition, r = η
NG ks
γ
From Table 8.7 and Example 8.5, we have the number of SiO2 molecules per unit film
volume to be: γ = 4.3074x1028, which leads to the rate of deposition, r to be:

0.01x73.4111x10 23 x0.1376
r = = 0.2345 µm / s
4.3074 x10 28

Problem 7:

Since the rate of the deposition is 0.2345 µm/s as calculated in Problem 6, a deposition of 0.5 µm
thick film will take 0.5/0.2345 = 2.132 s.

Problem 8:

The following changes in computing the rate of deposition will take place with a 490oC process
temperature:

(a) The number of molecules in one cubic meter volume of gas mixture (NG):

⎛ T1 ⎞ ⎛ 293 ⎞
d 2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ d 1 = ⎜ ⎟ x 44.643 = 17.1433 mol / m
3

⎝T2 ⎠ ⎝ 763 ⎠
The corresponding concentration is

N G = (6.022 x10 )(17.1433) = 103.24 x10 molecules / m

23 23 3

(b) The density:

ρ = 2 x17.1433 = 34.2866 g / m 3

(c) The Reynolds number:

ρDV 34.2866 x0.2 x0.05

Re = = = 20.53
µ 0.0167

(d) The thickness of the boundary layer:

L 0.15
δ = = = 0.033 m
Re 20.53

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(e) The diffusivity of the carrier gas:

r
δN 0.033 x10 24
D= = = 0.3196 m 2 / s
η (N G − N s ) (
0.01 103.24 x10 − 0
23
)
(f) The surface reaction rate:
v
DN 0.3196 x10 24
k = r = = 0.0978 m / s
s
D N G − δN 0.3196 x103.24 x10 23 − 0.033 x10 24

(g) The deposition rate:

N G ks 0.01x103.24 x10 23 x0.0978

r =η = = 0.2344 µm / s
γ 28
4.3074 x10

Problem 9:

We have 1% H2 carrying gas at 800oC. The standard conditions have: P1 = 101,325 Pa, T1 =
273+20 = 293 K and V1 = 22.4 x 10-3 m3/mol. The process conditions are: P2 = 1 Torr = 133.322
Pa, T2 = 800 + 273 = 1073 K.

From the ideal gas law, we get:

P1 V1 T
= 1 or
101325 22.4 x10 −3(=
293 )
, from which we solve for V2 = 62,344.04 m3/mol
P2 V2 T2 133322 x V2 1073

(a) The molar density d2:

d2 = 1/V2 = 1/62344.04 = 1.604 x 10-5 mol/m3 – a very low molar density!

The concentration of H2 gas in the carrier gas is:

NG = Avogardro’s number x d2 = (6.022 x 1023)(1.604 x 10-5) = 9.66 x 1018 molecules/m3

(b) The corresponding density of H2 gas is:

ρ = (2 g/mol)(1.604 x 10-5 mol/m3) = 3.208 x 10-5 g/m3

(c) The Reynolds number is:

ρ DV
Re = = 1.5 x10 −5
µ
with D = 0.2 m, V = 50 mm/s = 0.05 m/s, µ = 0.0214 g/m-s

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(d) The thickness of the boundary layer is:

L 0.2
δ = = = 51.64 m - an unrealistically thick boundary layer!!
Re 1.5 x10 −5

The above computed large boundary layer thickness is due to the extremely low pressure in the
process. At this point, we may choose a boundary layer thickness as thick as the available space
in the chamber can accommodate, or use this unrealistically large number as computed. Since the
chamber has a diameter of D = 0.2 m, we will use this number in the remaining calculation, i.e.,
δ = 0.2 m.

(e) The diffusivity

r of the carrier gas to the silicon substrate:
δN
D=
η (N G − N s )
r
with N = 10 24 molecules/m2-s (given), η= 1%, NG = 9.66 x 1018 molecules/m3, and Ns = 0,
we have:

0.2 x10 24
D= = 2.07 x10 6 m2/s (very high!)
(
0.01 9.66 x1018 )
(f) The surface
r reaction rate:
ks =
DN
r =
(
2.07 x10 6 10 24 )( )
= 1.045 x10 5 m/s (very large!)
D NG − δ N ( )(
2.07 x10 6 9.66 x1018 − 0.2 10 24 ) ( )
(f) Rate of deposition:

Check: δks = 0.2 x 1.045 x 10 5 = 0.21 x 105 < D = 2.07 x 106

Hence the deposition rate is:

r =η
NG ks
= 0.01
(9.66 x10 )(1.045 x10 ) = 0.2343
18 5
µm/s
γ 4.307 x10 28

The value of SiO2 molecules per unit volume γ = 4.307 x 1028 molecules/m3 given in Example
8.5 was used in the above calculation.

