2: Load Analysis
➢ Types of Loads – Dead loads, live loads, impact loads,
wind loads, earthquake, hydraulic forces, etc.
➢ In additional to the above loads; temperature effects,
erection effects, secondary effects and deformation effects
should be considered.
➢ Computation of each type of load.
1
2.1 Permanent Loads
Include:
• Dead loads
• Superimposed dead loads
• Loads due to filling material
2
Dead loads
Include self weights of bridge elements.
– Concrete: 24 kN/m3
– Steel: 78.5 kN/m3
– Timber: 4-8 kN/m3
– Hollow bricks: 15 kN/m3
– Solid bricks 22 kN/m3
– Natural stones or rock: 20-28 kN/m3
– Railways ballast: 19 kN/m3
3
Superimposed dead load
Include weight of all materials forming loads on the
structure that are not structural elements , such as;
• wearing surface,
• railway tracks ballast,
• guardrails,
• parapets,
• Loads due to filling materials etc
4
2.2 Live Loads
➢These are imposed loads due to vehicles or
pedestrians.
➢Primary live loads, considered as static loads due
to the weight of traffic or impact.
➢Secondary live loads due to changes in speed or
direction of the vehicle traffic, e.g. braking forces,
acceration forces, centrifugal forces and collision
loads.
5
2.3 Other Loads
• Wind loads
• Constraining loads
• Exceptional loads
• Earth Pressure
• Errection loads
6
2.3.1 Wind Loads
➢ The wind pressure on a bridge depends on the
geographical location, the local topography, the height of
the bridge above ground, and the horizontal dimensions
and cross section of the bridge.
➢ Wind load Pt = qA1CD
where q is the dynamic pressure head (= 0.613v 2c in N/m2,
with vc in m/s)
A1 is the solid area (in m2) (see 5.3.3.1)
CD is the drag coefficient (see 5.3.3.2 to 5.3.3.6
7
2.3.2 Constraining loads
• Due to temperature changes (see 5.4)
• Shrinkage and Creep (see 5.5)
• Pier settlements (see 5.6)
• Friction forces in the bearings
8
Exceptional loads
2.3.3 Exceptional loads such as Earthquake loads
(sec 5.7)
2.3.4 Earth pressure (sec 5.8)
2.3.5 Erection loads (sec 5.9) etc.
9
Highway Bridge Live Loads (sec 6.0)
• HA loadings
• HB loadings
10
HA loading
➢HA loading is the normal design loading that
adequately covers the effects of all permitted
normal vehicles
➢HA loads include:
• A uniformly distributed load
• A knife-edge load
.
• HA loading includes a 25% allowance for
impact
11
HA loading
• The intensity of which depends upon the
loaded length
• Knife-edge load is positioned to have the
most severe effect
• Alternatively a single 100 kN load with
340mm or 300mm x 300 mm square
contact area
12
HA loading:
Table: 2: Notional lanes for design purposes
according to the carriageway width
Carriage < 4.6 4.6-7.5 7.6-11.4 11.4-152 15.2-19.0
Width W(m)
No.of W/3 2 3 4 5
Notional
Lanes
13
Table 3: HA Loading
Loaded length L (m) < 30m 30m - 379m > 379m
Uniform Load 30 151 L-0.475 9
(kN/m/Lane)
Knife edge load (kN/Lane) 120
KEL
UDL
KEL
UDL
14
Figure 1: HA Loading
HA Loading
100 kN
340
Figure 2: Alternative to HA KEL loading
15
HB Loading
• HB loading is used for bridges which are on
public highways where they may be
subjected to abnormal loads
•Abnormal loads derive from the nature of
exceptional industrial loads likely to use the
roads. E.g. electrical transformers,
generators, pressure vessels, machine
presses, etc.
16
HB Loading
•The vehicle load is represented by a four
axled vehicle with four wheels equally spaced
on each axle.
•The load on each axle is defined by a
number of units which is dependant on the
class of road.
17
HB Loading
0.25
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.25
0.2 1.80 6, 11, 16, 21, 26 m 1.80 0.2
Figure 3: HB Vehicle
18
HB Loading
• The HB loading may range between 25 HB
and 45 HB units
• Motorways and trunk roads require 45 units,
Principal roads require 37.5 units and other
public roads require 30 units.
