Foreign policy aims

Hitler had three main aims in his foreign policy:

 revise the Treaty of Versailles

 unite all German-speaking people into one Reich

 expand eastwards to achieve Lebensraum

Historians have disagreed about Hitler’s aims. A J P Taylor argued that

Hitler did not deliberately set out for a destructive war. Instead, Hitler was
an opportunist and made gains in his foreign policy by direct action and
audacity.

Hugh Trevor-Roper has argued that Hitler had a long term plan - a
programme of colonisation of Eastern Europe and a war of conquest in the
West. This Stufenplan, step-by-step policy, led to war.

Probably the most convincing argument is that Hitler had consistency of

aims, but was also an opportunist that was flexible in his strategy.

There were three stages to his foreign policy.

 A moderate policy up to 1935.

 Increased activity between 1935 and 1937.

 A more confident foreign policy after 1937, certain that there would
be little opposition to his plans.

Rearmament and conscription

Rearmament created jobs in the armaments industry pushing the idea of

'guns before butter'. Rearmament started almost as soon as Hitler came
to power but was announced publicly in 1935.

The introduction of national service meant all young men spent six
months in the RAD and then they were conscripted into the army. By
1939, 1.4 million men were in the army, so they were not counted as
unemployed.

In January 1935, the population of the Saar coalfield, separated from

Germany by the post-war treaties, were allowed a plebiscite and showed
that over 90 per cent of the population wanted to reunite with Germany.
Hitler regarded this as a great triumph because it was the first of the
injustices of the Treaty of Versailles to be reversed.
Hitler's foreign policy and the build up to war

Hitler had four main aims in foreign policy:

1. To undo the hated Treaty of Versailles. Hitler blamed the treaty for
much of Germany’s troubles since 1918.

2. To unite all German speaking people into a Grossdeutschland

(Greater Germany). This was linked to aim number one: many
Germans had found themselves living outside of Germany after the
territorial changes of the treaty, and of course Germany and Austria
were forbidden from uniting.

3. To acquire Lebensraum (living space) to the East of Germany. Hitler

believed the Aryan Germans were racially superior to the Slavs of
Eastern Europe and should expand into their lands to accommodate
a growing Aryan population.

4. To destroy communism. Hitler detested the Soviet Union and its

ideology and was determined to destroy it.

Hitler pursued these aims ruthlessly, and in doing so helped to bring about
World War Two, as the following table shows:

Aims
Yea Reaction of other European address
r Events powers ed

In March, Germany
reintroduced conscription
and Hitler announced that Britain, France and Italy
193 the Germans had secretly condemned the moves but did
5 been rearming nothing to stop Hitler 1

In March, Hitler
remilitarised the Britain and France again
Rhineland, from which condemned the move but did
German troops were nothing to stop Hitler, as they
193 banned under the Treaty of were distracted by a crisis
6 Versailles between Italy and Abyssinia 1

In March, Hitler united

Germany and Austria in an This time the Italian leader
193 event known as the Mussolini approved of Hitler’s
8 Anschluss move 1, 2

193 In September, Hitler Britain, France and Italy 1, 2, 3

 Aims
Yea Reaction of other European address
r Events powers ed

arranged a series of
conferences that ended with an
agreement to allow Germany to
demanded that the annexe the Sudetenland, known
German speaking part of as the Munich Agreement. This
Czechoslovakia, called the was part of the British and
Sudetenland, be given to French policy of Appeasement
Germany. After threats of (allowing things to happen to
war the Czechs were avoid another conflict or war).
forced to accept However, neither the Czechs
Germany’s annexation of nor the Soviet Union were
8 the area invited to take part

This was the end of the policy of

Appeasement. Britain and
In March, Germany took France signed a treaty with
193 over the rest of Poland guaranteeing its
9 Czechoslovakia independence 3

In August, Hitler signed the

Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression
Pact with the leader of the This pact made war virtually
USSR, Joseph Stalin. This inevitable, as it meant the USSR
was a non-aggression pact would not oppose a German
that included a secret invasion of Poland, which Britain
193 agreement to divide Poland and France had promised to
9 between the two countries defend 1, 3

Up until the end of 1938, every move of Hitler’s had been justified as
helping to undo the injustice of the Treaty of Versailles. However, in 1939
Hitler went beyond simply undoing the treaty and began to expand
Germany.

On 1 September 1939 Germany invaded Poland. Britain and France

declared war on Germany on 3 September, beginning World War Two.
Rhineland Invasion, March 1936

Figure 1: Map showing the location of the Rhineland on the western border of Germany

For many years the Rhineland area had been a key industrial region of
Germany, producing coal, steel and iron resources.

