CRIM.

5: HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND VICTIMOLOGY

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN BEHAVIOR
INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN BEHAVIOR

The study of human behavior emphasizes human development and abnormal behavior. It includes strategies and
approaches for handling different kinds of abnormal behavior concerning law enforcement and criminal proceedings.
The study of human behavior is essential in criminal justice education, as it provides knowledge and information on
the dynamics of different kinds of human behavior that may pose a threat to public safety.

Segment 1. Overview on Human Development

• What is Behavior?
Behavior refers to the actions of an organism or system, usually in relation to its movement, which includes the
other organisms or systems around as well as the physical environment. It is the response of the organism or system to
various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntarily or
involuntarily.
Behavior can also be defined as anything that you do that can be directly observed, measured, and repeated. Some
examples of behavior are reading, crawling, singing, holding hands and the likes.
➢ total response of an organism in relation to various stimulus -internal or external
➢ any observable responses of a person to his environment manner of one’s conduct
➢ Acts that are shown externally, acts that are seen by others
• What is Human Behavior?
Human Behavior is the range of actions and mannerisms exhibited by humans in conjunction with their
environment, responding to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or
covert, and voluntary or involuntary. Human Behavior is influenced by many factors, including:
a. Attitudes
b. Emotions
c. Cultures
d. Ethics
e. Authority
f. Motivation
g. Coercion
h. Beliefs
i. Reasoning
j. Values
k. Religion
l. Rapport
m. Persuasion, and
n. Genetics

➢ Refers to a voluntary or involuntary attitude of a person to adapt and fit society’s values and ideas of what is right
and wrong.
➢ It also refers to a range of actions demonstrated by humans in conjunction with their environment and in response
to various stimuli, whether conscious or subconscious, internal or external, voluntary or involuntary and overt or
covert.
➢ anything an individual does that involves self-initiated action and/or reaction to a given situation.
➢ the sum/ total of man's reaction to his environment or the way human beings act

In summary, human behavior is a complex interplay of 3 components: ACTIONS, COGNITION AND EMOTIONS
or CBT- COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR THERAPHY

CBT is based on the idea that how we think (cognition), how we feel (emotion) and how we act (behavior) all interact
together. Specifically, our thoughts determine our feelings and our behavior.

CBT Triangle
The cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) triangle, commonly called the ‘cognitive triangle,’ provides a structured
framework to understand the interplay between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
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 Causation of Human Behavior
a. Sensation - – is the feeling or impression created by a given stimulus or cause that leads to a particular reaction or
behavior
- the process by which organism responds to stimulus
a.1. visual – sight
a.2. olfactory – smell
a.3. cutaneous – touch
a.4. auditory – hearing
a.5. gustatory – taste
b. Perception - refers to the person’s knowledge of a given stimulus which largely help to determine the actual
behavioral response in a given situation
-sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli from our sensory organ.
- process by which sensory stimuli are interpreted, analyzed, and integrated
c. Awareness- – refers to the psychological activity based on interpretation of past experiences with a given stimulus or
object.

Two Basic Types of Human Behavior

a. Inherited Behavior – behavioral response or reflex exhibited by people due to their genetic endowment or the
process of natural selection.
b. Learned Behavior – involves cognitive adaptation that enhances the human beings ability to cope with changes in
the environment in ways which improve the changes for service.

Classifications of Human Behavior (HICS)

1. Habitual – refers to motorized behavior usually manifested in language and emotion.
2. Instinctive – are generally unlearned and inherent simply comes out of man’s instinct which can be seen
among instinct-instinct survival behaviors.
3. Symbolic – are behaviors that are usually carried out by means of unsaid words and shown through symbols
or body signs.
4. Complex – are those behaviors that combine two or more of the classified ones.

Viewpoints in the Study of Human Behavior

a. Neurological – emphasizes human actions in relation to events taking place inside the body, especially the brain
and the nervous system.
b. Cognitive – concerned with the way the brain processes and transforms information in various ways.
c. Psychoanalytical – emphasizes unconscious motives stemming from repressed sexual and aggressive impulses
in childhood.
d. Behavioral – focuses on external activities that can be observed and measured.
e. Humanistic – focuses on the subject’s experience, freedom of choice, and motivation

Attribute of Human Behavior

Duration – how long it occurs in terms of functions of time
Extensity – special characteristics
Intensity – magnitude or level
Quantity – normal or abnormal, un/acceptability

Characters of Behavior
1. Human behavior are primarily native or learned
2. Evoked by external stimuli or internal needs
3. Automatic, voluntary, conscious motor, or intentional

Factors that affect Human Behavior

• Heredity – it is the passing of traits to offspring (from its parent or ancestors). This is the process by which an
offspring cell or organism acquires or becomes predisposed to the characteristics of its parent cell or organism.
-it is determined by genes. Genes are segment of cell structures called Chromosomes by which parents pass on
traits to their offspring.
• Environment – refers to surroundings of an object. It consists of conditions and factors that surround and influence
behavioral pattern.
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Some environmental factors are:
a. The family
b. The influences of child trauma
c. Pathogenic family structure:
Inadequate Family - characterized by inability to cope with the ordinary problems of the family living. It lacks the resources,
physical or psychological, for meeting the demands of family satisfaction.
Anti-Social Family - those that espouses unacceptable values as a result of influence of parents to their children
Discordant/Disturbed Family - characterized by dissatisfaction of one or both parents from the relationship that may
express feelings of frustration.
Disrupted Family - characterized by incompleteness whether as a result of death, divorce, separated or some other
circumstances.
d. Institutional Influences
e. Socio-cultural factors
f. Nutrition or the quality of food

• Learning – is the process by which an individual’s behavior changes as a result of experience or practice.
Other following factors that affect or influence behavior include the following:
• Attitudes, beliefs, emotions
• Reasoning
• Culture, values, ethics, religion
• Authority, motivation, persuasion, and coercion

How do people interact? People intermingle by three psychological positions or behavioral patterns called ego
states:
1. Parent ego state – which may be characterized as protective, idealistic, evaluative, righteous, refers to laws, rules
and standards.
2. Adult ego state – which centers more upon reason, factual, flexible, views as co-equal, worthy, and reasonable
human beings.
3. Child ego state – which may be easily described as dependent, rebellious, selfish, demanding, impatient and
emotional.

CAUSES OF CONFLICTS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR

• Physical Causes – these refers to natural causes, like typhoon and earthquake, fire, flood, and storm.
• Social Conflicts – these are restrictions or rules in the home, school, workplace, and community.
• Economic conflicts – these result from one’s inability to acquire material things because of poverty or to other
financial obligations.
Motivations of Human Behavior
The Psychodynamics Of Human Motivation by Sigmund Freud
Psychodynamics, which literally means “motivation to action” defines human behavior in terms of the
personality of the inner self. It is also refers to the concept of subjective life and inner forces within, which are called
“mental personality
This theory viewed that what person do and how they act are reflections of the operations of their inner personality.
This inner personality of the inner self is a system of forces or network energy, called psychic forces and makes one act and
feel in certain ways its interplay.
The seat of these psychic forces is the mind, which is a symbol of mental life and mental activity. The mind
has three levels on which the symbols of these psychic forces operate, namely: Id, Ego, and Superego. These are not
structures or entities, but are symbolic terms used to describe certain emotional and psychological activities which motivate
behavior and affect personality. The organization of total personality depends upon the adequate and harmonious
functioning of these three dynamically interacting forces.
The Needs Theory Of Human Motivation by Abraham Maslow
This theory states that thro0ughout one’s life, desires, wishes and drives that are collectively called
“needs”, motive every individual. When not fulfilled, these needs places an individual under stress. Thus, to
relieve the tensions created, one has to strive for appropriate satisfaction of these needs. According to
Abraham Maslow, human needs are arranged I a hierarchy:

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The Five Stage Pyramid according to Maslow’s Theory
➢ Physiological Needs: These include basic survival needs like hunger, thirst, oxygen, shelter, and sleep. Fulfilling
these needs is the highest priority.
➢ Safety Needs: After physiological needs, people seek safety, security, and stability. This involves creating
structure, maintaining order, and ensuring physical safety.
➢ Belongingness and Love: Once safety needs are met, individuals seek social connections, love, and acceptance.
They strive for relationships, community involvement, and a sense of belonging.
➢ Esteem: Esteem needs involve self-esteem (feeling valued by oneself) and the esteem of others (recognition and
respect from others).
➢ Self-Actualization: At the top of the hierarchy, self-actualization represents the pursuit of personal growth,
creativity, and realizing one’s full potential.

KINDS OF BEHAVIOR
1. Conscious behavior characterizes a reaction of which the individual is aware.
2. Unconscious behavior characterizes a behavior of which the individual is not aware and does not know the
reason or motive for it.
3. Overt behavior consists of responses which are directly observable.
4. Covert behavior refers to responses which are hidden- not visible to the naked eye.
5. Simple behavior involves only few neurons
6. Complex behavior involves more neurons
7. Rational behavior is a behavior influenced or guided by reason rather than emotion.
8. Irrational behavior is a behavior done without sanity, reason or logic.
9. Voluntary behavior pertains to psychological or muscular processes which are under the direct control of the
cerebral cortex. This is an act which is done with full volition or will.
10. Involuntary behavior refers to actions which are made without intent. These are the processes within our body
that can go on even while we are asleep or awake.

Aspects of Behavior:
1. Intellectual Aspect - way of thinking, reasoning, solving problems, processing info and coping with the
environment.
2. Emotional Aspect - feelings, moods, temper, strong motivational force within the person.
3. Social Aspect - people interaction or relationship with other people.
4. Moral Aspect - conscience, concept on what is good or bad.
5. Psycho Sexual Aspect - being a man or a woman and the expression of love.
6. Political Aspect - ideology towards society/government
7. Value/Attitude - interest towards something, likes and dislikes.

Personality Dimensions That Affect Human Behavior

a. Extraversion
- The diversion that dictates condition ability and is therefore the principal factor in anti – social behavior. It
represents a central nervous system tendency that determines need for stimulation and excitement.
- Extroverts not only have high needs for stimulation, but they also do not condition easily. They frequently seek
stimulation excitement and thrills, all of which can get them in trouble.
b. Neuroticism
- It reflects an innate biological predisposition to react physiologically to stressful or upsetting events. Basically, it
represents emotionality. Persons high to neuroticism react intensely much longer to stress and are generally
moody, touchy, sensitive slights and anxious or nervous.
- Neuroticism is most important in understanding some adult criminals, less important in understanding adolescents
and even younger children.
c. Psychoticism
- It is characterized by cold cruelty, social insensitivity, disregard for danger, troublesome behavior, dislike of others
and attraction toward the unusual.
- The individual high on psychoticism tends to be impulsive, aggressive individual without appreciable conscience or
concern for others.
d. Introversion – characterized by direction of interest toward oneself and one’s inner world of experiences.
Introverts, in contrast, tend to be more reserved, less outgoing, and less sociable.
e. Ambiversion – is a balance of extrovert and introvert characteristics. An ambivert is normally comfortable with
groups and enjoys social interaction, but also relishes time alone and away from the crowd.
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 • What is Human Development?
Human Development is the process of a person’s growth and maturation throughout their lifespan, concerned with the
creation of an environment where people are able to develop their full potential, while leading productive and creative lives
in accordance with their interests and needs.
Human development is a process in which a progressive series of changes occurs as a result of maturation and
experience. According to Newman and Newman (2015), human development emphasizes the patterns of “constancy and
change across the life span” and identifies the process that account for such patterns. They argue that development implies
a process that happens over time and has a specific direction.
Development is about the expansion of choices people have in order to lead lives they value.

Four Pillars of Human Development

1. Equity- It is the idea that every person has the right to an education and health care, that there must be fairness for all.
2. Sustainability- It compasses the view that every person has the right to earn of living that can sustain him or her, while
everyone also has the right to access to goods more evenly distributed among populations.
3. Production- It is the idea that people need more efficient social programs to be introduced by their governments.
4. Empowerment- It is the view that people who are powerless, such as women, need to be given power.

DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES
The goal of developmental changes is to enable people to adapt to the environment in which they live, through a
process called self-realization or self-actualization (DeRobertis, 2008). Given that self-realization plays an important role
in ensuring one’s mental well-being, individuals who make good personal and social adjustments must seek opportunities to
express their interests and desires in ways that yield personal satisfaction while comforting to accepted standards at the
same time. The absence of these opportunities can lead to frustrations and generally negative attitudes toward people and
even life in general.

SIGNIFICANT FACTS ABOUT DEVELOPMENT (Gines, et al., 1998)

A. Early foundations are critical. Essentially, attitudes, habits, and patterns of behavior that have been
established in the early years of one’s life largely determine the success of individuals in adjusting to life as they grows
older.
B. Roles of maturation and learning in development.
Maturation refers to the process by which an individual’s inherent traits are developed.
Learning is the product of the exercise and effort spent by an individual to achieve development. In relation to this,
maturation provides the raw material for learning and determines the general patterns and sequences of one’s behaviour.
C. Development follows a definite and predictable pattern.
According to previous works, there are patterns of physical, motor, speech and intellectual development, and such
development follows a pattern similar for everyone, unless there are extenuating factors that hamper this process.
D. All individuals are different. No two individuals can be 100% biologically and genetically similar, even in the
case of identical twins. Such difference increases as children develop from childhood, move on to adolescence, and
eventually to an old age.
E. Each phase of development has a characteristic behavior.
This means that every stage of development includes a set of behaviors that can only be observed in a particular stage.
Phases of Development
1. Equilibrium – when individuals adopt easily to environmental demands.
2. Disequilibrium – when the individuals experience difficulties in adaptation makes poor personal social adjustment.

F. Development is aided by stimulation. A large part of human development occurs as a product of

maturation and environmental experiences, and in relation to this, much can be done to aid development so that it will reach
its full potential. This can be achieved by stimulating development by directly encouraging an individual to utilize an ability,
which is in the process of development.
G. Development is affected by cultural changes. An individual’s development often conforms to cultural
standards; hence, changes in these standards can also affect one’s developmental pattern.
H. There are social expectations for every stage of development.
All cultural groups expect their members to familiarize themselves with essentials skills and acquire certain approved
behavioral patterns at various ages during one’s lifetime.
I. There are common traditional beliefs about people of all ages.
Beliefs concerning physical and psychological characteristics do affect the judgment of others and their subsequent self-
evaluations.

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C. Characteristics of Development
1. Dependence to Self – direction
2. Pleasure to Reality
3. Ignorance to Knowledge
4. Incompetence to Competence
5. Diffuse to Articulated Self – identity

D. Stages in Human Life Span

1. Prenatal period - Conception to birth (0 – 9 months)
2. Infancy - Birth to the end of second week
3. Babyhood - End of the second week to the end of the second year
4. Early Childhood - Two to Six years
5. Late Childhood - Six to Ten or Twelve years
6. Puberty or Pre – Adolescence - Ten or Twelve to 13 or 14 years
7. Adolescence - 13 or 14 to 18 years
8. Early Adulthood - 18 to 40 years
9. Middle Age - 40 to 60 years
10. Old Age or Senescence - 60 to Death

Theories of Child (Human) Development

A. Personality Theory
I. Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)
The Structure of Personality (Tripartite Personality)
The structure of personality, according to Sigmund Freud, is made up of three major systems: the id, the ego and
the superego. Behavior is always the product of an interaction among these three systems; rarely does one system operate
to the exclusion of the other two.
1. Id- Id allows us to get our basic needs met. Freud believed that the id is based on the pleasure principles i.e. it wants
immediate satisfaction, with no consideration for the reality of the situation. Id refers to the selfish, primitive, childish,
pleasure-oriented part of the personality with no ability to delay gratification. Freud called the id the “true psychic reality”
because it represents the inner world of subjective experience and has no knowledge of objective reality.
2. Ego- As the child interacts more with world, the ego begins to develop. The Ego’s job is to meet the needs of the id, while
taking into account the constraints of reality. The Ego acknowledges that being impulsive or selfish can sometimes hurt us,
so the id must be constrained (reality principle). Ego is the moderator between the id and superego which seeks
compromises to pacify both. It can be viewed as our “sense of time and place”.
3. Super Ego (Conscience of Man)- The Superego develops during the phallic stage as a result of the moral constraints
placed on us by our parents. It is generally believed that a strong superego serves to inhibit the biological instincts of the id
(resulting in a high level of guilt), whereas a weak superego allows the id more expression-resulting in a low level of guilt.
Superego internalizes society and parental standards of “good” and “bad”, “right” and “wrong” Behavior.

Levels of Awareness (Topographical Model by Sigmund Freud)

1. The Conscious Level- It consists of whatever sensations and experiences you are aware of at a given moment of time.
2. The Preconscious Level- This domain is sometimes called “available memory” that encompasses all experiences that
are not conscious at the moment, but which can easily be retrieved into awareness either spontaneously or with a minimum
of effort. Examples might include memories of everything you did last Saturday night, all the towns you over lived in, your
favorite books, or an argument you had with a friend yesterday.
3. The Unconscious Level- It is the deepest and major stratum of the human mind. It is the store house for primitive
instinctual drives plus emotion and memories that are so threatening to the conscious mind that they have been repressed,
or unconsciously pushed into the unconscious mind. Examples of material that might be found in your unconscious include
a forgotten trauma in childhood, hidden feelings of hostility toward a present, and repressed sexual desires of which you are
unaware.

Freud’s Model of Personality Development (Psychosexual Stages)

a. Oral Stage (0-18 months)
This is the first psychosexual stage in which the infant’s source of id gratification is the mouth. Infants gets pleasure
from sucking and swallowing. Later when he has teeth, infant enjoys the aggressive pleasure of biting and chewing. A child
who is frustrated at this stage may develop an adult personality that is characterized by pessimism, envy and suspicion. The
overindulged child may develop to be optimistic, gullible, and full of admiration for others.

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b. Anal Stage (18 months- 3 years)
When parents decide to toilet train their children during anal stage, the children learn how much control they can
exert over others with anal sphincter muscles. Children can have the immediate pleasure of expelling feces, but that may
cause their parents to punish them. This represents the conflict between the id, which derives pleasure from the expulsion
of bodily wastes, and the superego which represents external pressure to control bodily functions. If the parents are too
lenient in this conflict, it will result in the formation of an anal expulsive character of the child who is disorganized, reckless
and defiant. Conversely, a child may opt to retain feces, thereby spiting his parents, and may develop an anal retentive
character which is neat, stingy and obstinate.
c. Phallic Stage (3-6 years)
Genitals become the primary source of pleasure. The child’s erotic pleasure focuses on masturbation, that is on
self-manipulation of the genitals. He develops a sexual attraction to the parent of the opposite sex; boys develop
unconscious desires for their mother and become rivals with their father for her affection. This reminiscent with Little Han’s
case study. So, the boys develop a fear that their father will punish them for these feelings (castration anxiety) so decide to
identify with him rather than fight him. As a result, the boy develops masculine characteristics and repress his sexual
feelings towards his mother. This known as:
a. Oedipus Complex- this refers to an instance where in boys build up a warm and loving relationship with mothers
(mommy’s boy).
b. Electra Complex- this refers to an occasion where in girls experience an intense emotional attachment for their fathers
(daddy’s girl).

d. Latency Stage (6-11 years)

Sexual interest is relatively inactive in this stage. Sexual energy is going through the process of sublimation and is
being converted into interest in schoolwork, riding bicycles playing house and sports.
e. Genital Stage (11 years on) (puberty to adulthood)
This refers to the start of puberty and genital stage. There is renewed interest in obtaining sexual pleasure through
the genitals. Masturbation often becomes frequent and leads to orgasm for the first time. Sexual and romantic interests in
others also become a central motive.
Interest now turns to heterosexual relationships. The lesser fixation the child has in earlier stages, the more
chances of developing a “normal” personality, and thus develops healthy meaningful relationships with those of the opposite
sex.

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory believes that we are born with two basis instincts:
1. Eros- This is named after the Greek God for love. Eros includes the sex drives and drives such as hunger and thirst.
2. Thanatos- This is named after Greek god for death. This includes not only striving for death but also destructive motives
such as hostility and aggression. These drives highly influence the personality of a person.

II. Trait Theory

Trait approach identifies where a person might lie along a continuum of various personality characteristics. Trait
theories attempt to learn and explain the traits that make up personality, the differences between people in terms of their
personal characteristics, and how they relate to actual behavior.
Trait refers to the characteristics of an individual, describing a habitual way of behaving, thinking, and feeling.

Kinds of Trait by Allport

1. Common Traits- These are personality traits that are shared by most members of a particular culture.
2. Individual Traits- These are personality traits that define a person’s unique individual qualities.
3. Cardinal Traits- These are personality traits that are so basic that all person’s activities relate to it. It is a powerful and
dominating behavioral predisposition that provides the pivotal point in a person’s entire life. Allport said that only few people
have cardinal traits.
4. Central Traits- These are the core traits that characterize an individual’s personality. Central traits are the major
characteristics of our personalities that are quite generalized and enduring. They form the building blocks of our
personalities.
5. Secondary Traits- These are traits that are inconsistent or relatively superficial, less generalized and far less enduring
that affects our behaviors in specific circumstances.

Kinds of Trait by Golbdberg (Big Five or Five Factor Theory)

1. Extraversion- This dimension contrasts such traits as sociable, outgoing, talkative, assertive, persuasive, decisive, and
active with more introverted traits such as withdrawn, quiet, passive, retiring, and reserved.

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2. Neuroticism- People high on neuroticism are prone to emotional instability. They tend to experience negative emotions
and to be moody, irritable, nervous, and prone to worry.
3. Conscientiousness- This factor differentiates individuals who are dependable, organized, reliable, responsible, thorough
hard-working, and preserving from those undependable, disorganized, impulsive, unreliable, irresponsible, careless,
negligent and lazy.
4. Agreeableness- This factor is composed of a collection of traits that range from compassion to antagonism towards
others. A person high on agreeableness would be a pleasant person, good natured, warm, sympathetic, and cooperative.
5. Openness to Experience- This factor contrasts individuals who are imaginative, curious, broadminded and cultured with
those who are concrete minded and practical and whose interests are narrow.

Personality Trait by Eysenck

1. Extrovert- It refers to a person that is sociable, out-going, and active.
2. Introvert- It refers to a person that is withdrawn, quiet, and introspective.
3. Emotionally Unstable- It is a trait that is being anxious, excitable, and easily disturbed.
Eysenck theorized that criminality and antisocial behavior are both positively and casually related to high levels of
psychoticism, extroversion, and neuroticism. The theory says that in extroverts, and possibly also in people high on the
psychoticism scale, biologically determined low degrees of arousal and arousability lead to impulsive, risk-taking and
sensation-seeking behavior that increase the level of cortical (brain)arousal to a more acceptable and enjoyable amount.
Eysenck did find that extroverts experience cortical under arousal, prefer higher levels of stimulation, and are less
responsive to punishment they therefore do not learn behavioral alternatives with the use of disciplinary action.

• What is Temperament?
Temperament refers to the fundamental groundwork of character, generally presumed to be biologically determined and
existent early in life, inclusive of traits like emotional reactiveness, energy level, reaction tempo, and motivation to explore.

