Chapter 8: Motion

Introduction
 Position: Motion of any object is defined by its position with respect to the observer.
Position is the location of the object. If object changes its position with the passage of
time, it is said to be in motion.
 Reference point: It is the point from which the location of object is measured. It is often
called as origin.
Any object can be located only with the help of reference point and its direction.
Example: Suppose a person changes its position with respect to a tree (a reference point) with
passage of time. In this example, person is an object and tree is a reference point. Direction is
also necessary to locate an object.
 Rest
When a body doesn’t change its position with respect to its surroundings or reference point
 Motion
When the body changes its position with respect to its surroundings or reference point.
So, we can say that when any object is moving or in motion it possess following characteristics
as given below.
Characteristics of moving object
- The moving object changes its position with time

Types of Motion
We come across different types of motions like
Linear
Rotational
Circular
Vibratory
Oscillatory

 Linear
We all when drive on road mostly the roads are straight so, that motion where we move in a
straight line is called linear motion
 Rotational
You all know the earth rotates on its axis which causes day and night that movement is
rotational motion because it is rotating on its axis so, we can define as the rotational motion
when the body rotates about a fixed axis.
 Circular
You all encounter round bouts on road and when you are driving you can’t drive straight through
it, you have to take the curved path that is the circular motion. So, if body travels along a curved
path
 Vibratory
You all must have played with the instrument guitar. So, what happens when you strike it with
your finger its string starts vibrating and thus the sound is produced. That motion is vibratory as
it is caused due to vibratory motion of particles so it is when body show to and from movements.
 Oscillatory motion
It is defined as the to and fro motion of an object from its mean position. The ideal condition is
that the object can be in oscillatory motion forever in the absence of friction but in the real
world, this is not possible and the object has to settle into equilibrium.

Scalar and vector physical quantities

We study so many physical quantities like distance, velocity and many more. All these quantities
are broadly classified under two categories that is scalar or vector depending upon where they
give the complete information about the magnitude (value) and direction or give the incomplete
information like only direction or only value.

Scalar Quantities
The quantities that depend upon magnitude and not the direction is called scalar quantities.
They are represented as their own symbol.
For Example: If you travel to Delhi to your relative’s place and if someone asks you about the
distance what do you reply. We say it was like 250km run from Chandigarh. You don’t tell him
that 25km towards east, then west. We just say 250km that means we describe it only in
magnitude and we don’t specify directions. So, it is a scalar quantity.

Vector Quantities
The physical quantities that depends upon magnitude as well as direction. They are represented
by putting arrow on their symbol.
For Example: Now if you travel a straight short path in a specific direction then we can say that I
travelled 25km towards east. So, in this case direction is specified so it falls in the category of
vector quantity.

Motion in straight line

When an object moves in straight line with respect to the observer then the motion is called
straight line motion. For example, motion of lift.

Position in Straight line Motion:

Positive sign shows position in right (positive) direction.

Negative sign shows position in left (negative) direction.
Zero is usually considered as reference point or origin.
Distance & Displacement
Distance is the actual path travelled by an object from its initial position to final position. It is a
scalar quantity.
Characteristics of distance
 It can never be zero: it is not possible that body moves but the distance is zero
 If a body travels different paths then total distance is calculated by simply adding the
magnitude of all the paths
 It is a scalar quantity

Displacement is the shortest straight route travelled by body in given direction

 It is represented as S
 It is a vector quantity
 It can be zero: whenever a body starts from one point and returns to the same point the
displacement is zero.
 If body travels different paths, then total displacement is calculated by adding different
vectors

 If the initial and final points are same then displacement will be zero.
 They are equal only in straight line motion without taking U- turn.

Distance depends on path displacement does not depend on path

Distance is always greater than or equal to displacement.
Example:
Uniform & Non – uniform Motion
Concept Map of Motion

Speed and Velocity

Speed
o Speed is defined as the total distance travelled by the object in the time interval during
which the motion takes place.
o It is Represented as V
o SI unit of speed is meter per second. m/sec or m/sec or m sec-1 or km/hr) So,

where s is the distance traveled by the body and t is the time taken by the body to travel
distance s.
o Speed of a body gives us the idea how slow or fast that body is moving.
o Unit
o It is a scalar quantity
 o Speed of any object can also be measured at any instant of time with the help of
speedometer, whereas. The distance travelled by car is measured by Odometer.