The Rhineland also formed a natural barrier to its neighbour and rival,
France. In the event of a war, the River Rhine, if properly defended, would
be a difficult obstacle for an invading force to cross.

One of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles was that the Germans would
not be able to keep military forces in a 50 km stretch of the Rhineland.
Hitler resented this term as it made Germany vulnerable to invasion. He
was determined to enlarge his military capability and strengthen his
borders.

In 1935, Hitler revealed that he had built up an air force and signed the
Anglo-German Naval Agreement that allowed him to enlarge his naval
forces.

In 1936, Hitler boldly marched 22,000 German troops into the Rhineland,
in a direct contravention of the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler offered France
and Britain a 25 year non-aggression pact and claimed 'Germany had no
territorial demands to make in Europe'.

Austrian Anschluss, March 1938

Figure 2: Map showing the Anschluss with Austria

Hitler wanted all German-speaking nations in Europe to be a part of

Germany. To this end, he had designs on re-uniting Germany with his
native homeland, Austria. Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles,
however, Germany and Austria were forbidden to be unified.

Hitler also wanted control of the largely German-speaking area within

Czechoslovakia, called the Sudetenland. Importantly, Austria shared a
border with this area.

In an attempt to realise his goals, Hitler was determined to destabilise

Austria and undermine its independence. His ultimate goal
was Anschluss (union) with Austria.

The failed coup

The Austrian Chancellor, Dollfuss, tried to crack down on the Socialists
and Nazis - political factions that he thought were tearing the country
apart. Dollfuss banned the Nazi party.

In 1934, Hitler ordered the Austrian Nazis to create havoc in Austria. This
turned into an attempt to overthrow the government. Chancellor Dollfuss
was murdered but the attempted coup failed because the Austrian military
intervened to back up the government.

In 1934, Italy had an agreement with Austria that it would protect Austria
from outside aggression. The Italian dictator, Mussolini, honoured the
agreement and moved Italian troops to the Austrian border to deter Hitler
from invading.

Events in Austria

The new Austrian Chancellor, Schuschnigg tried to preserve the country

from German invasion by trying not to give Hitler an excuse for
aggression. He tried to co-operate with Hitler as much as possible.

Schuschnigg signed the German-Austrian Agreement of 1936. This pact

recognised the independence of Austria but the price was that Austria's
foreign policy had to be consistent with Germany's. The agreement also
allowed Nazis to hold official posts in Austria. Schuschnigg hoped this
would appease Hitler. He was wrong.

Schuschnigg's position was undermined in 1936 when Hitler and Mussolini

formalised the Rome-Berlin Axis during their joint involvement in the
Spanish Civil War (1936-39). With Germany and Italy now firm allies,
Austria had lost the protection of Italy and was vulnerable to German
attack.

In 1938, Schuschnigg visited Hitler at his summer retreat at

Berchtesgaden, near the Austrian border. Hitler demanded that Nazis be
given key government posts in Austria. Schuschnigg compromised and the
Nazi member, Seyss-Inquart, was made Minister of the Interior.

Hitler ordered Austrian Nazis to create as much trouble and destruction as

possible in order to put pressure on Schuschnigg. If Hitler could claim that
Austrian law and order had broken down he could justify marching
German troops into Vienna to restore peace - despite the fact that he was
responsible for the chaos in the first place.

Four days in March

Wednesday 9 March 1938

In a desperate act, Schuschnigg announced a referendum whereby the

Austrian people would decide for themselves if they wanted to be a part of
Hitler's Germany. Hitler was furious. If the Austrians voted against joining
Germany his excuse for invasion would be ruined.

Thursday 10th March 1938

Hitler told his generals to prepare for the invasion of Austria. He ordered
Schuschnigg to call off the referendum. Knowing he would receive no help
from Italy, and that France and Britain would not interfere in Hitler's plans,
Schuschnigg conceded. He called off the referendum and resigned.

The Nazi Austrian Interior Minister, Seyss-Inquart, was ordered by Hitler to

ask for German help in restoring order in Austria.

Friday 11th March 1938

Hitler reassured Czechoslovakia that they had nothing to fear.

Saturday 12th March 1938

German troops marched into Austria unopposed. Hitler now had control of
Austria. A month later, Hitler held a rigged referendum. The results
showed that the Austrian people approved of German control of their
country.

Foreign reaction

France

French politics were in turmoil in March 1938. In fact, two days before
Germany invaded Austria, the entire French government had resigned.
France was not in a position to oppose the invasion.

Britain

In March 1938, Britain was having its own political problems. Anthony
Eden, the Foreign Secretary, had resigned over Prime Minister Neville
Chamberlain's decision to open negotiations with the fascist dictator of
Italy, Mussolini. As such, with Chamberlain determined to appease Hitler,
there was no political will to oppose Germany.