Four Types of Temperament

• Melancholic – sad, gloomy
• Choleric – hot-tempered, irritable
• Phlegmatic- sluggish, calm
• Sanguine- cheerful, hopeful

Psychological Studies in Relation to Crime and Delinquency

1. August Aichorn
Aichorn in his book entitled Wayward Youth (1925) said that the cause of crime and delinquency is the faulty
development of the child during the first few years of his life. The child as a human being normally follows only his pleasure
impulse instinctive. Soon he (child) grew up and find some restriction to these pleasure impulses which he must control.
Otherwise, he suffers from faulty ego development and become delinquent. He then concluded that many of the offenders
with whom he had worked had underdeveloped consciences. Aichorn identified two further categories of criminal
a. those with fully developed consciences but identified with their criminal parents, and
b. those who had been allowed to do whatever they like by over-indulgent parents.
2. Cyril Burt (Young Delinquent, 1925)
Burt gives the theory of General Emotionality. According to him many offenses can be traced to either in excess
or a deficiency of a particular instinct which accounts for the tendency of many criminals to be weak willed or easily led.
Fear and absconding may be due to the impulse of fear. Callous type of offenders may be due to the deficiency in the
primitive emotion of love and an excuse of the instinct of hate.
3. William Healy (Individual Delinquency, 1916)
He claimed that crime is an expression of the mental content of the individual. Frustration of the individual causes
emotional discomfort; personality demands removal of pain and pain is eliminated by substitute behavior, that is, crime
delinquency of the individual. Healy and Bonner (1936) conducted a study of 105 pairs of brothers where one was a
persistent offender and the other a non-offender. It was found that only 19 of the offenders and 30 of the non-offenders had
experienced good quality family conditions. These findings suggested that circumstances within a household may be
favorable for one child but not the sibling. It then proposed that the latter had not made an emotional attachment to a “good
parent”, hence impeding the development of superego.
4. Walter Bromberg (Crime and the Mind, 1946)
He noted that criminality is the result of emotional immaturity. A person is emotionally matured if he has learned
to control his emotion effectively and who lives at peace with himself and harmony with the standards of conduct which are
acceptable to the society. An emotionally immature person rebel against rule and regulations, engage in usual activities and
experience a feeling of guilt due to inferiority complex.
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B. Psychosocial Theory of Development (Erik Erikson)
Erikson’s Stages of Human Development
Development psychologist Erik H. Erikson was best known for his theory on social development of human beings,
and for coining the phrase identity crisis
This theory describes eight stages through which a healthily developing human should pass from infancy to late
adulthood. In each stage the person confronts, and hopefully masters, new challenges. Each stage builds on the successful
completion of earlier stages. The challenges of stages not successfully completed may be expected to reappear as
problems in the future.

C. Cognitive Development Theory (Jean Piaget)

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of mental
development. His theory focuses not only on understanding the nature of intelligence.
Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists ad they
perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they
continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new
information.

D. Socio-Cultural Theory (Lev Vygotzky)

Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory is the work of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky’s work was
largely unknown to the West until it was published in 1962. Vygotsky’s theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. It
asserts three major themes regarding social interaction, the more knowledgeable other, and the zone of proximal
development.
Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes development; consciousness and cognition are
the end product of socialization and social behavior.

Social Interaction
Social Interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s
understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning
precedes development. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level,
and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child
(intrapsychological)”.

Applications of the Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory

Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist model in which a teacher or lecturer
“transmits” information to students. In contrast, Vygotsky’s theory promotes learning contexts in which students play an
active role in learning. Roles of the teacher and student are therefore shifted, as a teacher should collaborate with this or
her students in order to help facilitate meaning construction in students. Learning therefore becomes a reciprocal
experience for the students and teacher.

E. Bio Ecological Theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner)

This is known as the Human Ecology Theory, the Ecological Systems theory states that human development is
influenced by the different theory states that human development is influenced by the different types of environment
systems. Formulated by famous psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner, this theory help us understand why we may behave
differently when we compare our behavior in the presence of our family and our behavior when we are in school or at work.

The Five Environment Systems

The ecological systems theory holds that we encounter different environments throughout our lifespan that may
influence our behavior in varying degrees. These systems include the micro systems, the meso system, the exo system, the
macro system, and the chrono system.
1. The Micro System- The micro system’s setting is the direct environment we have in our lives. Your family, friends,
classmates, teachers, neighbors, and others people who have a direct contact with you are included in your micro system.
The micro system is the setting in which we have direct social interactions with these social agents. The theory states that
we are not mere recipients of the experiences we have when socializing with these people in the micro system environment,
but we are contributing to the construction of such environment.
2. The Mesosystem- The mesosystem involves the relationships between the microsystems in one’s life. This means that
your family experience may be related to your school experience. For example, if a child is neglected by his parents, he may

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have a low chance of developing positive attitudes towards his teachers. Also, this child may feel awkward in the presence
of peers and may resort to withdrawal from a group of classmates.
3. The Exosystem- The exosystem is the setting in which there is a link between the context where in the person does not
have any active role, and the context where in is actively participating. Suppose a child is more attached to his father than
his mother. If the father goes abroad to work for several months, there may be a conflict between the mother and the child’s
social relationship, or on the other hand, this event may result to a tighter bond between the mother and the child.
4. The Macrosystem- The macrosystem setting id the actual culture of an individual. The cultural contexts involve the
socioeconomic status of the person and/or his family, his ethnicity or race and living in a still developing or a third world
country. For example, being born to a poor family makes a person work harder every day.
5. The Chronosystem- The chronosystem includes the transitions and shifts in one’s lifespan. This may also involve the
socio-historical contexts that may influence a person.

One classic example of this is how divorce, as a major life transition, may affect not only the couple’s relationship
but also their children’s behavior. According to a majority of research, children are negatively affected on the first year after
the divorce. The next years after it would reveal that the interaction within the family becomes more stable and agreeable.

F. Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg)

The theory of Moral Development is a very interesting subject that stemmed from Jean Piaget’s theory of moral
reasoning. Developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg, this theory made us understand that morality starts from the
early childhood years and can be affected by several factors.
Kohlberg ideas started from the research he performed with very young children as his subjects. He found out that
children are faced with different moral issues, ad their judgements on whether they are to act positively or negatively over
each dilemma are heavily influenced by several factors. In each scenario that Kohlberg related to the children, he was not
really asking whether or not the person in the situation is morally right or wrong, but he wanted to find out the reasons why
these children think that the character is morally right or not.

Levels of Moral Development

Level 1: Preconventional Morality
The first level of morality, preconventional morality, can be further divided into two stages: obedience and
punishment, and individualism and exchange.
Stage 1: Punishment- Obedience Orientation- Related to Skinner’s Operational Conditioning, this stage includes the use
of punishment so that the person refrains from doing the action and continues to obey the rules. For example, we follow the
laws because we do not want to go to jail.
Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation- In this stage, the person is said to judge the morality of an action based on
how it satisfies the individual needs of the doer. For instance, a person steals money from another person because he
needs that money to buy food for his hungry children. In Kohlberg’s theory, the children tend to say that this action is morally
right because of the serious need of the doer.

Level 2: Conventional Morality

The second level of morality involves the stage 3 and 4 or moral development. Conventional morality includes the
society and societal roles in judging the morality of an action.
Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation- In this stage, a person judges an action based on the societal roles and social
expectations before him. This is also known as the “interpersonal relationships” phase. For example, a child gives away her
lunch to a street peasant because she thinks doing so means being nice.
Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation- This stage includes respecting the authorities and following the rules, as well as
doing person’s duty. The society is the main consideration of a person at this stage. For instance, a policeman refuses the
money offered to him under the table and arrests the offender because he believes this is his duty as an officer of peace
and order.

Level 3: Postconventional Morality

The post conventional morality includes stages 5 and stage 6. This is mainly concerned with the universal principles
that relation to the action done.
Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation- In this stage, the person is look at various opinions and values of different people
before coming up with the decision on the morality of the action.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Orientation- The final stage of moral reasoning, this orientation is when a person
considers universally accepted ethical principles. The judgement may become innate and may even violate the laws and
rules as the person becomes attached to his own principles of justice.

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 Segment 2. Abnormal Behavior
• What is Abnormal Behavior?
Abnormal Behavior is something deviating from the normal or differing from the typical, is a subjectively defined
behavioral characteristics, assigned to those with rare or dysfunctional conditions. It may be abnormal when it is unusual,
socially unacceptable, self-defeating, dangerous or suggestive of faulty interpretation of reality or of personal distress.
Abnormal Behavior is a behavior that is deviant maladaptive, or personally distressful over a long period of time.
The American Psychiatric Association defines abnormal behavior in medical terms as a mental illness that affects or its
manifested in a person’s brain and can affect the way a person thinks, behaves, and interacts with people.
-Literally means "away from the normal". It implies deviation from some clearly defined norm. In the case of physical
illness, the norm is the structural and functional integrity of the body.
- Behavior which is away from or deviating from the normal behavior
- Behavior which are ineffective, self-defeating, self-destructive.
- Also called MALADAPTIVE or MALADJUSTED BEHAVIOR
- Are groups of behavior that is deviant from social expectations because they go against the norms or standard
behavior of society.

Who are Abnormal?

- Those persons whose behavior deviates too far from the norms and standards of society.

• What is Normal Behavior?

This refers to a lack of significant deviation from the average. Another possible definition is that "a normal" is
someone who conforms to the predominant behavior in a society.
Social norms – rules that a group uses for appropriate and inappropriate values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviors.
- From latin word “NORMA” which means rule
- A behavior that follows rule or pattern or standards
- A behavior that conforms with the norms of the society
- Also called ADAPTIVE or ADJUSTED BEHAVIOR
- It is the standard behavior totality accepted behavior because they follow the standard norms of society.
Who are Normal?
- A normal person is one who behaves according to the norms and standards of society.

Characteristics of Normal
1. Efficient perception of reality
2. Self-knowledge
3. Ability to exercise voluntary control over his behavior
4. Self-esteem and acceptance
5. Productivity
6. Ability to form
7. Affectionate relationship with others

CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY
➔ is the branch of psychology which investigates the psychology of crime with particular reference to the personality
factors of the criminal.
➔ It is the study of the wills, thoughts, intentions and reactions of criminals.

CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR
- Criminal Behavior refers to actions prohibited by the state and punishment under the law. (legal)
- Criminal Behavior refers to actions that violate the norms of religion and morality and are believed to be punishable
by spiritual beings. (Moral)
- Criminal Behavior refers to actions that may be rewarding to the action but that inflict pain or one loss or others.
That is criminal behavior is anti-social behavior.
- Criminal Behavior refers to antisocial acts that place the actor at risk of becoming a focus of the attention of criminal
and juvenile justice professionals.

Goals of Studying Criminal Behavior

a. To describe behavior whether normal or abnormal.
b. To identify factors that can predict behavior.
c. To control and change behavior as a result of a problem.
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 ★ FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY - This is the application of psychology in the criminal and civil justice system.

• What is Psychopathology?
Psychopathology is the scientific study of mental disorders, including efforts to understand their genetic, biological,
psychological and social causes; effective classification schemes (nosology); course across all stages of development;
manifestations; and treatment. It is also defined as the origin of mental disorder, how they develop and the symptoms they
might produce in a person.
Criminal psychology – this is a branch of knowledge that studies various aspects of criminal behavior. Specifically, it
refers to “the study of the mind and its workings in relation to crime.

The 4 Ds
A description of the four Ds when defining abnormality:
1. Deviance- This term describes the idea that specific thoughts, behaviors and emotions are considered deviant when they
are unacceptable or not common in society. Clinicians must, however, remember that minority groups are not always
deemed deviant just because they may not have anything in common with other groups. Therefore, we define an
individual’s actions as deviant or abnormal when his or her behavior is deemed unacceptable by the culture he or she
belongs to.
2. Distress- This term accounts for negative feelings by the individual with the disorder. He or she may feel deeply troubled
and affected by their illness.
3. Dysfunction- This term involves maladaptive behavior that impairs the individual’s ability to perform normal daily
functions, such as getting ready to work in the morning, or driving a car. Such maladaptive behaviors prevent the individual
from living a normal, healthy lifestyle. However, dysfunctional behavior is not always caused by a disorder; it may be
voluntary, such as engaging in a hunger strike.
4. Danger- This term involves dangerous or violent behavior directed at the individual, or others in the environment. An
example of dangerous behavior that may suggest a psychological disorder is engaging in suicide activity.

Types of abnormal behavior

1. Personality disorder
2. Neurosis Or psychoneuroses are behavioral disorders that brought about by emotional tension resulting from conflicts,
repression, frustration or insecurity.  Neurotic individuals compromise with reality by developing imaginary
ailments, obsessions, phobias, compulsion, depression or anxiety.
3. psychosis-  a severe mental disorder in which thought and emotions are so impaired that contact is lost with external
reality.