Speed is of Three Types

 Uniform Speed
 Non-Uniform Speed
 Average Speed

Average Speed: The ratio of total distance travelled to total time taken by the body gives its
average speed.

Average Speed = Total Distance Travelled / Total Time Taken

Concept Map of Speed

Velocity

 Velocity is the displacement of body in unit time.

 Velocity of an object is measured in meter/ second in SI units. So,

 Velocity is nothing but the speed of an object moving in a definite direction.

 The velocity of an object can be uniform or variable. It can be changed by changing the
object’s speed, direction of motion or both.
 So velocity of a body is a vector quantity involving both distance and displacement
 The speed gives us the information about the distance with respect to time but doesn’t
specify the direction so we are in immediate need of physical quantity that gives the
information as speed and also specifies the direction so here comes velocity.
Velocity = Displacement of Object / Time Taken
 Note:
 Velocity has both magnitude and direction while speed has only magnitude and no
direction.
 Velocity has same direction as displacement.
 It is the distance covered by a body per unit time in a given direction. Or “Speed in given
direction”
 Units🡪 m/s or km/hr (meter)
 It is a vector quantity
 It is a complete quantity

Types of Velocity
 Uniform velocity
 Non uniform velocity
 Average velocity

 Uniform Velocity
Let’s take an example suppose we are travelling to Delhi and we are covering the same
distance like in each hour we cover 60 km in specified direction then the body is said to
be travelling with uniform velocity.
Thus a body is said to be moving with uniform velocity if it covers equal distances in
equal intervals of time in a specified direction.

 Non-uniform Velocity
If we are travelling to Delhi and due to mending of roads or any other reason there is huge
traffic due to which we are not able to take the straight line direction and also the speed
doesn’t remain same then the velocity is said to be non uniform velocity.
When body covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time not in a straight line (not in
given direction).
Example: A car running towards north on busy road with variable velocity.
 Average Velocity: When velocity of the object changes at a uniform rate, then average
velocity is given by the arithmetic mean of initial velocity and final velocity for a given period
of time. That is,
Average Velocity=u+v2Average Velocity=u+v2
Where u is the initial velocity of the object and v is the final velocity of the object.

The ratio of total displacement travelled to total time taken by the body gives its average
velocity.
Average Velocity = Total Displacement / Total Time Taken
Initial velocity is denoted by ‘u’
Final velocity is denoted by ‘v’

o Average speed is always greater than average velocity except in case of straight line
motion without u – turn when both are equal.
o If body returns to its initial position, average velocity will be zero but average speed will
not be zero.
o When direction of motion changes, velocity also changes.
 Concept Map of Velocity

Instantaneous Speed and Velocity

Instantaneous speed is the speed of an object at a particular moment (instant) in time.

Instantaneous velocity is the velocity of an object in motion at a specific point in time.
 Difference between speed and velocity

Speed Velocity

i.It is distance travelled with respect to time in It is distance travelled with respect to time in
any direction. given direction.

i.Scalar quantity Vector quantity

ii. Complete quantity Complete quantity

Acceleration
 Acceleration is a measure of the change in the velocity of an object per unit time and
mathematically it is given as

 If the velocity of an object changes from an initial value u to the final value v in time t, the
acceleration a is given by,
a=v−u/t
and this kind of motion is called accelerated motion.
 A body has uniform acceleration if it travels in a straight line and its velocity increases by
equal amount in equal intervals of time for example freely falling bodies, motion of ball
rolling down the inclined plane etc.
 A body has non uniform acceleration if its velocity increases or decreases by unequal
amount in equal intervals of time.
 If acceleration is in the direction of the velocity then it is positive acceleration and if it is
in the direction opposite to the direction of velocity then it is negative and the negative
acceleration is termed retardation.
 SI unit of acceleration is ms-2.