Furthermore, the British population were against the idea of another

European war. The Anschluss was not seen as a threat to Britain and, as
both nations were German-speaking, there was a sense that there was no
good reason why Austria and Germany shouldn't unify.

Anti-appeasers, such as Winston Churchill, were alarmed by Germany's

annexation of Austria. They believed that if Hitler had a true claim to
Austria, he should have used negotiation and diplomacy rather than force.

Results
  Germany added seven million people and an army of 100,000 to
its Reich.

 Germany gained useful resources such as steel, iron ore and

Austria's foreign exchange reserves.

 The balance of power in south-eastern Europe shifted in favour of

Germany, increasing their influence in the Balkans.

 Czechoslovakia was now surrounded on three fronts by Germany.

The Sudetenland 1938

Figure 3: Map showing the Czech partition

Hitler turned his attention to Czechoslovakia after his Anschluss triumph.

He wanted to dismember this democratic country by whatever means
necessary. Czechoslovakia was a member of the League of Nations and
allied to France and the Soviet Union. There were however large minorities
within Czechoslovakia. This included 3 million Germans in the area known
as the Sudetenland.

Key events

Early in 1938, the German leader in the Sudetenland Konrad Henlein

complains that Sudeten Germans are being mistreated by Czechs.
30 May 1938 – Hitler orders plans to destroy Czechoslovakia by 1
October.

12 September 1938 – Hitler makes a speech attacking Czechoslovakia.

15 September 1938 – Neville Chamberlain, the British Prime Minister,

flies to see Hitler at the Berghof and agrees that Czechoslovakia should
give all areas with 50 per cent German Sudetens to Germany. The British
and French persuade the Czechs to agree.

22 September 1938 – Chamberlain is successful in persuading Edvard

Beneš, President of Czechoslovakia, to accept Germany’s demands.
Chamberlain meets Hitler at Bad Godesberg confident that the crisis was
over. Hitler however had changed his mind and wanted the Sudetenland
by 1 October. The talks break down and there is real fear now of a war in
Europe. Chamberlain persuades Mussolini, the Italian dictator, to arrange
a conference at Munich to discuss the issue of the Sudetenland.

29-30 September 1938 – Britain, France, Germany and Italy met in

Munich. Crucially Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union were not present.
The four countries agreed to the German occupation of the Sudetenland
between 1 and 10 October. German troops occupy the Sudetenland.
Britain and France were following a policy of appeasement. Neville
Chamberlain returned to Britain claiming he had established peace in our
time. However following the agreement both Britain and France speeded
up their own rearmament plans. Chamberlain's claim turned out to be a
false hope as within a year of the agreement World War Two had started.

The final destruction of Czechoslovakia - 1939

The Munich agreement dealt only with the Germans in the Sudetenland. It
said nothing of the nearly 2 million Germans living in Bohemia and
Moravia. Hitler now moved to bring them under German control.

Using the same tactics as in other events, he claimed that Germans were
being treated unfairly. He claimed that the Czech government had lost
control and that the German army should be sent in to restore order.

Hitler invited President Hacha to Berlin on 14 March 1939 and kept him
waiting until 01:15 while Hitler finished watching a film. Hitler demanded
that Hacha agreed to split Czechoslovakia within a few hours. At 04:00,
President Hacha caved in to Hitler’s demands and German troops marched
into Prague on 15 March 1939. This was conquest pure and simple.

Germany expanded and gained valuable resources as Czechoslovakia was

rich in coal and possessed the huge Skoda armaments factory.
The Nazi-Soviet Pact 1939
Hitler wanted the restoration of Danzig to Germany and also the return of
the Polish Corridor. Britain and France had realised by now that it was not
possible to appease Hitler and made a commitment to defend Poland.

Map of Germany, Poland and East Prussia showing the Danzig region and
the Polish Corridor.

In August, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression

pact. This was a promise not to fight each other. Joachim von Ribbentrop,
the German Foreign minister, went to Moscow with full authority to
negotiate an agreement. The agreement publicly stated that there would
be non-aggression for ten years and made economic agreements.

There were however secret elements to the agreement. Both countries

agree to help each other if there is a war against Poland. Crucially this
gave Hitler the freedom to invade Poland without having to worry about
the Soviet Union.

The Pact was an amazing U-turn. Hitler had always stressed that the
Soviet Union was his main enemy, ruled by Jewish Communists and
subhuman Slavs. It was the main focus of Lebensraum.

It was a masterstroke because:

it left Poland isolated

it destroyed attempts by the West to bring the Soviet Union into an

alliance against Germany

Germany avoided being dragged into a war on two fronts

Germany gained vital raw materials from the Soviet Union that helped
rearmament