Models of Abnormality
1. Behavioral
Behaviorists believe that our actions are determined largely by the experiences we have in life, rather than by
underlying pathology of unconscious forces. Abnormality is therefore seen as the development of behavior patterns that are
considered maladaptive for the individual. Behaviorism states that all behavior and that all behavior that has been learnt can
also be unlearnt (which id how abnormal behavior is treated). The emphasis of the behavioral approach is on the
environment and how abnormal behavior is acquired, through classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social
learning.
Classical conditioning has been said to account for the development of phobias. The feared object (e.g. spider or
rat) is associated with a fear or anxiety sometime in the past. The conditioned stimulus subsequently evokes a powerful fear
response characterized by avoidance of the feared object and emotion of fear whenever the object is encountered. Learning
environments can reinforce (re: operant conditioning) problematic behaviors. E.g. an individual may be rewarded for
beinghaving panic attacks by receiving attention from family and friends, this would lead to the behavior
being reinforced and increasing in later life. Our society can also provide deviant maladaptive models that children identify
with and imitate (re: social learning theory).
2. Cognitive
The cognitive approach assumes that a person’s thoughts are responsible for their behavior. The model deals with
how information is processed in the brain and the impact of this on behavior.
The basic assumptions are:
a. Maladaptive behavior is caused by faulty and irrational cognitions.
b. It is the way you think about the problem, rather than the problem itself that causes mental disorders.
c. Individuals can overcome mental disorders by learning to use more appropriate cognitions.

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d. The individuals is an active processor of information. How a person, perceives, anticipates and evaluates events rather
than events themselves, which will have an impact on behavior. This is generally believed to be an automatic process, in
other words we do not really think about it.
In people with psychological problems these thought processes tend to be negative and the cognitions (i.e.
attributions, cognitive errors) made will be inaccurate: These cognitions cause distortions in the way we see things; Ellis
suggested it is through irrational thinking, while Beck proposed the cognitive triad.
3. Medical/Biological
The medical model of psychopathology believes that disorders have an organic or physical cause. The focus of this
approach is on genetics, neurotransmitters, neurophysiology, neuroanatomy, biochemistry etc. For example, in terms of
biochemistry the dopamine hypothesis argues that elevated levels of dopamine are related to symptoms of schizophrenia.
The approach argues that mental disorders are related to the physical structure and functioning of the brain. For example,
differences in brain structure (abnormalities in the frontal and pre-frontal cortex, enlarged ventricles) have been identified in
people with schizophrenia.
4. Psychodynamic
The main assumptions include Freud’s belief that abnormality came from the psychological causes rather than the
physical causes that unresolved conflicts between the id, ego, and superego can all contribute to abnormality, for example:
a. Weak ego- Well-adjusted people have a strong ego that is able to cope with the demands of both the id and the
superego by allowing each to express itself at appropriate times. If, however, the ego is weakened, then either the id or the
superego, whichever is stronger, may dominate the personality.
b. Unchecked Id Impulses- If Id impulses are unchecked they may be expressed in self-destructive and immoral behavior.
This may lead to disorders such as conduct disorders in childhood and psychopathic (dangerously abnormal) behavior in
adulthood.
c. Too Powerful Superego- A superego that is too powerful, and therefore too harsh and inflexible in its moral values, will
restrict the id to such an extent that the person will be deprived of even socially acceptable pleasures. According to Freud
this would create neurosis, which could be expressed in the symptoms of anxiety disorders, such as phobias and
obsessions.
Freud also believed that early childhood experiences and unconscious motivation were responsible for disorders.

Identification of Abnormal Behavior

Abnormal Behavior could be recognized through any of the following:
1. Deviation from Statistical Norm
The word abnormal means ‘away from the norm’. Many population facts are measured such as height, weight and
intelligence. Most of the people fall within the middle range of intelligence, but a few abnormally stupid. But according to this
definition, a person who is extremely intelligent should be classified as abnormal. Examples are:
a. Intelligence- It is statistically abnormal for a person to get a score about 145 on in IQ test or to get a score below 55, but
only the lowest score is considered abnormal.
b. Anxiety- A person who is anxious all the time or has a high level of anxiety and someone who almost never feels anxiety
are all considered to be abnormal.
2. Deviation from Social Norm
Every culture has certain standards for acceptable behavior; behavior that deviates from that standard is
considered to be abnormal behavior. But those standards can change with time and vary from one society to another.
3. Deviation from Social Norm
This third criterion is how the behavior affects the well-being of the individual and/or social
group. A man who attempts suicide or a paranoid individual who tries to assassinate national leaders
are illustrations under this criterion. The two aspects of maladaptive behavior are:
a. Maladaptive to One’s self- It refers to the inability of a person to reach goals or to adapt the demands of life.
b. Maladaptive to Society- It refers to a person’s obstruction or disruption to social group functioning.
4. Personal Distress
The fourth criterion considers abnormality in terms of the individual’s subjective feelings, personal distress rather
than his behavior. Most people commonly diagnosed as “mentally ill” feel miserable, anxious, depressed and may suffer
from insomnia.
5. Failure to Function Adequately
Under this definition, a person is considered abnormal if they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life.
They may be unable to perform the behaviors necessary for day to day living e.g. self-care, hold down a job, interact
meaningfully with others, make themselves understood etc.
The following characteristics that define failure to function adequately:
a. suffering
b. maladaptiveness (danger to self)

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c. vividness and unconventionally (stands out)
d. unpredictably and loss control
e. irrationality/incomprehensibility
f. causes observer discomfort and
g. violates moral/social standards
6. Deviation from Ideal Mental Health
Under this definition, rather than defining what is abnormal, we define what normal/ideal is and anything that
deviates from this is regarded as abnormal. This requires us to decide on the characteristics we consider necessary to
mental health. The six criteria by which mental health could
be measured are as follows:
a. positive view of the self
b. capability for growth and development
c. autonomy and independence
d. accurate perception of reality
e. positive friendships and relationship and
f. environmental mastery (able to meet the varying demands of day to day situations).
According to this approach, the more of these criteria are satisfied, the healthier the individual is.

Symptoms of Abnormal Behavior

1. Long Periods of Discomfort- This could be anything as simple as worrying about a calculus test or grieving the death of
a loved one. This distress is related to a real, related, or threatened event and passes with time. When such distressing
feelings, however, persist for an extended period of time and seem to be unrelated to events surrounding the person, they
would be considered abnormal and could suggest a psychological disorder.
2. Impaired Functioning- Here, a distinction must be made between simply a passing period of inefficiency and prolonged
inefficiency which seems unexplainable. For instance, a very brilliant person consistently fails in his classes or someone
who constantly changes his jobs for no apparent reason.
3. Bizarre Behavior- that has no rational basis seems to indicate that the individual is confused. The psychoses frequently
result in hallucinations (baseless sensory perceptions) or delusions (beliefs which are patently false yet held as true by the
individual).
4. Disruptive Behavior- means impulsive, apparently uncontrollable behavior that disrupt the lives of others or deprives
them of their human rights on a regular basis. This type of behavior is characteristic of a severe psychological disorder. An
example of this is the antisocial personality disorder.

Segment 3. Mental Disorder

• What is a Mental Disorder?
Mental Disorder refers to the significant impairment in psychological functioning. A mental disorder, also called a
mental illness or psychiatric disorder, is a behavioral or mental pattern that causes significant distress or impairment of
personal functioning.
According to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)-IV, a mental disorder is a
psychological syndrome or pattern which is associated with distress (e.g. via a painful symptom), disability (impairment in
one or more important areas of functioning), increased risk of death, or causes a significant loss of autonomy; however it
excludes normal responses such as grief from loss of a loved one, and also excludes deviant behavior for political, religious,
or societal reasons not arising from a dysfunction in the individual.
In 2013, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) redefined mental disorders in the DSM-5 as “a syndrome
characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior that reflects a
dysfunction in the psychological, biological or developmental processes underlying mental functioning.

• What is Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders?

It is better known as the DSM-IV; the manual is published by the American Psychiatric Association and covers all
mental health disorders for both children and adults. It also known causes of these orders, statistics in terms of gender, age
at onset, and prognosis as well as some research concerning the optimal treatment approaches. Mental Health
Professionals use this manual when working with patients in order to better understand their illness and potential treatment
and to help 3rd party payers (e.g. insurance) understand the needs of the patient. The book is typically considered
the ‘bible’ for any professional who makes psychiatric diagnoses in the United States and many other countries. Much of the
diagnostic information on these pages is gathered from the DSM-IV.
• What is American Psychiatric Association (APA)?
APA is a medical specialty society with over 35,000 US and international member physicians who “work together to
ensure humane care and effective treatment for all persons with mental disorder; including mental retardation and
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substance-related disorders. It is the voice and conscience of modern psychiatry. Its vision is a society that has available,
accessible quality psychiatric diagnosis and treatment”. APA is the oldest national medical specialty society in the US.

Relationship between Mental Disorder and Crime

The relationship between mental disorder and crime is an issue of significant empirical complexity. It has been
subject of extensive research, using both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs and including samples of the general
population, birth cohorts, psychiatric patients, and incarcerated offenders. Nevertheless, the findings have been equivocal.
On the one hand, the following are several results of studies that have found a relationship between mental disorder
and crime:
1. The risk of criminal behavior was significantly higher among subjects with mental disorders, regardless of the
socioeconomic status of the childhood family. In particular, the higher risk for violent behavior was associated with alcohol-
induced psychoses and with schizophrenia with coexisting substance abuse.
2. A review on the five epidemiological investigations of post-second World War birth cohorts, came to the conclusion that
persons who develop major mental disorders are at increased risks across the lifespan of committing crimes. However, this
increased risk may be limited to generations of persons with major mental disorders born in the late 1940s, 1950s and
1960s,as they do not have received appropriate mental health care.
3. After examining data from national hospital and crime registers in Sweden, researchers found that the overall population
attributable risk fraction of patients was 5%, indicating that patients with severe mental disorder commits one in 20 violent
crimes.
4. A comparison on Swiss in-patients with the general population and came to the conclusion that patients were more
frequently registered in all crime categories, although there were differences between the diagnostic groups, while
alcoholics and drug users of both sexes had a significantly higher criminality rate was found among female, but not male,
patients suffering from schizophrenia or related disorders.
5. Finally, homicidal behavior appears to have a statistical association with schizophrenia and antisocial personality
disorder.
On the other hand, there are also studies that discard any relationship between mental disorder and crime. They
are as follows:
1. In a study which examined the ability of personal demographic, criminal history, and clinical variables to predict recidivism
in mentally disordered offenders in the United Kingdom, researchers found that reconviction in mentally disordered
offenders can be predicted using the same criminogenic variables that are predictive in offenders without mental disorders.
2. Researchers analyzed the relationship between violence and substance abuse among patients with chronic mental
disorder and found that major mental disorder alone with no history of alcohol or drug abuse associated with a considerably
lower risk of violence. Overall, the study showed no difference in the rate of violence between patients with major mental
disorder and patients with other diagnoses.
3. Other studies suggest that the diagnosis of schizophrenia and delusional disorder, contrary to previous empirical findings,
do not predict higher rates of violence among recently discharged psychiatric patients.
4. Along the same lines, researchers found that the crime rate among male schizophrenia patients was almost the same as
that in the general male population. However, the crime rate among females was twice that of the general female
population, so the overall results of the study were mixed.

• What is Mental Retardation (MR)?

MR is a condition of limited ability in which an individual has a low Intelligence Quotient (IQ), usually below 70 on a
traditional intelligence test, and has difficulty adapting to everyday life; he/she first exhibited these characteristics during the
so-called developmental period- by age 18. MR is a developmental disability that first appears in children under the age of
18. It is defined as a level of intellectual functioning (as measured by standard intelligence tests) that is well below average
and results in significant limitations in the person’s daily living skills needed for daily life. Such skills are a term that refers to
and understand language (communication); home-living skills; use of community resources; health, safety, leisure, self-care,
and social skills; self-direction; functional academic skills (reading, writing and arithmetic); and job related skills.