Types of acceleration
 Uniform acceleration
 Non uniform acceleration
 Retardation

 Uniform Acceleration
Suppose we are travelling to Delhi from Chandigarh and our velocity increases in equal
amounts like initially it was 50m/sec then it becomes 70m/sec, then 90m/sec in equal intervals
of time and in a straight line then the acceleration comes in to play as velocity is undergoing a
change.
When velocity of a body undergoes equal changes in velocity in equal intervals of time in
straight line.
Example: Freely falling body

 Non-uniform Acceleration
Suppose in a similar as we took for uniform acceleration if increase or decrease in velocity is not
regular and not in the specified direction, then it falls in the category of non uniform acceleration.
When velocity undergoes unequal changes in equal intervals of time and the direction may not
be a straight line
Example: Body moving with variable velocity

 Retardation
Acceleration is said to be retardation when velocity decreases with time.
Example: Slowing down of car

Concept Map of Acceleration

Equations of uniformly accelerated motion
Relation among velocity, distance, time and acceleration is called equations of motion. There
are three equations of motion for bodies moving with uniform acceleration. These equations can
be used to solve problems of motion

1. FIRST EQUATION OF MOTION - Equation of Velocity Time Relation

The first equation of motion is v=u+at, where v is the final velocity and u is the initial velocity of
the body.

v = u + at … (i)
 2. SECOND EQUATION OF MOTION:- Equation of Position- Time Relation

s = ut + ½at2… (ii)
3. THIRD EQUATION - Equation of Position- Velocity Relation
v2 = u2 + 2as… (iii)
Here,
v = final velocity of body
u = initial velocity of body
a = acceleration of body
t = time taken by body
s = distance travelled by body in time t.

Average Velocity in Uniform Accelerated Motion

If a body moves ‘s’ distance in ‘t’ time interval. Then,
Average Velocity = Displacement / Time
= s/t
= (ut + ½at2) / t [∴ s = ut + ½at2]
= ut + ½at
= ut + ½ (v-u)
= u + v/2 - u/2
 = u/2 + v/2 = u+v/2
Here ‘a’ is uniform acceleration of body.

These three equations of motion are used to solve uniformly accelerated motion problems and
following three important points should be remembered while solving problems
a. if a body starts moving from rest its initial velocity u=0u=0
b. if a body comes to rest i.e., it stops then its final velocity would be v=0v=0
c. If a body moves with uniform velocity then its acceleration would be zero.

Graphical representation of motion

 A graph is a pictorial representation of the relation between two sets of data of which
one set is of dependent variables and the other set is of independent variables.
 To describe the motion of an object, we can use line graphs. In this case, line graphs
show dependence of one physical quantity, such as distance or velocity, on another
quantity, such as time.

Distance Time Graphs

 The change in the position of an object with time can be represented on the distance-
time graph.
 In this graph, time is taken along the x-axis and distance is taken along the y-axis.
 Distance time graphs of a moving body can be used to calculate the speed of the body
as they specifically represent velocity.

A. When d-t graph is parallel to time axis

  In this body is not changing its position with respect to time that shows body is
stationary. Like if we take the markings on the axis, we see that in any time the distance
covered is exactly the same.
 So, the information that we get, is: The body is stationary

 To calculate speed of the body from distance time graph say at point A first draw a
perpendicular AB on time axis and a perpendicular ACAC on distance axis so
that ABAB represents the distance travelled by the body in time interval OB and since
we know that

B. When d-t graph is straight line not parallel

This shows the distance covered is directly proportional to time that shows body is moving with
[uniform speed]
If we look at the markings carefully we observe, that when time is 2 sec then distance is 10m,
when time is 4 sec the distance is 20m. We can say there is an equal increase with equal
intervals of time.
So, the information we get is:
 Body is moving with uniform speed

C. When d-t graph is not a straight line

If we look at the markings carefully we observe, that when time is 2 sec then distance is 10m,
when time is 5 sec the distance is 20m. We can say there is an unequal increase with equal
intervals of time.
So, the information we get:
 This shows body is moving with non uniform speed.