The reader should not take the conditions stipulated in this problem to be realistic. Although the
low pressure in the process is not unusual, the chamber size is unrealistically small to
accommodate the thick boundary layer over the surface of the substrate. Nor is the low velocity
that contributes to this unrealistically thick boundary layer.

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Problem 10:

We have the temperature T = 800oC = 1073 K. The velocity of the carrier gas, however, is
reduced to V = 25 mm/s = 0.025 m/s

We may follow the same procedure in computing the deposition rate as follows:

(a) NG = 73.4111 x 1023 molecules/m3 (same as in Problem 6)

(b) ρ = 24.38 g/m3 (same as in Problem 6)
(c) Re with reduced velocity becomes:

Re =
(24.38)(0.2)(0.025) = 5.6963
0.0214

in which we used D = 0.2 m and µ = 0.0214 g/m-s

(d) The boundary layer thickness:

L 0.2
δ = = = 0.0838 m
Re 5.6963

(e) Diffusivity of the carrier gas:

r
D=
δN
=
(0.0838)(10 24 ) = 1.1415 m2/s
η (N G − N s ) (
0.01 73.4111 x10 − 0 23
)
(f) The surface
r reaction rate:
ks =
DN
r =
(1.1415) 10 24 ( )
= 0.1376 m/s
D NG − δ N ( )
(1.1415) 73.4111 x10 23 − (0.0838) 10 24 ( )
(g) The deposition rate:

Check δ ks = 0.0838 x 0.1376 = 0,01153 << D = 1.1415

NG ks (73.4111 x10 23 )(0.1376)

Hence r = η = 0.01 = 0.2345 µm/s
γ 4.3074 x10 28

Chapter 9
Overview of Micromanufacturing
(P.344)

Part 1 Multiple Choice:

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1. (a); 2. (b); 3. (b); 4. (a); 5. (c); 6. (b); 7. (c); 8. (a); 9. (b); 10. (b); 11. (b); 12. (b); 13. (a); 14.
2. (a); 15. (b); 16. (a); 17. (a); 18. (b); 19. (c); 20. (a); 21. (c); 22. (c); 23. (b); 24. (c); 25. (b); 26.
(a); 27. (b); 28. (c); 29. (b); 30. (c); 31. (a); 32. (c); 33. (c); 34. (b); 35. (a); 36. (a); 37. (b); 38.
(b); 39. (b); 40. (c); 41. (b); 42. (b); 43. (a); 44. (b); 45. (c)

Chapter 10
Microsystem Design
(P.402)
Part 1 Multiple Choice:

1. (a); 2. (b); 3. (c); 4. (a); 5. (c); 6. (b); 7. (b); 8. (b); 9. (a); 10. (b); 11. (c); 12. (a); 13. (c); 14.
(b); 15. (a); 16. (c); 17. (b); 18. (c); 19. (b); 20. (c); 21. (a); 22. (b); 23. (a); 24. (b); 25. (c); 26.
(a); 27. (c); 28. (b); 29. (a); 30. (b); 31. (c); 32. (c); 33. (a); 34. (b); 35. (a); 36. (b); 37. (b); 38.
(a); 39. (b); 40. (c); 41. (b); 42. (a); 43. (a); 44. (c); 45. (b); 46. (a); 47. (a); 48. (b); 49. (c); 50.
(b); 51. (a); 52. (c); 53. (a); 54. (b); 55. (c); 56. (c); 57. (c); 58. (c); 59. (a); 60. (c)

Part 2 Descriptive Problems:

Problem 3:

There are times when flexibility of micro pressure sensor die becomes necessary due to
significant difference of coefficients of thermal expansion between the silicon die, the die attach
and constraint base, such as described in Section 11.20 in Chapter 11. One practical way of
improving the flexibility of the die is to increase the height of the diaphragm to mitigate the
parasite stresses induced by such difference of coefficients of thermal expansion of the attached
parts.

Intuitively one may increase the height of the silicon die by producing such these dies in
fabrication as illustrated in dotted lines in Figure 10.35.
A
a

h a’

H Figure 10.35 Micro Pressure Die with

2H Θ=54.74o Double Height
Cavity
(Legend in Figure 10.16)
c Constraint Base

One may show that the size of the diaphragm (i.e., the length of the square diaphragm a) is
reduced by an amount ∆a = a – a’ = 1.414H, in which H = the original height of the die. This
reduction of the diaphragm size will result in significant reduction in the maximum bending
stress in the diaphragm, and thus the output of the sensor according to Equation (4.10), which is
a situation that is hardly desirable. An alternative way to increase the flexibility of the die is by

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inserting a spacer as illustrated in Figure 11.36 on Page 453. This arrangement will offer the
required flexibility of the die, without reducing the maximum bending stress in the diaphragm
for the output signal. Such insertion, of course, will add extra cost to the production of the
pressure sensor.