Four Different Levels of Mental Retardation

1. Mild Mental Retardation- Approximately 85% of the mentally retarded population is in the mildly retarded category. Their
IQ score ranges from 50-70, and they can often acquire academic skills up to about the sixth-grade level. They can become
fairly self-sufficient and, in some cases, live independently, with community and social support.
2. Moderate Mental Retardation- About 10% of the mentally retarded. Moderately retarded persons have IQ scores
ranging from 35-55. They can carry out work and self-care tasks with moderate supervision. They typically acquire
communication skills in childhood and are able to live and function successfully within the community in such supervised
environments as group homes.

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3. Severe Mental Retardation- About 3-4% of the mentally retarded population is severely retarded. Severely retarded
persons have 20-40%. They may master very basic self-care skills and some communication skills. Many severely retarded
individuals are able to live in a group home.
4. Profound Mental Retardation- Only 1-2% of the mentally retarded population is classified as profoundly retarded.
Profoundly retarded individuals have IQ scores under 20-25. They may be able to develop basic self-care and
communication skills with appropriate support and training. Their retardation is often caused by an accompanying
neurological disorder. Profoundly retarded people need a high level of structure and supervision.

Causes and Symptoms of Mental Retardation

Low IQ scores and limitations in adaptive skills are the hallmarks of mental retardation. Aggression, self-injury and
mood disorders are sometimes associated with the disability. The severity of the symptoms and the age at which they are
first appear depend on the cause. Children who are mentally retarded reach developmental milestones significantly later
than expected, if at all. If retardation is caused by chromosomal or other genetic disorders, it is often apparent from infancy.
If retardation is caused by childhood illnesses or injuries, learning and adaptive skills that were once easy may suddenly
become difficult or impossible to master. In about 40% of cases, the cause of mental retardation cannot be found.

Biological and environmental factors that can cause mental retardation include:
1. Genetic Factors
About 30% of cases of mental retardation is caused by hereditary factors. Mental retardation may be caused by an
inherited genetic abnormality, such as fragile X syndrome.
• What is Fragile X Syndrome?
It is a defect in the chromosome that determine sex, is the most common inherited cause of mental retardation. Single-
gene defects such as phenylketonuria (PKU) and other inborn errors of metabolism may also cause mental retardation if
they are not discovered and treated early. An accident or mutation in genetic development may also cause retardation.
Examples of such accidents are development of an extra chromosome 18 (trisomy 18) and Down syndrome. Down
syndrome, also called mongolism or trisomy 21, is caused by an abnormality in the development of chromosome 21. It is the
most common genetic cause of mental retardation.

2. Prenatal Illnesses and Issues

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) affects one in 3,000 children in Western countries. It is caused by the mother’s
heavy drinking during first twelve weeks (trimester) of pregnancy. Some studies have shown that even moderate alcohol
use during pregnancy may cause learning disabilities in children. Drug abuse and cigarette smoking during pregnancy have
also been linked to mental retardation. Maternal infections and such illnesses as glandular disorders, rubella,
toxoplasmosis, and cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection may cause mental retardation. When the mother has high blood
pressure (hypertension) or blood poisoning (toxemia), the flow of oxygen to the fetus may be reduced, causing brain
damage and mental retardation. Birth defects that cause physical deformities of the head, brain, and central nervous system
frequently cause mental retardation. Neural tube defect, for example, is a birth defect in which the neutral tube that forms
the spinal cord does not close accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid inside the skull (hydrocephalus). Hydrocephalus can
cause learning impairment by putting pressure on the brain.
3. Childhood Illnesses and Injuries
Hyperthyroidism, whooping cough, chickenpox, measles, and Hib disease (a bacterial infection) may cause mental
retardation if they are not treated adequately. An infection of the membrane covering the brain (meningitis) or an
inflammation of the brain itself (encephalitis) can cause swelling that in turn may cause brain damage and mental
retardation. Traumatic brain injury caused by blow to the head or by violent shaking of the upper may also cause brain
damage and mental retardation in children.
4. Environmental Factors
Ignored or neglected infants who are not provided with the mental and physical stimulation required for normal
development may suffer irreversible learning impairment. Children who live in poverty and suffer from malnutrition,
unhealthy living conditions, abuse, and improper or inadequate medical care are at higher risk. Exposure to lead or mercury
can also cause mental retardation. Many children have developed lead poisoning from eating the flaking lead based paint
often found in older buildings.

Intelligence Tests to Measure Abilities and Intellectual Functioning

1. Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale
2. Wechsler Intelligence Scales
3. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence
4. Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children

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Prevention of Mental Retardation
Immunization against diseases such as measles and Hib prevent many of the illness that can cause mental
retardation. In addition, all children should undergo routine developmental screening aspart of their pediatric care.
Screening is particularly critical for those children who may be neglected or undernourished or may live in disease
producing conditions. New born screening and immediate treatment for PKU and hyperthyroidism can usually catch these
disorders early enough to prevent retardation.
Good prenatal care can also help prevent retardation. Pregnant women should be educated about the risks of
alcohol consumption and the need to maintain good nutrition during pregnancy. Such tests as amniocentesis and
ultrasonography can determine whether a fetus is developing normally in the womb.

Segment 4. Criminal Behavior and Intelligence

• What is Criminal Behavior?
Criminal Behavior refers to a behavior which is criminal in nature; a behavior which violates the law. Thus, the moment
a person violates the law, he has already committed criminal behavior. Criminal Behavior refers to conduct of an offender
that leads to an including the commission of an unlawful act.
According to Goldoozian for human behavior to be considered a crime, three elements are necessary:
1. Legally, the criminal act should be prohibited by law
2. Materially, the criminal act should be executed or realized
3. Spiritually, the criminal act should be accompanied by criminal intention or guilt. These three
elements must be present for an act to be labelled as a crime.

Origins of Criminal Behavior

1. Biological Factor
Heredity as a factor implies that criminal acts are unavoidable, inevitable consequences of the bad seed or bad
blood. It emphasizes genetic predisposition toward antisocial and criminal conduct. The following are some studies and
theories related to biological causes of crime:
a. Born Criminals (Cesare Lombroso)
b. Physique and Somatotype (Ernst Kretschmer & William Sheldon)
c. Juke and Kallikak (Richard Dugdale & Henry Goddard)
2. Personal Disorder Factor
Personal Disorder Factor refers to an act that exhibits a pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights
of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood such as Anti-Social Personality
Disorder (Psychoanalytic Theory- Sigmund Freud)
3. Learning Factor
Learning Factor explains that criminal behavior is learned primarily by observing or listening
to people around us. The following are related learning theories, to wit:
a. Differential Association Theory (Edwin Sutherland)
b. Imitation Theory (Gabriel Tarde)
c. Identification Theory (Daniel Classer)
4. Biological Approach
Biological Approach points to inherited predispositions and physiological processes to explain individual differences
in personality. It is a perspective that emphasizes the role of biological processes and heredity as the key to understanding
behavior.
5. Humanistic Approach
Humanistic Approach identifies personal responsibility and feelings of self-acceptance as the key causes of
differences in personality. This perspective focuses on how humans have evolved and adapted behavior required for
survival against various environmental pressures over the long course of evolution.
6. Behavioral/Social Learning Approach
Behavioral/Social Learning Approach explains consistent behavior patterns as the result of conditioning and
expectations. This emphasizes the role of environment in shaping behavior.
• What is Behavioral Personality Theory? – It is a model of personality that emphasizes learning and observable
behavior.
• What is Behavioral Personality Theory? - It is an explanation of personality that combines learning principles,
cognition, and the effect of social relationships.
• What is Social Learning Theory? - It is an explanation of personality that combines learning principles, cognition,
and the effects of social relationships.
• What is Self-reinforcement? - This is the praising or rewarding oneself for having made a particular response.

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 • What is Identification? – It is a feeling from which one is emotionally connected to a person and a way of seeing
oneself as himself or herself. The child admires adults who love and care for him/her and this encourages imitation.
7. Cognitive Approach
Cognitive Approach looks at differences in the way people process information to explain differences in behavior.
This perspective emphasizes the role of mental processes that underlie behavior.

Intelligence and Criminality

• What is Human Intelligence?
Human intelligence generally points to at least three characteristics. First, intelligence is best understood as a
compilation of brain-based cognitive abilities. According to 52 eminent intelligence researchers, intelligence reflects “a very
general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly,
comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience.
The earliest casual explanation, popular during the early 1900s, portrayed criminals as so “feebleminded” and
“mentally deficient” that they could neither distinguish right from wrong nor resist criminal impulses. This feeblemindedness
hypothesis, however, lost favor long ago as it became clear that few criminals are actually mentally deficient and most
recognize, though may not follow, behavioral norms. A more recent, and more compelling, casual explanation emphasizes
the importance of intelligence, especially intelligence during childhood socialization. The socialization of children involve
constant verbal communication and comprehension of abstract symbols; therefore; children with poor verbal and cognitive
skills have greater difficulty completing the socialization process, which puts them at risk of under controlled, antisocial
behavior. Empirical studies overall have supported this developmental hypothesis, and it fits with the especially strong
correlation between verbal IQ and crime.
A final causal explanation links IQ to crime through school performance. Less intelligent students do less well in
school, which results in academic frustration. This frustration, in turn, weakens their attachment and commitment to
schooling, and a weakened bond to school as per social control theory, allows for more criminal behavior. This school
performance hypothesis has received strong support from empirical studies, and it is probably the most widely accepted
explanation of the IQ crime correlation.

Criminal Law and Intelligence

• What is the McNaughton (M’Naghten) Rule?
In 1724 an English court maintained that a man was not responsible for an act if “he does not know what he is doing, no
more a wild beast”. Modern standards of legal responsibility, however, have been based on the McNaughten decision of
1843.
The formal insanity defense has its beginnings in 1843, when Daniel McNaughton tried to kill Robert Peel, the
british prime minister (he shot and killed his secretary instead). At his trial, McNaughten testified that he believed that the
British government was plotting against him, and he was acquitted of murder. The McNaughton Rule requires that a criminal
defendant (a) not know what he was doing at the time or (b) not know that his actions were wrong (because of his
delusional belief, McNaughton thought he was defending himself).
The rule created a presumption of sanity, unless the defense proved “at the time of committing the act, the accused
was laboring under such as defect of reason, from disease of the mind, as not to know the nature and quality of the act he
was doing was wrong”. This rule was adopted in the U.S., and the distinction of knowing right from wrong remained the
basis for most decisions of legal insanity.
• What is the Durham Rule?
The Durham rules states that, “an accused is not criminally responsible if his unlawful act is the product of mental
disease or mental defect”. Some states added to their statutes this doctrine which is also known as “irresistible impulse”
recognizing some ill individuals may respond correctly but may be unable to control their behavior.
In the United States, the next advance in the insanity defense was The Durham Rule or “product test” adopted in
1954, which states that “an accused is not responsible if his unlawful act was the product of mental disease or defect”. This
“product test” was overturned in 1972, largely because its ambiguous reference to “mental disease or defect” places undue
emphasis on subjective judgements by psychiatrists and can easily lead to a “battle of the experts”.
Many states now adopt a version of guidelines set out by the American Law Institute in 1962, which allows the
insanity defense if, by virtue of mental illness, the defendant (a) lacks the ability to understand the meaning of their act or (b)
cannot control their impulses. This is sometimes known as the “irresistible impulse test”.

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 CHAPTER II
HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND
COPING/DEFENSE MECHANISMS
Segment 1. Emotion
Emotions refers to feelings affective responses as a result of physiological arousal, thoughts and beliefs, subjective
evaluation and bodily expression. It is a state characterized by facial expressions, gestures, postures and subjective
feelings. Emotion is associated with mood, temperament, personality, and disposition. The English word emotion is derived
from the French word ėmouvoir. This is based on the Latin emovere, where e- (variant of ex-) means ‘out’ and movere
means move. The related term motivation is also derived from movere.
- The word “emotion” comes from the Latin word “emovere” meaning “to move out” or “stir up”. To “move out”
conveys the idea of an outward expression of something inside. It connotes a stirred up bodily state.