Velocity time graphs

 The variation in velocity with time for an object moving in a straight line can be
represented by a velocity-time graph.
 It represents acceleration
 In this graph, time is represented along the x-axis and the velocity is represented along
the y-axis.
 The product of velocity and time give displacement of an object moving with uniform
velocity. The area enclosed by velocity-time graph and the time axis will be equal to the
magnitude of the displacement.

 The area enclosed under graph gives displacement

A. When v-t graph is || to time axis
 In this body is not changing its velocity with respect to time that shows body is moving with the
same velocity. Like if we take the markings on the axis, we see that in any time the velocity is
exactly the same.
So, the information that we get, is:
 The body is moving with constant velocity
 Acceleration = change in velocity/time
=0/5-2=0m/sec2
 The displacement =area under v-t graph
S= area of rectangle
= OBCD
= L x B= 50 x 5 = 250m
 This shows body is starting from rest & then its velocity increases at uniform rate.

B. When v-t is straight line

When v-t is straight line

This shows velocity is directly proportional to time that shows body is moving with [uniform
velocity]
 If we look at the markings carefully we observe, that when time is 1 sec then velocity is
10m/sec, when time is 2 sec the velocity is 20m/sec. We can say there is an equal increase with
equal intervals of time.
So, the information we get is:
 Body is moving with uniform velocity
 Acc =equal to the slope
a=v-u/t
a=50-0/6=50/6=8.3m/sec2
 Displacement = area of triangle
S=1/2 Lx B
S=1/2 x 6 x 50=150 m

C. When v-t is straight line but body does start from rest

This shows velocity is directly proportional to time that shows body is moving with [uniform
velocity] but here in this body is not starting from rest, it has already acquired a velocity of
10m/sec.
If we look at the markings carefully we observe, that when time is 1 sec then velocity is
10m/sec, when time is 2 sec the velocity is 20m/sec. We can say there is an equal increase with
equal intervals of time.
So, the information we get is:
 Body is moving with uniform velocity but not starting from rest .
 Acc =equal to the slope
a= v-u/t
a=40-10/4=30/4=7.4m/sec2
  If a body moves with a constant velocity then velocity time graph for this body would be
straight line parallel to time axis as shown below in the figure 5

 The velocity time graph of uniformly changing velocity is shown in figure 6 and is a
straight line. We can find out the value of acceleration using the velocity time graph.
 For calculating acceleration at time corresponding to point R draw a perpendicular RP
from point R as shown in figure 6 and we know that

Here change in velocity is represented by PR and time taken is equal to OR. So,

which is equal to the slope of velocity time graph. So we conclude that slope of velocity
time graph of moving body gives its acceleration.
 The distance traveled by moving body in a given time will be equal to area of triangle
OPR as shown in figure 6

so,

 When the velocity of a body changes in an irregular manner then velocity time graph of
the body is a curved line.

 Displacement = area of trapezium

S= ½ (OA+ BC) x CO
= ½ (10 +40) x 4
= ½ x 50 x 4 =100m

Uniform circular motion

 When an object moves in a circular path at a constant speed then motion of the object is
called uniform circular motion.
 In our everyday life ,we came across many examples of circular motion for example cars
going round the circular track and many more .Also earth and other planets revolve
around the sun in a roughly circular orbits
 If the speed of motion is constant for a particle moving in a circular motion still the
particles accelerates because of constantly changing direction of the velocity.
 If an object moves in a circular path with uniform speed, its motion is called uniform
circular motion
 Here in circular motion, we use angular velocity in place of velocity we used while
studying linear motion.
 Force which is needed to make body travel in a circular path is called centripetal force.
 We know that the circumference of a circle of radius rr is given by 2πr2πr. If the body
takes tt seconds to go once around the circular path of radius rr, the velocity vv is given
by
v=2πrtv=2πrt
 One thing we must keep in mind is that uniform linear motion is not accelerated but
uniform circular motion is accelerated motion.
 Examples of uniform circular motion are
(a) Motion of artificial satellites around the earth
(b) Moon, the natural satellite of earth, moves in uniform circular motion round the earth.
(c) Cyclist moving on a circular track with a constant speed exhibits uniform circular
motion.
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