Problem 4:

Hint: Since we are given the hydraulic diameter of capillary tubes of rhombus, obround and
trapezoidal cross sections illustrated in Figure 10.19 on Page 383, the computation of the fluid
resistance of each of the tubes of specific cross section can follow what are performed in
Example 10.2 on Page 385.

The conduit with rhombus cross section can be treated as two v-groove open channels; the tube
with obround cross section, on the other hand needs to be handled in a different way. This
geometry involves 2 semicircles with each connected to the two opposite sides of a rectangle as
illustrated below:
L

a
2a

In the above figure, a is the radius of the circular sections. We may readily formulate the
equation for the hydraulic diameter of the entire cross-section. One needs to optimize the
relationship between the length of the rectangle L and the radius a of the semi-circular parts of
the cross-section to satisfy the condition of dp = 30 µm. The resistance to water flow in this
conduit may be obtained by summing the resistance from a complete circular and that from a
rectangular cross-sections using the equations provided in Section 10.7.

Chapter 11
Assembly, Packaging, and Testing of Microsystems
(P. 458)

Part 1 Multiple Choice

1. (c); 2. (c); 3. (a); 4. (a); 5. (a); 6. (a); 7. (b); 8. (b); 9. (a); 10. (a); 11. (b); 12. (a); 13. (b); 14.
(a); 15. (a); 16. (c); 17. (a); 18. (c); 19. (b); 20. (a); 21. (a); 22. (b); 23. (c); 24. (b); 25. (a); 26.
(b); 27. (c); 28. (a); 29. (c); 30. (c); 31. (a); 32. (b); 33. (a); 34. (c); 35. (b); 36. (a); 37. (a); 38.
(b); 39. (a); 40. (b); 41. (b); 42. (a); 43. (b); 44. (c); 45. (b); 46. (b); 47. (b); 48. (a); 49. (a); 50.
(b); 51. (c); 52. (b); 53. (a); 54. (b); 55. (c); 56. (b); 57. (c); 58. (b); 59. (c); 60. (c); 61. (c); 62.
(b); 63. (c); 64. (b); 65. (c); 66. (b); 67. (b); 68. (c); 69. (a); 70. (c).

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Part 2 Descriptive Problems

Problem 2

This is another typical open-ended design problem without having all the conditions given for
getting straight solution from formula given from the textbook. What we need to do first is to
assume a reasonable coefficient of static friction between the cylinder to be picked up by the
gripper and the gripper arm. A number µ = 0.94 between dry glass to glass from mechanical
handbook (Avallone and Baumeister 1996) appears to be a reasonable value to use. This will
establish the gripping force required to pick up a cylinder with a mass of 2 mg, i.e., half of the
normal force associated with the friction force, or N = (2x10-6 kg)(9.81 m/s2)/(µ = 0.94) =
20.08x10-6 N (Newton). This situation is depicted in a pick-n-place gripper illustrated in Figure
11.6 on page 418. We thus conceive that the electrostatic force that the gripper needs to generate
is: F = 20.08x10-6 N.

By referring to the microgripper illustrated in Figure 2.45 on page 80, each pair of electrode
would generate electrostatic force f that is equal to what is given in Equation (2.11), or:

1 ε r ε oW V 2
fL =
2 d
in which εr = 8.85x10-12 C/N-m2 and εo = 1.0 (in air), W = the width = 5 µm, and the gap d = 2
µm.

We already learned from Problem 2.13 that it will take huge number of pairs of electrodes to
actuate this gripper with 25 volts. Let us assume the number of pairs required in this application
to be n, which leads to the following relations:

1 ε r ε oW V 2
nf L = n = F = 20.08 x 10 −6 , from which we arrive at the following expression:
2 d

nV2 = 1.81514x106

For the case with V = 25 v, we will need the number of pair of electrodes n = 2904.23, or 2905
pairs, which will take up 2905 x (10+2+10 = 22 µm) = 63920 µm >> 300 µm, the total length of
the gripper arm. It is therefore not practical to expect a 25 v actuation voltage for the gripper.

