Int roduct ion
I magine being a Roman citizen confronted
with a math problem 2,000 years ago. In
the days of ancient Rome, if a merchant or
tax collector needed to calculate thirteen plus
sixty-nine, he would use pebbles or metal disks
as counters. Romans moved these pebbles on
marked boards to work out problems. Later
the counters were strung on wires mounted in
a frame.
People used this device—called an abacus—
instead of working out their problems in
writing because they could not “carry ten”
conveniently with their cumbersome system
of writing numbers. The Roman numeral sys-
tem, in which letters represent numbers, was
dominant in Europe for nearly 2,000 years.
However, even simple addition of Roman
numerals—in our example, XIII + LXIX—was
LXIX
difficult.
The math world made a great advancement
when the Hindu-Arabic numeral system sim-
plified matters several hundred years later by
replacing a cumbersome XXIV with the sleek
expression 24. In math, efficiency is key. With
a simplified decimal system of numeration,
mathematicians could now concentrate on
depth and meaningful discovery in the field
6 COPYRIGHT 2015 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Ancient Roman merchants and tax collectors calculated math problems
using a device called an abacus, such as the one shown here. Science &
Society Picture Library/Getty Images
of mathematics, and mathematicians would of
course find the new Hindu-Arabic numerals
easier to read and write.
In this text, the reader will be pulled into the
world of how we conceive of, count, and write
numbers, explaining both the importance and
practical applications of each number system
presented.
COPYRIGHT 2015 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
7
The Number System and Common and Decimal Fractions
Today’s student might remark, “But
calculators and computers yield exact com-
putations for us.” This is true. But the
computer must first be programmed, or
told how to perform. The number system
that calculators and computers use is what
is called a binary system, which might be
a new concept for the reader. As explained
in this book, an understanding of the
underlying basis of modern mathematical
tools—including the binary system—will
enhance the reader’s skills in using both the
tools and the math.
Does this suggest that, for instance, the
decimal system that the math student is
familiar with must now be tossed out? The
answer, of course, is no. The reader will also
find new ways to explore those systems with
which he or she is already quite familiar. Lucid
and captivating explanations will enhance
understanding of the number systems underunder-
lying all mathematics, such as techniques for
converting from one base system to another,
applications of various base systems, con-
version of common fractions into decimal
fractions, and conversion of decimals back
into common fractions.
8 COPYRIGHT 2015 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
INTRODUCTION
Included are hints and practice problems
that make the mastery of these techniques eas-
ier to accomplish. Each example is shown with
a simple illustration, without which the reader
might easily fall into little errors and traps that
could make the calculation frustrating.
When asked to add mixed fractions, even
the best of math students might be initially
stumped for lack of just a single hint that would
get the whole process started. This book of
number systems, decimals, and fractions—and
the many techniques it explains—is therefore
a handy tool for any middle or high school
student (or his or her parent) to have on the
shelf for both problem solving and historical
reference.
COPYRIGHT 2015 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
9
