MINI PROJECT 2023-24

CHAPTER 1
HIGHWAY PROJECT
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The road pavement is generally constructed on small embankments, slightly above the
general default & maintenance problem. Road way is also termed as high way, & the
science & technology dealing with road engineering is generally called “HIGHWAY
ENGINEERING”. High ways is path or way connecting the places like state, district etc.
for the transportation; high way is the part of transportation. Transportation contributes to
the economic, industrial, social and cultural development of any country. Transportation is
very vital for economic development of any region since every commodity produced
needs transportation at all stages from production to distribution.

1.2 MODES OF TRANSPORTATION

Four major modes of transportation are
• Roadways or Highways
• Railways
• Waterways NTRO
• Airways

1.3 ROLE OF TRANSPORTATION

Transportation contributes to the economic, industrial, social & cultural development
of any country. Transportation is vital for the economic development of many regions,
because every community produces, weather it is food, clothing, & industrial products
transportation at all stages from production to distribution of the products.

1.4 SOCIAL EFFECTS OF TRANSPORTATION

Progress allows the lines of transportation. Population has always settled along the
river shore, road side or near railway station. In presence concept of transportation
network, this kind of ribbon develop is greatly discovered.
The various social effects of transportation may be further elaborated as follows. The
travels in other parts of the country & also outside the country & also outside the country
tend to increase knowledge of population from other sections of the society.

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1.5 ADVANTAGES OF TRANSPORTATION

The improved transportation network brings prosperity to the urban population. The
prosperity & employment opportunities of urban areas attract the population from other
areas resulting in enhanced economic activities
Transportation is essential for the economic prosperity & general development of the
country.
Transportation is for strategic movement in emergency for defense of the country &
to maintain better law and orders.

1.6 HIGHWAY PLANNING

• To plan a road network for efficient and safe traffic operation, but at minimum
cost
• To arrive at the road system which could provide maximum utility to fix up data
wise priorities for development of each road link
• To plan for future requirements and improvements of road in view of anticipated
developments
• To work out financing systems
1.7 PLANNING SURVEY
• Financial studies
• Economic studies
• Traffic or road use studies
• Engineering studies
1.8 HIGHWAY DESIGN
• Before a highway alignment is finalized in highway project some steps to be
carried out they are;
• Engineering surveys
• Alignment
• Geometric design
1.8.1 Engineering Surveys
Before a highway alignment is finalized in highway project, the engineering
surveys are to be carried out. The surveys may be completed in four stages. The first three
stages consider all possible alternate alignment keeping Engineering surveys.
Before a highway alignment is finalized in highway project, the engineering
surveys are to be carried out. The surveys may be completed in four stages. The first three

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stages consider all possible alternate alignment keeping in view the various components
requirements of highway alignment & fourth stage is meant for detailed survey of the
selected alignment.
The stages of the engineering surveys are:
• Transport planning survey: This includes traffic survey and highway inventory
(studying the existing pavement), geometric and accident studies. Traffic surveys
conducted in the region from the basis for deciding the number of traffic lanes and
roadway width, pavement design and economic analysis of highway project.

• Reconnaissance survey: This carried out to examine the general character of the
area for deciding the most feasible routes for detailed study. Reconnaissance starts
with the field inspection by along the proposed routed or area where the road is
proposed. All information, which affects the geometric design, constructions,
maintenance and economics, is noted down. Gradients, drainage requirements etc,
soil conditions, terrain conditions area also noted. This survey helps to identify
two or three alternatives connecting the two station points through an obligatory
point with this key plan or index map is prepared indicating all features collected.
• Preliminary survey: This is carried out to collect all the physical information,
which is necessary in connections with highway alignment. The main objective is
to estimate the quality of earthwork materials and other construction aspects and
to work out the cost of alternative proposals. This is generally carried out to know
the alignment detains by traverse rising plane table and compass.
• Final survey: This is conducted to work out the details of longitudinal and crosss
e c t i o n a l profile. This also helps to fix up the centerline of the selected
alignment and to collect the additional data for the preparation of drawings.
• Alignment Survey: Administrative, developmental, strategic and other needs
would determine the obligatory points to be connected by a hill road. Control
points will be governed by saddles, passes, river crossing and other natural
features like escarpments and unstable areas. Optimum alignment will be one,
which yields the least overall transportation cost, taking into account the cost of
construction and maintenance of the road as well as the recurring cost of vehicle
operation, and at the same time having least adverse impact on the environmental
and ecological balance. The route should avoid the introduction of hairpin bends
as far as possible.