• Each unit is equivalent to 10 kN
• Load / wheel is 2.5 j kN, where j is the
number of HB units
19
HB Loading
E.g. 25 units x 2.5 x 16 wheels = 1000 kN or
100 tons vehicle
45 units x 2.5 x 16 wheels = 1800 kN or
180 tons vehicle
20
HB Loading
• The actual units to be used for a particular
bridge are specified by the authority
concerned in the country
• HB loading also includes a 25% allowance for
impact
• The length of the vehicle is varied for the
severest effect
21
Combination of HA and HB Loading
Loaded length for intensity of HA UDL
25 m 25 m
Full HA No Load HB Vehicle No Load Full HA
Notional
Full HA
Lanes
Central reserve: No load for global analysis
1/3 HA
1/3 HA
Figure 4: A combination of HA and HB loading: HB within one notional lane
22
Combination of HA and HB Loading
Loaded length for intensity of HA UDL
25 m 25 m
1/3 HA 1/3 HA
No Load HB Vehicle No Load
Notional
Full HA Full HA
Lanes
Central reserve: No load for global analysis
1/3 HA
1/3 HA
Figure 5: A combination of HA and HB loading; HB occupying two notional lanes
23
Reduced loads for secondary roads
Simple, one lane bridges in rural areas may be designed using the
reduced vertical load as shown in Figure 6.
0.15
54.5 kN 13.5 kN
0.35
1.80 m
54.5 kN 13.5 kN
4.25m
2-Rear wheels + 2 - Front wheels = Total Load: 136 kN
Figure 6: Reduced vertical loads for secondary roads.
Fig 6 gives an overview of both HA and HB loading
Lane loads are interchangeable for severest effect
24
Pedestrian and Cycle Track Bridges
The imposed load on pedestrian and cycle track bridges is
uniformly distributed and depends upon the loaded lengths as
follows:
If L 30m then P = 5 kN/m2
If 30 < L < 379m then P = 25.2 (L) -0.475 kN/m2
If L > 379m then P = 1.5 kN/m2
In the case of footpaths on road bridges which are not protected
from highway traffic by any effective barrier, any four wheels of 25
units of HB loading acting alone in any unfavourable position
should be considered.
25
Transverse loads arise when a vehicle moves in a curve.
The forces considered above all act vertically according to the law of
gravity. When a vehicle moves at a speed of not less than 80 km/hr
in a curve, a centrifugal force, Fc, acting in the transverse section of
the bridge and directed away from the curve center results. The
resultant force is defined by the expression:
m .v 2
Fc =
R
where m = mass of vehicle in Tons
v = speed of vehicle in m/s
R = radius of curve in m.
BS 5400 Part 2 gives a nominal centrifugal load defined by:
30000
Fc = kN
R + 150
where R is the same as above
The force Fc can be applied as a single load or subdivided into 1/3Fc
and 2/3Fc then placed at 5.0m c/c longitudinally in combination with
a vertical load of 300kN.
26
Accidental load due to skidding
On straight and curved bridges, a single point load in one single lane in
the direction of the highway shall be considered in which the nominal
load is 250 kN
Longitudinal load due to braking and traction
-The nominal load for HA shall be 8 kN/m of loaded length plus
200 kN but < 700 kN applied to an area of one notional lane x
loaded length.
- The nominal load for HB shall be 25% total nominal HB load
applied between the 8 wheels of two axles of the vehicle 1.8 m apart.
Loads due to Temperature Variations
The coefficient of thermal expansion shall be taken as 12 x 10-6 for
structural steel and concrete, but if limestone aggregates are used then
a value of 7 x 10-6 can be used. Expansion joints can be determined
using these coefficients.
27
Accidental wheel loads: This loading applies to local effects and shall
not be taken into account in determining global effects on the deck.
40 kN 50 kN 30 kN
40 kN 50 kN 30 kN
Figure 7: Accidental wheel loads
28
Pier impact (Technical Memorandum BE 1/77):
• 225 kN normal to carriageway with 75 kN parallel to
carriageway at guardrail fixing level or 750mm above
carriageway where there is no fixing,
• Plus 150 kN normal to carriageway with 150 kN parallel to
carriageway between 1.0m and 3.0m above carriageway level.
Collision loads on supports of bridges over highways (BS 5400:
Part 1):
• 150 kN normal to carriageway with 50 kN parallel to
carriageway at guardrail fixing level or 750 above carriageway
where there is no fixing,
• Plus 100 kN normal to carriageway with 100kN parallel to
carriageway between 1.0m and 3.0m above carriageway.