On the other hand, if we allow n = 300 µm/22 µm ≈ 14 pair of electrodes, then the actuation
voltage will be:

1.81514 x10 6
V = = 189.76 volts
14
for the actuation.

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Problem 3:

The diameter of the cylindrical object in Problem 2 can be obtained by the following expression:

⎛π ⎞
The mass of the cylinder m = ρ ⎜ d 2 ⎟(L )
⎝4 ⎠
where ρ = mass density of silicon = 2.3 g/cm3 (Table 7.3) = 2.3 x 103 kg/m3, L = the length of the
cylinder = 200 µm.

Thus with m = 2 mg = 2x10-6 kg, we can computer the diameter d = 2.3528 x 10-3 m.

Here, we need to assume that the attractive forces in microgripping as given in Equations (11.1)
and (11.2) are also valid for cylindrical objects. The electrostatic attractive force in Equation
(11.1) for the present case can thus be applied as:

Fe =
q2
=
(
1.6 x10 −6 )
2

= 4160 N
4πεd 2 ( )(
4(3.14 ) 8.85 x10 −12 2.3528 x10 −3 ) 2

We have computed from Problem 2 that the normal force gripping force for the cylindrical object
was 20.08 x 10-6 N, which is much less than the computed electrostatic attractive force Fe. We
thus predict that the gripper will not release the cylindrical object upon the release of the gripper.

Problem 4:

The residual curvature of the anodically bonded quartz/silicon beam can be computed by using
Equation (4.49) on page 153. Following material properties will be used in the computation:

For quartz: Yong’s modulus E1 = 0.865x1011 N/m2 (an average value from Table 7.3)
Coefficient of thermal expansion α1 = 7.1x10-6/oC (Table 7.3)

For silicon: Young’s modulus E2 = 1.9x1011 N/m2 (Table 7.3)

Coefficient of thermal expansion α2 = 2.33x10-6/oC (Table 7.3)

The ratio of Young’s modulus in Equation (4.49) is n = E1/E2 = 0.4553

We have the thickness of quartz layer to be t1 = 1 mm = 10-3 m and the thickness of the silicon
layer to be t2 = 300 µm = 3x10-4 m, from which we have m = t1/t2 = 3.3333. We further have the
thickness of the bi-layer beam to be h = t1 + t2 = 1.3x10-3 m.
The temperature drop ∆T in Equation (4.49) is: ∆T = 20 – 500 = -480oC

By substituting the above material properties and physical parameters into Equation (4.49), we
have the following:

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6(1+ m ) (α 1 − α 2 )∆T
2
1
=
ρ { [
h 3(1+ m ) + (1+ mn ) m 2 + 1 / (mn )
2
]}
=
2
(
6(1 + 3.3333) 7.1x10 −6 − 2.33 x10 −6 (− 480) ) = − 2.3083 m
(1.3x10 ){3(1+ 3.3333) + (1+ 3.3333 x 0.4553)[3.3333
−3 2 2
+ 1 / (3.3333 x 0.4553) ]}
We thus have the radius of curvature of the residual bent beam

1
ρ =− = − 0.4332 m
2.3083

The residual shape of the anodically bonded bi-layer beam is similar to that illustrated in the
lower of the two bent shapes in Figure 4.37 on page 154 as illustrated below:

3m
0.4
ρ=

m
ea
r t z b eam
a b
Qu icon
Si l

The consequence of this residual shape may cause serious misalignment of the pressure sensor
die in the silicon portion of the beam to the supporting base in the quartz portion.

Chapter 12
Introduction to Nanoscale Engineering
(Page 503)
Part 1. Multiple Choice

1. (b); 2. (c); 3. (b); 4. (b); 5. (none); 6. (c); 7. (c); 8. (c); 9. (c); 10. (a); 11. (a); 12. (c); 13. (a);
14. (b); 15. (b); 16. (b); 17. (c); 18. (a); 19. (b); 20. (b); 21. (b); 22. (c); 23. (a); 24. (b); 25. (b);
26. (a); 27. (a); 28. (b); 29. (b); 30. (b); 31. (b); 32. (c); 33. (b or c); 34. (b); 35. (c); 36. (c); 37.
(b); 38. (c); 39. (b); 40. (a); 41. (c); 42. (a); 43. (a); 44. (b); 45. (a); 46. (c); 47. (c); 48. (a); 49.
(b); 50. (b); 51. (c); 52. (c); 53. (c); 54. (a); 55. (a); 56. (c); 57. (b); 58. (b); 59. (b); 60. (c); 61.
(a); 62. (c); 63. (c); 64. (b); 65. (b); 66. (c); 67. (c); 68. (b); 69. (c); 70. (b).

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