Anatomy & Physiology I Nervous System part 1 Dr.
Anzalone
Identify the main divisions of the nervous system:
Central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS): all the nerves outside the CNS.
o The peripheral nervous system includes afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor)
divisions.
o The afferent (sensory) division transmits impulses from peripheral organs to the CNS.
o The efferent (motor) division transmits impulses from the CNS to the peripheral organs
to cause an effect or action.
o The efferent (motor) division includes the somatic and autonomic systems.
The somatic nervous system innervates skeletal muscles and is mostly under
voluntary control.
The autonomic nervous system includes the sympathetic, parasympathetic, and
enteric divisions of the nervous system under involuntary control.
The sympathetic division controls the stress response ("fight or flight")
to fear, anxiety, or anger: increased alertness, increased breathing, and
heart rate to deliver more oxygen to the brain and skeletal muscles,
increased skeletal muscle tension, increased sweating, & pupil dilation.
o The main sympathetic hormones are epinephrine and
norepinephrine.
o Sympathetic nerves run throughout the thoracolumbar regions
of the spinal cord.
The parasympathetic division opposes sympathetic stimulation to
facilitate rest, relaxation, and digestion: increased sleepiness, slower
breathing, slower heart rate, decreased skeletal muscle tension,
decreased sweating, pupil constriction, and the urge to urinate and
defecate.
o The main parasympathetic neurotransmitter is acetylcholine.
o Parasympathetic nerves run throughout the craniosacral regions
of the spinal cord.
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Anatomy & Physiology I Nervous System part 1 Dr. Anzalone
The enteric nervous system consists of specialized motor and sensory nerves
embedded into the organs of the digestive tract, which control digestive and
intestinal functions.
The enteric nervous system contains more than 90% of the body’s serotonin
and 60% of the body’s dopamine.
Serotonin controls motility and secretion of digestive enzymes.
Dopamine controls motility and sodium absorption.
The enteric nervous system is the only division of the autonomic nervous system
that functions independently of the brain and spinal cord.
Describe the structure and function of neurons:
Neurons are primarily responsible for generating and conducting electrical signals (action
potentials) into, within, and out of the nervous system.
o Dendrites are branchlike extensions from the neuron cell body that receive incoming
signals from other neurons or sensory cells.
o The cell body contains genetic information and controls the activities of neurons.
o The axon conducts action potentials.
o The synaptic end bulb (also called the terminal end bulb) is the end of the axon that
releases neurotransmitters onto a target cell across a synapse.
o A synapse is a narrow junction across which a chemical signal passes from one neuron
to another, initiating a new action potential.
o Myelin wraps around segments of the axons of myelinated neurons and increases the
speed of the action potential.
Describe the functions of the glial cells in the CNS and PNS:
Glial cells function as the support cells of the nervous system.
o CNS glial cells include astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells.
Astrocytes:
Control the chemical environment around neurons.
Form part of the blood-brain barrier (a physiological barrier between
the circulatory system and the central nervous system that restricts the
flow of substances into the CNS).
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Anatomy & Physiology I Nervous System part 1 Dr. Anzalone
Oligodendrocytes make myelin on the axons of neurons in the CNS.
Microglia:
Phagocytic cells in the CNS
Digest waste products and infectious microorganisms.
Ependymal cells:
Line the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord
Make cerebral-spinal fluid (CSF; circulates nutrients in the brain and
spinal cord; acts as a shock absorber, protecting the internal brain
structures from trauma).
o PNS glial cells include satellite cells and Schwann cells.
Satellite cells provide nutrients to neurons in the PNS.
Schwann cells make myelin on the axons of PNS neurons.
Describe the process of action potential generation in a neuron:
At the resting membrane potential, the cell is not generating or conducting an action potential.
As a result, the sodium (Na+) ion concentration is greater outside the cell, and the potassium (K+)
ion concentration is greater inside the cell. Additionally, the concentration of negatively charged
proteins is greater inside the cell. Therefore, the resting membrane potential (the electrical
charge inside the cell) is -70 mV.
A graded potential is a stimulus that causes some of the Na+ channels to open and Na+ move
into the cell.
If the graded potential is strong enough, the cell reaches its threshold potential, and more Na+
enters the cell.