29
Load combinations
Three principal and two secondary combinations of loads are
specified in BS 5400: Part 2:1978:
Principal combinations
Combination 1: permanent + imposed loads
Combination 2: permanent + imposed + wind loads
Combination 3: permanent + imposed + constraining loads
Secondary Combinations
Combination 4: permanent + collision loads
Combination 5: permanent + friction loads at bearings
30
Partial Safety Factors to be Taken for Each Load
Combination
Table 4: Loads to be taken in each combination with appropriate L
Load Limit L to be considered in
Clause state combinations
number 1 2 3 4 5
5.1 Dead Steel ULS* 1.05 1,05 1.05 1,05 1.05
SLS 1.00 1,00 1.00 1,00 1.00
Concrete ULS* 1.1.15 1,15 1.15 1,15
SLS 1.00 1.00 1.00 1,00 1.00
5.2 Superimposed dead ULS* 1.1.75 1,75 1,75 1.75
SLS 1.20 1,20 1,20 1,20 1,20
5.1.2.2 & Reduced load factor ULS 1.00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
52.2.2 for dead and SLS “ “ “ “ “
superimposed dead
load where this has a
more severe total effect
31
5.2 Wind:
During erection ULS 1,10
SLS 1,00
With dead plus superimposed ULS 1,40
dead load only and for members SLS 1,00
primarily resisting wind loads
With dead plus superimposed ULS 1,10
dead plus other appropriate SLS 1,00
combination 2 loads
Relieving effect of Wind ULS 1,00
SLS 1,00
32
5.3 Temperature Restraint due to UL 1,30
range S 1,00
SL
S
Frictional bearing UL 1,30
restraint S 1,00
SL
S
Effect of temperature UL 1,00
difference S 0,80
SL
S
5.6 Differential settlement UL To be assessed and
S agreed between the
SL engineer and
S appropriate authority
33
5.8 Earth Retained fill and/or ULS 1,50 1,50 1,50 1,50 1,50
pressure live load surcharge
SLS 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
Relieving effect ULS 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
5.9 Erection: temporary loads ULS 1,15 1,15
6.2 Live loading:
HA alone ULS 1,50 1,25 1,25
SLS 1,20 1,10 1,00
HA with HB or HB ULS 1,30 1,00 1,10
alone
34
6.5 Centrifugal load and associated primary ULS 1,50
live load SLS 1,00
6.6 Longitudinal HA and associated ULS 1,25
load: primary live load SLS 1,00
HB and associated ULS 1,10
primary live load SLS 1,00
6.7 Accidental skidding load and associated ULS 1,25
primary live load SLS 1,00
6.8 Vehicle collision load with bridge parapets ULS 1,25
and associated primary live load SLS 1,00
6.9 Vehicle collision load with bridge supports** ULS 1,25
SLS 1,00
35
7 Foot/cycle track ULS 1,50 1,25 1,25 1,25
bridges: live load and
parapet load SLS 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00
8 Railway bridges: type RU ULS 1,40 1,20 1,20
and RL primary and
secondary live SLS 1,10 1,00 1,00
*L shall be increased to at least 1.10 and 1.20 for steel and concrete
respectively to compensate for inaccuracies when dead loads are not
accurately assessed
L may be reduced to 1.2 and 1.0 for the ULS and SLS respectively
subject to approval of the appropriate authority
** This is the only secondary live load to be considered for foot/cycle
track bridges
36
Design Internal Actions
Load Cases:
Case 1: Maximum mid span moment
Case 2:: Maximum end span moment
Case 3: Maximum over support moment
Case 4: Maximum shear force at piers
Case 5: Maximum shear force at abutments
37
Computation Of Live Loads - HA + KEL
Example:
A bridge has a carriageway width of 6.40m, and 15 m
span. Determine the live loading on the bridge per unit
area
Solution:
For 6.40m width of carriageway,
the number of notional lanes = 2
For a loaded length of 15 m,
HA UDL = 30 kN/m/lane
Therefore, the load is; 30/3.2 = 9.375kN/m2
The knife edge load KEL
KEL = 120 kN/lane
= 120 /3.2 = 37.5 kN/m (transversal line
load) 38
KEL in a single lane bridge
3.20m
120 kN
120 kN
39
KEL in a 2-Lane bridge
3.20
120 kN
6.40m
3.20
120 kN
240 kN
40
TUTORIAL II
1. A reinforced concrete solid slab bridge is to be
designed across one of the trunk roads in rural
area. The following data made available for the
design.
• Slab thickness = 350 mm,
• Wearing course thickness = 50 mm
• Bridge length = 15 m ,
• Bridge width = 7.5 m
41
TUTORIAL II
• Density of concrete = 24 kN/m3,
• Density of asphalt = 22 kN/m3 ,
• Number of HB units = 30 HB units,
• No camber provided,
• No pedestrian kerb provided
Compute design bending moments due to:
• Permanent loads
• HA loads
• HB loads
42
TUTORIAL II
2. The longitudinal girder for RC Slab and Beam
Bridge is to be designed. The following data are
available for the design.
• Loaded length of the bridge = 20 m
• Cross section = 600 x 1400 mm
• Dead loads from slab = 62.1 + 6.21= 68.31 kN/m
• Superimposed loads = 10.56 + 8.75 = 19.31 kN/m
•
43
TUTORIAL II
• Live loads ( critical case)
HA UDL = 9.75 kN/m
HA KEL = 38.9 kN/m
HB(P) = 365.64 kN/m
Pedestrians = 11.25 kN/m
a) Sketch the longitudinal section of the girder and
arrange the HB UNIT for the maximum bending
moment.
b) Compute the design bending moment
Use 24 kN/m3 as density of concrete
44