Theories of Emotion
1. James-Lange Theory by William James and Carl Lange
James-Lange theory states that emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the
environment: emotion occurs after physiological reactions. This theory and its derivatives states that a changed
situation leads to a changed bodily state. As James says “the perception of bodily changes as they occur is the emotion”.
James further claims that “we feel sad because we cry; angry because we strike, nor tremble, and neither have we
cried, strike, nor tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be”. The James Lange theory has now
been all but abandoned by most scholars.
2. Cannon-Bard Theory by Philip Bard and Walter Cannon
This suggests that people feel emotions first and then act upon them. This is a theory that emotion and
physiological reactions occurs simultaneously. These actions include changes in muscular tension, perspiration, etc.
The theory was formulated following the introduction of the James-Lange theory of Emotion in the late 1800s, which
alternately suggested that emotion is the result of one’s perception of their reaction, or “bodily change”.
Example: I see a man outside my window. I am afraid. I begin to perspire. The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion is based on
the premise that one reacts to a specific stimulus and experiences the corresponding emotion simultaneously. Cannon and
Bard posited that one is able to react to a stimulus only after experiencing the related emotion and experience.
3. Two Factor Theory
This theory was provided by Schachter & Singer, in which they posited that emotion is the cognitive interpretation
of a physiological response. For many, this remains the best formulation of emotion. Most people consider this to be the
“common sense” theory to explain physiological changes; their physiology changes as a result of their emotion.

• What is Emotional Intelligence (EI)?

EI is the area of cognitive ability that facilitates interpersonal behaviour. The term emotional intelligence was
popularized in 1995 by psychologist and behavioral science journalist Dr. Daniel Goleman in his book, Emotional
Intelligence. Dr. Goleman described emotional intelligence as a person’s ability to manage his feelings so that those
feelings are expressed appropriately and effectively.
EI is the capacity to understand and manage emotion; however, the content and boundaries of this construct
remain unsettled.
Mayer and Salovey, the who originally used the term, defined EI as, The ability to perceive emotion, integrate
emotion to facilitate thought, understand emotions, and to regulate emotions to promote personal growth.

Five Components of Emotional Intelligence by Goleman

1. Self-Awareness- A person has a healthy sense of emotional intelligence self-awareness if they understand their own
strengths and weaknesses, as well as how their actions affect others. A person with emotional self-awareness is usually
receptive to, and able to learn from, constructive criticism more than one who doesn’t have emotional self-awareness.
2. Self-Regulation- A person with a high emotional intelligence has the ability to exercise restraint and control when
expressing their emotions.
3. Motivation- People with high emotional intelligence are self-motivated, resilient and driven by an inner ambition rather
than being influenced by outside forces, such as money or prestige.
4. Empathy- An empathy person has compassion and is able to connect with other people on an emotional level, helping
them respond genuinely to other people’s concerns.
5. Social Skills- People who are emotionally intelligent are able to build trust with other people, and are able to quickly gain
respect from the people they meet.
Emotional Intelligence and Criminal Behavior (Research-Based)
1. The group of convicted offenders obtained significantly lower scores on all the domains of MEII (Mangal Emotional
Intelligence Inventory) such as intrapersonal awareness (own emotions), interpersonal awareness (others emotions),
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intrapersonal management (own emotions) and interpersonal management (others emotions), and aggregate emotional
quotient in comparison to their normal counterparts. Researchers concluded that, the convicted offender’s group had
significantly lower EI compared to normal subjects. Starting EI enhancement program in prison can help the inmates better
understand their feelings and emotions.
2. Emotional intelligence is deeply related to aggression and offending.
3. Persons with high EI levels are more able to moderate their emotions and less impulsive. On the other hand, individuals
with low EI levels are more prone to risky behavior. They also have a hard time understanding situations from the
perspectives of others and, therefore, tend to be less empathetic.
4. A reduced capacity to regulate emotions could possibly maintain offending pattern of behavior in criminals. For example,
internet child sexual abuse is often preceded by unregulated negative feelings.
5. A reduced capacity to regulate anger, desire, and sexual arousal may result in an assault, theft, and sexual assault,
respectively.
6. Some recent studies, consistently report EI deficits in criminals. In addition, some studies indicate that offenders are
deficient in subcomponents of EI such as social problem-solving, empathy, social competency, flexibility, impulse control,
and self-regard.
Segment 2. Conflict
Conflict is a stressful condition that occurs when a person must choose between incompatible or contradictory
alternatives. It is a negative emotional state caused by an inability to choose between two or more incompatible goals or
impulse. Conflict is the state in which two or more motives cannot be satisfied because they interfere with one another.
- Conflict refers to the simultaneous arousal of two or more incompatible motives, resulting in unpleasant emotions.
- The word conflict came from the Latin term “conflictus” meaning “strike together.

Types of Conflict
1. Psychological Conflict (Internal Conflict)
Psychological conflict could be going on inside the person and no one would know (instinct may be at odds with values).
Freud would say unconsciousness id battling superego and further claimed that our personalities are always in conflict.
2. Social Conflict
The different kinds of social conflict are:
a. Interpersonal Conflict;
b. Two individuals me against you;
c. Inter-group Struggles- us against them;
d. Individual Opposing a Group- me against them, them against me;
e. Intra-group Conflict- members of group all against each other on a task.
3. Approach-Avoidance
Conflict can be described as having features of approach and avoidance: approach-approach, avoidance-
avoidance, and approach-avoidance. Approach speaks to things that we want while Avoidance refers to things that we do
not want.

Kinds of Approach-Avoidance
a. Approach-Approach Conflict- In Approach-Approach Conflict, the individual must choose between two positive goals of
approximately equal value. In this, two pleasing things are wanted but not only one option should be chosen.
Examples: Choice between two colleges, two roommates, or two ways of spending the summer.

b. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict- Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict involves more obvious sources of stress. The individual
must choose between two or more negative outcomes.
Example: Study or do the dishes. I don’t want this and I don’t want that. A woman with an unwanted pregnancy may be
morally opposed by abortion.

c. Approach-Avoidance Conflict- Approach-Avoidance Conflict exists when there is an attractive and unattractive part to
both sides. It arises when obtaining a positive goal necessitates a negative outcome as well.
Examples: Gina is beautiful but she is lazy. “I want this but I don’t want this entails”.
Another is the dilemma of the student who is offered a stolen copy of an important final exam.
Cheating will bring guilt and reduced self-esteem, but also as good grade.

d. Multiple-Approach-Avoidance Conflict- This refers to conflict with complex combinations of approach and avoidance
conflicts. It requires individual to choose between alternatives that contain both positive and negative consequences.

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Functional versus Dysfunctional Conflict
a. Dysfunctional Conflict- There is dysfunctional conflict, if conflict disrupts, hinders job performance, and upsets personal
psychological functioning.
b. Functional Conflict- There is functional conflict if conflict is responsive and innovative aiding in creativity and viability.

Crime and Conflict

Criminal behavior as an indicator of conflict within the person, emphasizing either:
a. failure to resolve tensions generated in the course of interaction between the organism and human figures in its
environment.
b. tensions generated by person’s inability to satisfy the contradictory expectations of others, or else to mobilize the
resources needed to perform a role assigned to him.

Segment 3. Depression
Depression is an illness that causes a person to feel sad and hopeless much of the time. It is different from normal
feelings of sadness, grief, or low energy. Anyone can have depression. It often runs in families. But it can also happen to
someone who doesn’t have a family history of depression. You can have depression one time or many times.

Causes of Depression
a. Major events that create stress, such as childbirth or a death in the family.
b. Illnesses, such as arthritis, heart disease, or cancer.
c. Certain medicines, such as steroids or narcotics for pain relief.
d. Drinking alcohol or using illegal drugs.

Symptoms of Depression
a. Think and speak more slowly than normal.
b. Have trouble concentrating, remembering, and making decisions.
c. Have changes in their eating and sleeping habits.
d. Lose interest in things they enjoyed before they were depressed.
e. Have feelings of guilt and hopelessness, wondering if life is worth living.
f. Think a lot about death or suicide.
g. Complain about problems that don’t have physical cause, such as headache and
stomachache.

Different Forms of Depression

1. Major Depressive Disorder- This is also called major depression. It is characterized by a combination of symptoms that
interfere with a person’s ability to work, sleep, study, eat, and enjoy once-pleasurable activities. Major depression is
disabling and prevents a person from functioning normally. An episode of major depression may occur only once in a
person’s lifetime, but more often, it recurs throughout in a person’s life.
2. Dysthymic Disorder (or also referred to as Dysthymia)- The symptoms do not occur for more than two months at a
time. Generally, this type of depression is described as having persistent but less severe symptoms than Major Depression.
Manifest nearly constant depressed mood for at least 2 years accompanied by at least two (or more) of the following:
a. Decrease or increase in eating;
b. Difficulty sleeping or increase in sleeping;
c. Low energy or fatigue;
d. Low self-esteem;
e. Difficulty concentrating or making decisions; and
f. Feeling hopeless.
3. Psychotic Depression- This occurs when a severe depressive illness is accompanied by some form of psychosis, such
as a break with reality, hallucinations and delusions.
4. Postpartum Depression- This is a major depressive episode that occurs after having a baby. A new mother develops a
major depressive episode within one month after delivery. It is estimated that 10 to 15 percent of women experience
postpartum depression after giving birth. In rare cases, a woman may have a severe form of depression called postpartum
psychosis. She may act strangely, see or hear things that aren’t there, and be a danger to herself and her baby.
5. Seasonal Affective Disoder (SAD)- This is characterized by the onset of a depressive illness during the winter months,
when there is less natural sunlight. The depression generally lifts during spring and summer. SAD may be effectively treated
with light therapy, but nearly half of those with SAD do not respond to light therapy alone. Antidepressant medication and
psychotherapy can reduce SAD symptoms, either alone or in combination with light therapy.

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6. Bipolar Disorder- This is also called manic-depressive illness, is not as common as major depression or dysthymia.
Bipolar disorder is characterized by cyclical mood changes from extreme highs (e.g. mania) to extreme lows (e.g.
depression).
7. Endogenous Depression- Endogenous means from within the body. This type of depression is defined as feeling
depressed for no apparent reason.
8. Situational Depression or Reactive Depression- This is also known as Adjustment Disorder with Depressed Mood.
Depressive symptoms develop in response to a specific stressful situation or event (e.g. job loss, relationship ending).
These symptoms occur within 3 months of the stressor and lasts no longer than 6 months after the stressor (or its
consequences) has ended. Depression symptoms cause significant distress or impairs usual functioning (e.g. relationships,
work, school) and do not meet the criteria for major depressive disorder.
9. Agitated Depression- This kind of major depressive disorder is characterized by agitation such as physical and
emotional restlessness, irritability and insomnia, which is the opposite of many depressed individuals who have low energy
and feel slowed down physically and mentally inappropriate social behavior.

How to Battle Depression?

a. Socializing- eating out, movies, ballgames with family or friends.
b. Helping others in need- volunteer work, feeding the homeless, etc.
c. Praying- work for all moods, especially depression.

Segment 4. Stress
Stress refers to the consequences of the failure of an organism human or animal to respond appropriately to
emotional or physical threats, whether actual or imagined. Stress is a form of the Middle English destresse, derived via
Old French from the Latin stringere, to draw tight. The term stress was first employed in a biological context by the
endocrinologist Hans Selye in the 1930s.
Stress can thought of as any event that strains or exceeds an individual’s ability to cope.

• What is Stressor?
Stressor is anything (physical or psychological) that produces stress (negative or positive). For example, getting a
promotion is a positive event, but may also produce a great deal of stress with all the new responsibilities, work load, etc.

Two Types of Stress

1. Eustress (Positive)- Eustress is a word consisting of two parts. The prefix derives from the Greek eu meaning either
well or good. When attached to the word stress, it literally means good stress.
It is a stress that is healthy or gives one a feeling of fulfilment or other positive feelings.
Eustress is a process of exploring potential gains. A stress that enhances function (physical or mental
as through strength training or challenging work) is considered eustress. Examples of positive
personal stressors include:
a. receiving a promotion or raise at work,
b. starting a new job,
c. marriage,
d. buying a home,
e. having child,
f. moving,
g. taking a vacation,
h. holiday seasons,
i. retiring, and
j. taking educational classes or learning a new hobby.