Depolarization occurs when enough Na+ diffuses rapidly into the cell, making the membrane
potential (the electrical charge) inside the cell less negative (about -55 mV).
o Action potentials are "all or nothing" events. For example, an intense stimulation brings
the neuron to its threshold potential and causes depolarization ("all"), but a weak
stimulation does not (“nothing”).
Depolarization peaks at about + 30 mV when Na+ channels close and K+ channels open, causing
K+ to move out of the cell.
Repolarization occurs when more K+ moves out of the cell and the membrane potential
becomes more negative.
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Anatomy & Physiology I Nervous System part 1 Dr. Anzalone
Depolarization and repolarization correspond to the absolute refractory periods, in which no
other action potentials can occur, no matter how strong the stimulus.
When the membrane potential drops to about – 90 mV, hyperpolarization occurs.
o Hyperpolarization prevents another action potential from being generated until the
neuron reaches its resting membrane potential again.
o Hyperpolarization corresponds to the relative refractory period in which another action
potential could occur if the stimulus is strong enough.
The sodium-potassium pump uses energy (ATP) to move 3 Na+ out of the cell and 2 K+ into the
cell at the same time. As a result, sodium-potassium pump redistributes the ions to their original
concentrations (more Na+ outside the cell and more K+ inside the cell), returning the cell to its
resting membrane potential at -70 mV.
Local anesthetics block sodium channels, preventing depolarization in pain-conducting nerve
fibers. Common examples: lidocaine, bupivacaine (Marcaine), tetracaine.
Describe the propagation of action potentials in myelinated and unmyelinated neurons:
Myelin increases the speed of action potentials by preventing depolarization in the segments of
the axon covered with myelin.
Factors that increase action potential conduction velocity:
o Wide diameter fibers
o Myelin sheaths
o Greater distance between nodes of Ranvier
Multiple sclerosis (M.S.):
o Autoimmune disease.
o Causes demyelination (destruction of the myelin sheaths of nerve fibers).
o Results in interrupted conduction of action potentials.
In myelinated axons, depolarization can only occur at the nodes of Ranvier (the segments of the
axon that are not covered with myelin).
Myelinated axons carry action potentials by saltatory conduction.
o Saltatory conduction describes depolarization at the nodes of Ranvier.
Unmyelinated axons carry action potentials by continuous conduction.
o Continuous conduction describes the slower movement of action potentials due to the
depolarization that occurs along the entire length of the axon.
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Anatomy & Physiology I Nervous System part 1 Dr. Anzalone
The presynaptic neuron fires the neurotransmitter when an action potential enters its axon
terminal.
The synapse is the point of contact between neurons where information is passed from one neuron
to the next.
The synaptic cleft is the space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons.
The post-synaptic neuron receives the neurotransmitter after it has crossed the synapse.
Distinguish between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters:
Chemical messengers secreted by neurons.
Either excitatory or inhibitory.
Excitatory neurotransmitters cause depolarization.
o Common excitatory neurotransmitters:
o Acetylcholine:
In the CNS: involved in memory, motivation, arousal, and attention.
In the PNS: required for skeletal muscle contraction; the main parasympathetic
neurotransmitter.
o Norepinephrine:
In the CNS: regulates arousal, attention, cognitive function, and stress reactions.
In the PNS: the primary sympathetic neurotransmitter.
o Glutamate:
In the CNS: the primary excitatory neurotransmitter of the brain.
Makes rapid signaling necessary for learning and memory possible.
o Substance P:
In the CNS: regulates pain perception in the brain.
In the PNS: induces inflammation in the intestines.
o Nitric oxide:
In the CNS: facilitates communication between neurons in the brain.
In the PNS: causes vasodilation of the blood vessels in the penis and clitoris.
Inhibitory neurotransmitters prevent depolarization, cause hyperpolarization.
o Common inhibitory neurotransmitters:
o Serotonin:
In the CNS: regulates moods.
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Anatomy & Physiology I Nervous System part 1 Dr. Anzalone
In the PNS: regulates intestinal functions.
o GABA:
In the CNS: the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter; induces sleep & relaxation;
controls anxiety, stress, and fear.
o Glycine:
In the CNS: involved in the processing of motor and sensory information.
o Adenosine:
In the CNS: protects the brain by preventing glutamate release during a stroke.
o Endorphins:
In the CNS: Produce feelings of euphoria.
In the PNS: reduce pain by blocking the release of substance P.
o Endocannabinoids:
In the CNS: involved in learning & memory; controls appetite & nausea control.