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1.9 HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

1.9.1 General
The position or the layout of the center line of the highway on the ground is called
the alignment. The horizontal alignment includes the straight path, the horizontal
deviations and curves, changes in gradient and vertical curves are covered under vertical
alignment of roads.
A new road should be aligned very carefully as improper alignment would result
in or more of the following disadvantages: -
• Increase in construction cost.
• Increase in maintenance cost.
• Increase in vehicle operation cost.
• Increase in accident rate.
Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to change the alignment
due to Increase in cost of adjoining land and construction of costly structures by the road
side. Hence the important of careful consideration while finalizing the alignment of a new
road need not be over emphasized.
1.9.2 Basic Requirements
The basic requirements of an ideal alignment between 2 terminal stations are that
it should be:
• Short: It is desirable to have a short alignment between two terminal stations. A
Straight alignment would be shortest though there may be several practical
considerations which would cause deviation from the shortest path.
• Easy: The alignment should be such that it is easy to construct and maintain the
roads with minimum problems. Also, the alignment should be easy for operation
of vehicles with easy gradients and curves.
• Safe: The alignment should be safe enough for construction and maintenance
from the view point of stability of natural hill slopes, embankment and cut slopes
and foundation of embankments also it should be safe for the traffic operation
with geometric features.
• Economical: The road alignment could be considered economical only if the total
cost including initial cost, maintenance cost and vehicle operation cost is lowest.
All these factors should be given due consideration before working out the

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economics of each alignment. The alignment should be such that it would offer
maximum utility by serving maximum population and products.
1.9.3 Factors Controlling Alignment
For alignment to be shortest, it should be straight between the 2 terminal stations.
This is not always possible due to various practical difficulties such as intermediate
obstructions and topography. A Shortest route may have very steep gradients and hence
not easy for vehicle operation Similarly, there may be construction and maintenance
problems along a route, which may otherwise be short and easy. Roads are often deviated
from the shortest route in order to cater for intermediate places of importance or
obligatory points.
A road which is economical in the initial construction cost need not necessarily be
the most economical in maintenance or in vehicle operation cost. It may also happen that
the shortest and easiest route for vehicle operation may work out to be the costliest of the
different alternatives from construction viewpoint. Thus it may be seen that an alignment
can seldom fulfill all requirements simultaneously. Hence a judicial choice is made
considering all factors.
The various factors that control the highway alignment in general may be listed as:
• Obligatory points: There are control points governing the alignment of the
highways. These control points may be divided broadly into 2 categories.
➢ Points through which the alignment is to pass
➢ Points through which the alignment should not pass.
Obligatory points through which road alignment has to pass may cause the
alignment to often deviate from the shortest or easiest path. Obligatory points
through which road should not pass also may make it necessary to deviate from
the proposed shortest alignment. The obligatory points which should be avoided
while aligning a road include religious places, very costly structures, unsuitable
land etc.
• Traffic: The alignment should suit traffic requirements. Origin and destination
study should be carried out in the area and the desire lines be drawn showing the
trend of traffic flow. The new road to be aligned should keep in view the desired
lines, traffic flow patterns and future trends. Geometric design: Geometric design
factors such as gradient, radius of curve and sight distance also would govern the
final alignment of highway.

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In hill roads additional care has to be given for:

• Stability
• Drainage
• Geometric standards of hill roads and
• Resisting length
1.10 PROCEDURE OF FIXING THE ALIGNMENT
The alignment of a hill road is fixed and translated onto the ground in several
operations:

1.10.1 Reconnaissance
Reconnaissance begins with the study of all the available maps. In India,
Topographical Sheets are available in scale 1:50000.
The reconnaissance survey may be conducted in the following sequence:
• Aerial reconnaissance: Aerial reconnaissance will provide a bird’s eye view of
the alignment under consideration, along with the surrounding area. It will help to
identify factors, which call for rejection or modification of any of the alignments.
• Ground reconnaissance: The various alternative routes found feasible as a result
of map and aerial photograph study and aerial reconnaissance are further
examined in the field by ground reconnaissance. As such, this part of the survey is
an important link in the chain of activities leading to selection of the final route.
• Final reconnaissance of inaccessible and difficult stretches:Ground
reconnaissance may disclose certain difficult stretches, which call for detailed
examination. A trace cut might be specially made in such sections for inspection.
• Reconnaissance report: Based on the information collected during the
reconnaissance survey a report must be prepared. It should include all relevant
information collected during survey
1.10.2 Preliminary survey General
The preliminary survey consists of pegging the route previously selected on the
basis of the reconnaissance survey, cutting a trace 1.0m to 1.2m wide and running an
accurate traverse line along it for the purpose of taking longitudinal and cross sections and
establishing bench marks. The data collected at this stage forms the basis for the
determination of the final centre line of the road.