2. Distress (Negative)- Distress is known as the negative stress. Persistent stress that is not resolved through coping or
adaption, deemed distress, may lead to anxiety or withdrawal (depression) behavior. Effects of distress are:
a. ineffectiveness at tasks,
b. self-defeating behaviour,
c. transitional suicidal behaviour
d. anxiety and fear
e. loss of interest and initiative
f. poor decision-making
g. dangerous action
h. accidents, and
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i. apathy and cynicism.

Examples of negative personal stressors include:

a. the death of a spouse,
b. filing for divorce
c. losing contact with loved ones,
d. the death of a family member
e. hospitalization (oneself or a family member)
f. injury or illness (oneself or a family member)
g. being abused or neglected
h. separation from a spouse or committed relationship
i. conflict in interpersonal relationship partner
j. bankruptcy/Money problems
k. unemployment
l. sleep problems
m. children’s problems at school, and
n. legal problems

Three Stages of Stress (General Arousal [adaptation] Syndrome/GAS)

1. Alarm- Alarm is the first stage. When the threat or stressor is identified or realized, the body’s response is a state of
alarm. During the stage adrenaline will be produced in order to bring about the fight-flight response.
2. Resistance- Resistance is the second stage. If the stressor persists, it becomes necessary to attempt some means of
coping with the stress. Although the body begins to try to adapt to the strainsor demands of the environment, the body
cannot keep this up indefinitely, so its resources are gradually depleted.
3. Exhaustion- Exhaustion is the third and final stage in the GAS model. At this point, all of the body’s resources are
eventually depleted and the body is unable to maintain normal function. The initial autonomic nervous system symptoms
may reappear sweating, raised heart rate etc. The result can manifest itself in obvious illnesses such as ulcers, depression,
diabetes, trouble with the digestive system or even cardiovascular problems, along with either mental illnesses.

Types and Categories of Stress

1. Acute Stress- is what most people identify as stress. It makes itself felt through tension, headaches, emotional upsets,
gastrointestinal disturbances, feelings of agitation and pressure.
2. Episodic Acute- Stress is more serious and can lead to migraines, hypertension, stroke, heart attack, anxiety,
depression, and serious gastrointestinal distress.
3. Chronic Stress- is the most serious of all. It’s the stress that never ends. It grinds us down until our resistance is gone.
Serious systematic illness such as diabetes, decreased immune-competence, perhaps cancer is it hallmark.
4. Traumatic Stress- is the result of massive acute stress, the effects of which can reverberate through our systems for
years. Posttraumatic stress disorder is treatable and reversible and usually requires professional aid.

The most common types of stress and anxiety problems are defined by the DSM1V-TR of the American Psychiatric
Association (APA).
A. Types of Short Term Stress
1. Acute Time- refers to limited stress that come on suddenly (acute) and are over relatively quickly. Situations like public
speaking and doing math in your head fall into this category. These things may come on without warning but are short in
duration.
2. Brief Naturalistic Stress- relatively short in duration. Think of a classroom test or a final exam. These are stresses that
rise out of other things (like a course of study) and are over quickly.

B. Types of Long Term Stress

1. Stressful Event Sequences- is a single event that starts from a chain of challenging situations. From example, losing a
job or surviving a natural disaster.
2. Chronic Stress- lacks a clear end point. Often, they force people to assume new roles or change their self-perception.
Think of a refugee leaving their native country or an injury leading to permanent disability. These are life-changing events-
you rarely get to go back to the way things were.
3. Distant Stress- may have been initiate in the past (like childhood abuse or trauma resulting from combat experiences)
but continue to affect the immune system. Distant stressors have long lasting effects on emotional and mental health.

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 • How does Stress Affect Human Behavior? Stress can contribute to health problems such as headaches, high
blood pressure, heart problems, and skin conditions. Stress may also influence cognitive processes because it is
associated with elevated levels of cortisol, a hormone that can influence brain functioning.

Segment 5. Frustration
Frustration is a negative emotional state that occurs when one is prevented from reaching a goal. Frustration is an
unpleasant state of tension and heightened sympathetic activity, resulting from a blocked goal. Frustration is associated with
motivation since we won’t be frustrated if we were not motivated to achieve the goal. Frustration may be external or
personal.
-Frustration refers to the situation which blocks the individual’s motivated behavior. Sustained frustration may be
characterized by anxiety, irritability, fatigue or depression.

• What is External Frustration?

External frustration is a distress caused by the outwardly perceivable conditions that impedes progress towards a goal.

• What is Internal/Personal Frustration? (SOURCES OF FRUSTRATION)

Personal frustration is a distress caused by the individual’s inner characteristics that impedes progress toward a goal.
The sources of frustration are as follows:
1. Physical Obstacles- such as drought, typhoons, flat tire, etc. that prevents a person from doing his plans or fulfilling his
wishes.
2. Social Circumstances- such as obstacles through the restrictions imposed by other people and customs and laws of
social being.
3. Personal Shortcomings- such as handicapped by diseases, blindness, deafness or paralysis.
4. Conflicts between Motives- such as wanting to leave college for a year to try painting but also wanting to please one’s
parents by remaining in school.

• Is Anger a Source of Frustration?

There is a saying “Frustration” begets anger and anger begets aggression”. Direct anger and aggression is expressed
toward the object perceived as the cause of the frustration. If a machine does not work, you might hit it or kick it. If someone
gets in your way, you could verbally threaten them or push them aside. If the source of the frustration is too powerful or
threatening for direct aggression, displaced aggression is often used. The aggression is redirected toward a less
threatening and more available object.
An angry person often acts without thinking. The person has given in to the frustration and
they have given up restraint. Anger can be a healthy response if it motivates us to positive action but
all too often the actions we engage in when angry are destructive.

Frustration Tolerance
It is the ability to withstand frustration without developing inadequate modes of response such as being emotionally
depressed or irritated, becoming neurotic, or becoming aggressive.

Broad Reactions to Frustration

 Fight – is manifested by fighting the problem in a constructive and direct way by means of breaking down the
obstacles preventing the person reaching his goals.
 Flight – it can be manifested by sulking, retreating, becoming indifferent and giving up.

Common Response to Frustration

1. Aggression- It refers to any response made with the intent of harming some person or objects. The intentional infliction
may be physical or psychological harm.
2. Displaced Aggression- It refers to the redirecting of aggression to a target other than the actual source of one’s
frustration.
3. Scapegoating- It refers to the act of blaming a person or group of people for conditions not of their making.
4. Escape- It is the act of reducing discomfort by leaving frustrating situation or by psychologically withdrawing from them
such as apathy (pretending not to care) or illegal drug use.

• What is the Frustration Aggression Theory?

This is an example of frustration turning into aggression. Aggression is malicious behavior or attitude towards someone
or something, usually triggered by frustration.

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 • What is Frustration-induced Criminality?
Frustration induced criminality is the idea that when out behavior is directed at a specific goal is blocked, arousal
increases and the individual experiences a need to reduce it. Individuals “who employ violence to reduce this frustration,
become more vigorous than usual, possibly even resorting to murder and other violent actions”. A good example of this, is
the child who does not have their needs met and becomes frustrated. “The Frustration of not having dependency needs met
prevents he child from establishing emotional attachments to other people. The individual may thus become resentful,
angry, and hostile toward other people in general.

• What is the Hypothesis of Catharsis?

If you buy a punching bag, or release your aggression by playing Quake, or by screaming, then you will be less violent
and aggressive in day-to-day life, having “released” your aggression.

Segment 6. Coping Mechanism vs. Defense Mechanism

Coping mechanisms are the sum total of ways in which people deal with minor to major stress and trauma. Some
of these processes are unconscious ones, others are learned behavior, and still others are skills that individuals consciously
master in order to reduce stress, or other intense emotions life depression. Not all ways coping are equally beneficial, and
some can actually be very detrimental.
- It is defined as the way people react to frustration. People differ in the way they react to frustration. This
could be attributed to individual differences and the way people prepared in the developmental task they faced during the
early stages of their life.

Defense mechanisms refers to an individual’s way of reacting to frustration. These are unconscious psychological
strategies brought into play by various entities to cope with reality and to maintain self-image. Healthy persons normally use
different defenses throughout life. According to Freud, defense mechanisms are methods that ego uses to avoid recognizing
ideas or emotions that may cause personal anxiety; it is the unrealistic strategies used by the ego to discharge tension.
-is an unconscious psychological process that serves as safety valve that provides relief from emotional conflict and
anxiety.

1. Acting Out- this means literally acting out the desires that are forbidden by the Superego and yet desired by the Id. We
thus cope with the pressure to do what we believe is wrong by giving in to the desire. A person who is acting out desires
may do it in spite of his/her conscience or may do it with relatively little thought. Thus, the act may be being deliberately bad
or may be thoughtless wrongdoing.
Examples:
a. An addict gives in to his/her desire for alcohol or drugs.
b. A person who dislikes another person seeks to cause actual harm to him/her.

2. Aim Inhibition- Sometimes we have desires and goals that we believe or realize that we are unable to achieve. In aim
inhibition, we lower our sights, reducing our goals to something that we believe is actually more possible or realistic.
Examples:
a. A person who sexually desires another person but is unable to fulfil that desire (for example the
other person is married) convinces himself/herself that all he/she really wants is to be friends.
b. A person who wants to be a veterinarian does not get sufficient exam grades, so becomes a vet’s assistant instead.

3. Altruism- Avoid your own pains by concentrating on the pains of others. Maybe you can heal yourself and feel good by
healing them and helping them to feel good.
Examples:
a. A self-made millionaire who grew up in poverty sets up a charitable foundation and gains great pleasure from how it helps
others get out of the poverty trap. She receives social accolade and public recognition for her good deeds gratefully.

4. Attack- The best form of defense is attack is a common saying and is also a common action, and when we feel
threatened or attacked (even psychologically), we will attack back. When a person feels stressed in some way, he/she may
lash out at whoever is in the way, whether the other person is a real cause or not. He/she may also attack inanimate
objects.
Examples:
a. A person is having problems with his/her computer. He/she angrily bangs the keyboard.

5. Avoidance- In avoidance, we simply having to face uncomfortable, situations, things or activities.

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The discomfort, for example, may come from unconscious sexual or aggressive impulses.
Examples:
a. I dislike another person at work. I avoid walking past his/her desk. When people talk about him/her, I say nothing.
b. My son does not like doing homework. Whenever the subject of school comes up, he changes the topic. He also avoids
looking directly at me.

6. Compartmentalization- It is a ‘divide and conquer’ process for separating thoughts that will conflict with one another.
This may happen when there are different beliefs or even when there are conflicting values.
Examples:
a. A person who is very religious and is also a scientist holds the opposing beliefs in different cognitive compartments, such
that when they are in church, they can have blind faith, whilst when they are in the laboratory, they questions everything.
b. There is sometimes honor among thieves, where together they act as honest people. Thieves also may be very honest in
their family lives.

7. Compensation- Where a person has a weakness in one area, they may compensate by accentuating or building up
strengths in another area. Thus, when they are faced with their weakness, they can say ‘ah, but I am good at..’, and hence
feel reasonably good about the situation.
Examples:
a. A person who failed in Math excelled in English.
b. People who are not intellectually gifted may turn their attention to social skills.

8. Conversion- Conversion occurs where cognitive tensions manifest themselves in physical symptoms. The symptom may
well be symbolic and dramatic and it often acts as a communication about the situation. Extreme symptoms may include
paralysis, blindness, deafness, becoming mute or having a seizure. Lesser symptoms include tiredness, headaches and
twitches.
Example:
a. A person's arm becomes suddenly paralyzed after it has been used to threaten to hit someone else

9. Denial - Denial is simply refusing to acknowledge that an event has occurred. The person affected simply acts as if
nothing has happened; behaving in ways those others may as bizarre.
Examples:
a. A man hears that his wife has been killed, and yet refuses to believe it, still setting the table to her and keeping her
clothes and other accoutrements in the bedroom.
b. Alcoholics vigorously deny that they have a problem.
c. Optimists deny that things may go wrong.
d. Pessimists deny they may succeed.

10. Displacement- It refers to the shifting of actions from a desired target to a substitute target when there are some
reasons why the first target is not permitted or not available.
Examples:
a. The boss gets angry and shouts at me. I go home and shout at my wife. She then shouts at our Son. With nobody is left
to displace anger onto, he goes and kicks dog.
b. A man wins the lottery. He turns to the person next to him and gives the person a big kiss.
c. A boy is afraid of horses. It turns out to be a displaced fear of his Father.
d. A religious person who is sexually frustrated focuses his/ her attention on food, becoming a gourmet.
e. A woman, rejected by her boyfriend, goes out with another man 'on the rebound.

11. Dissociation- involves separating a set of thoughts or activities from the main area of conscious mind, in order to avoid
the conflict that this would cause. This can also appear as taking an objective, third-person perspective, where you ‘go to
the balcony’ and look down on the situation in order to remove emotion from your perspective (this is Sometimes called
dissociation of affect).
Example:
a. A religious person preaches kindness to all, yet is cruelly strict to children, without realizing that there is a conflict
between the two.

12. Emotionality - When we become stressed or tension is a number of negative emotions may start to build, including
anger, frustration, fear, jealousy and so on. When we display these emotions, it can affect others around us, arousing
similar or popular feelings. Some people are neither not good at restraining their emotions or are less concerned about the

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effect on others and more about the personal benefits of emotional outburst. As a result, they regularly and habitually
display extreme emotions.
Examples:
a. Teenagers often cannot contain the emotions caused by physiological and temporal development. As a result can be very
emotional and can contribute significant family problem
b. A man who has had long relationship problems is given to angry outburst that both gives temporary respite and yet add to
the cycle of relational failures.

13. Fantasy or Day Dreaming- When we cannot achieve or do something that we want, we channel the energy created by
the desire into fantastic imaginings. Fantasy als0 provides temporary relief from the general stresses of everyday living.
Examples:
a. A boy who is punished by a teacher creates fantasies of shooting the teacher (remember the movie "If).
b. A student who flunks university exams imagines that they could have passed the exams ‘if they really wanted to’.

14. Fight-or-Flight Reaction - When we perceive a significant threat to us, then our bodies get ready either for a fight to the
death or a desperate flight from certain defeat by a clearly superior adversary. It also happens when a creative new idea
makes us feel uncertain about things of which we previously were sure. The biochemical changes in our brain make us
aggressive, fighting the new idea, or make us timid, fleeing from it.
Example:
a. A lion suddenly appeared in front of a person while walking in the forest. That person may choose to wrestle the lion or
run away to save his life.

15. Help-rejecting Complaining - A person becomes upset or otherwise elicits supporting actions from other people. When
helpful suggestions or other comfort is offered, however, he/ she reject this and return to his/her complaint.
Example: a. A person complains to his/her partner about problems at work. When the partner suggests ways of resolving
the problems, the solutions are rejected out of hand and the person continues to complain.

16. Idealization- It is the over-estimation of the desirable qualities and underestimation of the limitations of a desired thing.
We also tend to idealize those things that we have chosen or acquired. The opposite of idealization is Demonization, where
something that is not desired or disliked has its weak points exaggerated and its strong points played down.
Examples:
a. A teenager in awe of a rock star idealizes his/her idol, imagining him/her to have a perfect life, to
be kind and thoughtful, and so on. He/she ignore the star’s grosser habits and rough background.
b. I buy a sports car and look admiringly at its sleek lines. I ignore the fact that it drinks fuel and is
rather uncomfortable.

17. Identification - It occurs when a person changes apparent facets of his/her personality such that he/she appears to be
more like other people. This process may be to copy specific people or it may be to change to an idealized prototype. Areas
of identification may include external elements, such as clothing and hair styles (which may be chosen without consciously
realizing the influences that are at
play) as well as internal factors such as beliefs, values and attitudes.
Examples:
a. A girl dresses like her friends, as much because she likes the garb as any conscious desire to be like them.
b. A person in a meeting adopts similar body language of his/her manager and tends to take the same viewpoint.

18. Intellectualization- This refers to a "flight into reason, where the person avoids uncomfortable emotions by focusing on
facts and logic. The situation is treated as an resting problem that engages the person on a rational basis, whilst the
emotional aspects are completely ignored as being irrelevant. Jargon is often used as a device of intellectualization. By
using complex terminology, the focus becomes on the words and finer definitions rather than the human effects.
Example:
a. A person who is in heavily debt builds a complex spreadsheet of how long It would take to repay using different payment
options and interest rates.

19. Introjection- Introjection occurs as a coping mechanism when we take on attributes of other people who seem better
able to cope with the situation than we do.
Examples:
a. I have to give a presentation but feel scared. I put on the hat of Abraham Lincoln and imagine I am confidently giving an
important speech/address to the nation.

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b. A child is threatened at his/her school. He/she takes on the strong-defender attributes that he/she perceives in his/ her
father and pushes away the bully.

20. Passive Aggression - A person who uses passive-aggressive method to cope with stresses does this by ‘attacking’
others through passive means. Thus, the aggressive intent is cloaked by the passive method. Passive aggression often
appears when a person is asked to do something which he/she wants to avoid for some reason (such as priority of other
work). By appearing to agree but not making any real commitment, he she can avoid the action.
Examples: a. A sales person uses a persuasive sales pattern. The Customer agrees that this is just what he/she wants, but
when it comes to signing the order, he/she finds reasons why he/she cannot buy today.
b. A change manager asks people to change what they do. They agree but do not actually do what they agreed to do.

21. Post-traumatic Growth - An individual who has suffered a traumatic experience somehow finds ways to turn it into
something good. Typically: Interpersonal relationships are improved, with friends and family valued more and more time
being spent in helping others. Self-perception changes through the increase in resiliency gained from realizing you can cope
with hardship.
Examples: a. A mother who has lost a child to cancer raises significant money for cancer charities.
b. After a terrorist attack, people are friendlier with others nearby and help out.

22. Projection- when a person has uncomfortable thoughts or feelings, he/she may project these onto other people,
assigning the thoughts or feelings that he/she need to repress to a convenient alternative target. Projection may also
happen to obliterate attributes of other people with which we are uncomfortable. we assume that they are like us, and in
doing so we allow ourselves to ignore those attributes they have with which we are uncomfortable.
Examples:
a. An unfaithful husband suspects his wife of infidelity.
b. A woman who is attracted to a fellow worker accuses the person of sexual advances.

23. Provocation or Free-floating - When a person feels stressed, his/her way to avoid dealing with the real issues 1IS to
provoke others into some kind of reaction. The attention can then be put on the other person and away from the originator's
stress.
Examples:
a. A very common context for provocation is between teenagers and their parents, Siblings and teachers. The teenager
deliberately does something reprehensible, gets told off, and then blames the other person.
b. Provocation is also a common cause of fights, both verbal and physical. A person who needs to
affirm his/her power will provoke a weaker other in order to escalate into a conflict he/she is confident
he/she can win.

24. Reaction Formation- Reaction Formation Occurs when a person feels an urge to do or say something and then
actually does or says something that is effectively the opposite of what he/she really wants. It also appears as a defense
against feared social punishment. If I fear that I will be criticized for something, I very visibly act in a way that shows I am
personally a long way from the feared position.
Examples:
a. A person who is angry with a colleague actually end being particularly courteous and friendly towards him/her.
b. A man who is gay has a number of conspicuous heterosexual affairs and openly criticizes gays.

25. Rationalization- When something happens that we find difficult to accept, then we will make up a logical reason why it
has happened. We rationalize ourselves. We also find it very important to rationalize to other people, even those we do not
know.
Examples:
a. A person evades paying taxes and then rationalizes it by talking about how the government wastes money (and how it is
better for people to keep what they can).
b. A person fails to get good enough results to get into a chosen university and then says that he/she didn't want to go there
anyway.

26. Regression- Regression involves taking the position of a child in some problematic situation, rather than acting in a
more adult way. This is usually in response to stressful situations, with greater levels of stress potentially leading to more
overt regressive acts. Regressive behavior can be simple and harmless, such as a person who is sucking a pen (as a
Freudian regression to oral fixation), or may be more dysfunctional, such as crying or using petulant arguments.
Examples:

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a. A person who suffers a mental breakdown assumes a fetal position, rocking and crying
b. A college student carefully takes his/her teddy-bear with him/her (and goes to sleep cuddling it).

27. Repression- Repression involves placing uncomfortable thoughts in relatively inaccessible areas of the subconscious
mind. Thus, when things occur that we are unable to cope with now, we push them away, either planning to deal within
them at another time or hoping that they will fade away on their own accord. The level of forgetting' in repression can vary
from a temporary abolition of uncomfortable thoughts to a high level of amnesia, where events that caused the anxiety are
buried very deep.
Examples:
a. A child who is abused by a parent later has no recollection of the events, but has trouble forming relationships.
b. A man has a phobia of spiders but cannot remember the first time he was afraid of them.

28. Self-harming- The person physically deliberately hurts himself/herself in some way or otherwise puts themselves at
high risk of harm.
Examples:
a. Slapping oneself
b. Punching a hard wall
c. Cutting oneself with a knife
d. Reckless driving
e. Taking narcotic drugs

29. Somatization - Somatization occurs where a psychological problem turns into physical and subconscious symptoms.
This can range from simple twitching to skin rashes, heart problems and worse.
Examples:
a. A policeman, who has to be very restricted in his professional behavior, develops hypertension.
b. A worried actor develops a twitch.

30. Sublimation - It is the transformation of unwanted impulses into something less harmful. This can simply be a
distracting release or may be a constructive and valuable piece of work. Many sports and games are sublimations of
aggressive urges, as we sublimate the desire to fight into the ritualistic activities of formal competition.
Examples:
a. I am angry. I go out and chop wood. I end up with a useful pile of firewood. I am also fitter and nobody is harmed.
b. A person with strong sexual urges becomes an artist.
31. Suppression- This is where the person consciously deliberately pushes down any thoughts that leads to feelings of
anxiety. Actions that take the person into anxiety-creating situations may also be avoided.
Examples:
a. An older man has sexual feelings towards a teenager and quickly suppresses the thought.
b. I am about to take a short-cut down an alleyway. There are some people down there. I decide to take the longer but more
interesting route.
32. Substitution - This takes something that leads to discomfort and replace it with something that does not lead to
discomfort.
Examples:
a. Rather than making a difficult phone call, I call my daughter for a chat.
b. Instead of putting up a mirror, I put up a photograph of myself when I was younger.

33. Symbolization- Symbolization is a way of handling inner conflicts by turning them into distinct symbols. Symbols are
often physical items, although there may also be symbolic acts and metaphoric ideas.
Examples:
a. A soldier explains his decision to join the army as defending the flag
b. A man asks for the woman's hand, symbolizing the "hand in marriage”.

34. Trivializing- When we are faced with a disappointment over something that is important to us, we are faced with the
problem or having our expectations and predictions dashed. We may even have
told other people about it beforehand, making it doubly embarrassing that we have not gained what we expected. One way
that we trivialize is to make something a joke, laughing it off.
Examples:
a. A girl rejects the advances of a boy. He tells his friends that she isn’t that pretty anyway.
b. I lose a lot of money due to gambling. I tell myself that I didn't need it anyway.

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35. Undoing- It refers to performance of an act to 'undo' a previous unacceptable act or thought. Confession is a form of
undoing, including that done in a church to a priest or a secret admission to a close friend.
Examples:
a. A man who has been unkind to his wife buys her flowers (but does not apologize).
b. A person who has barged in front of others in a queue holds the door open for them.

36. Positive Coping- There are a number of approaches that we can take to cope in a positive way with problems,
including:
a. Immediate problem-solving: Seeking to fix the problem that is the immediate cause of our difficulty.
b. Root-cause solving: Seeking to fix the underlying cause such that the problem will never recur.
c. Benefit-finding: Looking for the good things amongst the bad.
d. Spiritual growth: Finding ways of turning the problem into a way to grow spiritually or emotionally.
Example:
a. A student fails an exam. He/she views it as an opportunity to deepen his/her learning and study
hard.

--END OF PRELIM--

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