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Map preparation
At conclusion of the preliminary survey, plans and longitudinal sections are
prepared for detailed study to determine the final centre line of bridge-crossing, etc., the
plan should show contours at 1m-3m intervals, so as to facilitate the final decision.
Scales for the maps should generally be the same as adopted for the final drawings.
Normally, the horizontal scale might be 1:1000 and the vertical scale 1:100.
1.10.3 Determination of final center line
Determination of final center line of the road design in the office is a forerunner to
the final location survey. This involves the following operations:
• Making use of plans from the preliminary survey showing the longitudinal profile,
cross- sections and contours, a few alterative alignments for the final centre line of
the road are drawn and studied and the best one satisfying the engineering,
aesthetic, economic and environmental requirements is selected.
• For the selected alignment, a trial grade line is drawn taken into consideration the
controls which are established by mountain passes, intersections with other roads,
railway/river crossings, unstable areas, etc.
• For the alignment finally chosen, a study of the horizontal alignment and
conjunction with the profile is carried out and adjustments made in both as
necessary for achieving proper co-ordination.
• Horizontal curves including spiral transitions are designed and the final center line
marked on the map.
• The vertical curves are designed and the profile shown on the longitudinal section.
1.10.4 Final Location survey General
The purpose of the final location survey is to lay out the final centre line of the
road in the field based on the alignment selected in the design office and to collect
necessary data for the preparation of working drawings.
Benchmarks
To establish firm vertical control for location, design and construction,
benchmarks established during preliminary should be rechecked.

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1.11 LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS AND CROSS-SECTIONS

Levels along the final center line should be taken at all breaks in the ground.
Cross- sections should be taken at 60m interval.
• Proper projection of points of reference
The final location survey is considered complete when all necessary
information is available and ready for the designer to be able to plot the final road
profile and prepare the project drawings. Among other things, field notes should
give a clear description and location of all the benchmarks and reference points.
This information should be transferred to the plan drawings, so that at the time of
construction, the center line and the benchmarks could be located in the field
without any difficulty. In the last stage of alignment survey, hydrological and soil
investigations for the route should be carried out.
Final alignment was carried out by transferring the alignment from the
drawings to the ground by driving pegs along the centre line of the finally chosen
alignment, and setting out simple circular curves whenever necessary.
• To fix the alignment and direction of the terrain The
instruments required for this are:
➢ Prismatic compass,
➢ Ranging rod,
➢ Chain and tape
• Use of plane table
Plane tabling is a graphical method of survey in which the field
observations and plotting proceeds simultaneously. It is the means of
making a manuscript map in the field while the ground can be seen by the
topographer and without intermediate steps of recording the transcribing
field notes
The plane table with levelling head having arrangements for
➢ Levelling
➢ Rotation about vertical axis and
➢ Clamping in any required position.
➢ Alidade for sighting,
➢ Plumbing fork and plumb bob,
➢ Spirit level,
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➢ Compass,
➢ Drawing paper with a rain proof cover.
• Use of ceylon ghat tracer
It is a very useful instrument for setting out gradients. It essentially
consists of a long circular tube having a peep hole at one end and cross wires at
the other end.
➢ To measure a slope:
✓ Fix the instrument onto the stand and hold it to one end of the
line. Keep the target at the other end.
✓ Looking through the eye hole, more the sliding weight in the line
of sight passes through the cross mark of a sight vane.
✓ The reading against the levelled edge of the weight will give the
gradient of the line.
➢ To set out a gradient:
✓ Hold the instruments at one end,
✓ Send the assistant at the other end with the target,
✓ Direct the assistant to move the target till it is bisected.
✓ Drive a peg at the other end so that the top of the peg is at the
same level as that of the bottom of the target.
✓ Slide the weight to set it to the given gradient, say 1 in n.

1.12 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Basic principles of geometric design
A uniform application of design standards is most desirable from the viewpoint of
road safety and smooth flow of traffic. The use of optimum design standards will reduce
the possibility of early obsolescence of the facilities brought about by inadequacy of the
original standards.

1.13 HIGHWAY CROSS-SECTION ELEMENTS

The different elements under this are:
• Pavement surface characteristics.
• Cross slope or camber.
• Width of pavement or carriageway.

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• Kerb • Road margins.

• Right of way.
• Width of roadway.
1.13.1 Width of road lane, roadway, carriageway and shoulders:

Desirable width of road land (also termed as right-of-way) for various categories
of roads are given in the Table 1.1
Table 1.1 Desirable Width of Road
Sl. Open Areas Built-Up Areas
Road
No Normal Exceptional Normal Exceptional
Classification

1. National and state 24 18 20 18

highways

2. Major district roads 18 15 15 12

3. Other district roads 15 12 12 9
4. Village roads 9 9 9 9
Width of carriageway and road width for various categories of roads should be as
given in table 1.2

Table 1.2 Carriageway and Road Width

Highway classification Carriageway Shoulder Roadway
width width
width (m)
(m)
NH & SH
Single lane 3.75 2x1.25 6.0
Double lane 7 2x0.9 8.8

Major district road & 3.75 2x0.5 4.75

other roads

Village roads 3.0 2x0.5 4.0

1.13.2 Camber

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The pavement on straight reaches should be provided with a crown in the middle
and surface on either side sloping towards the edge. The camber or cross fall on straight
sections of roads should be as given below table 1.3. For a given surface type, the steeper
values of camber should be adopted in areas having high intensity of rainfall and lower
values where the intensity of rainfall is low.
Table 1.3 Camber
A. Earth roads 3 to 4 percent (1 in 33 to 1 in 25)
B. Gravel or WBM 2.5 to 3 percent (1 in 40 to 1 in 33)
surface
C. Thin bituminous 2 to 2.5 percent (1 in 50 to 1 in 40)
surface
D. High type bituminous 1.7 to 2 percent (1 in 60 to 1 in 50)
surface

The cross falls for earth shoulders should be at least 0.5% more than the pavement
camber subject to a minimum of 3%. On super elevated sections, the shoulders should
normally have the same cross fall as the pavement.

1.14 DESIGN SPEED

The designs speeds for various categories of hill roads should be as given in the table
1.4
Table 1.4 Design Speed (Km/h)
Road
Plain Rolling Mountainous Steep
classification
ruling min. ruling min. ruling min. ruling min.
N.H & S.H 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30
M.D.R 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20
O.D.R 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20
V.R 50 40 40 35 25 20 25 20

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1.15 SIGHT DISTANCE

Stopping sight distance is the clear distance ahead needed by a driver by bring his
vehicle to a stop before meeting a stationary object in his path, and is calculated as the
sum of braking distance required at the particular speed plus the distance travelled by
vehicle during perception and brake reaction time, intermediate sight distance is defined
as twice the stopping sight distance. Design values for both these sight distances and the
criteria for their measurement.

1.16 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

In general horizontal curves should consist of a circular portion flanked by spiral
transitions, at both ends. Design speed, super elevation and coefficient of side friction
affect the design of circular curves. Minimum radius curves should be adopted only when
absolutely necessary at reverse curves, sufficient gap should be ensured between the two
curves for introduction of the requisite transition curves. Compound curve may be used
only when it is impossible to fit in a single circular curve.

1.17 SUPER ELEVATION

Super elevation to be provided on curves is calculated from the following formula.
2
E=V /225R
Where,
E= super elevation
V= design speed in km/h
R= radius of the curve in meters

The change over from normal section to super elevation should be achieved gradually
over the full length of the transition curve so that the design super elevation is available at
the starting point of the circular curve.

1.18 MINIMUM CURVE RADII

On a horizontal curve, the combined effect of super elevation and side friction
balance the centrifugal force. The basic equation for this condition of equilibrium is: V2
=e+fgR or R=V2/127*(e+f)

Where,
V = vehicle speed in m/s v
= vehicle speed in km/h G
= acceleration due to
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gravity in m/s2 e = ratio of

super elevation
f = co-efficient of side friction between vehicle tyres and pavement. (Taken as 0.15)
Radii for horizontal curves corresponding to ruling minimum and absolute
minimum design speeds are shown in the Table.

1.19 TRANSITION CURVES

Spiral curve should be used for transitions. These are necessary for smooth entry of
vehicles from a straight section into a circular curve. The transition curves also improve
aesthetic appearance of the road, besides permitting gradual application of the super
elevation and extra widening at curves.

1.20 WIDENING OF ROAD AT CURVES

At sharp horizontal curves, it is necessary to widen the carriageway to facilitate safe
passage of vehicles. The widening required has two components.
• Mechanical widening to compensate the extra width occupied by a vehicle on the
curve due to tracking of the rear wheels, and
• Psychological widening‟ to pem 1 it easy crossing of vehicles since vehicle in a
lane tend to wander more on a curve than on a straight reach.
Based on the above considerations, the extra width of carriageway to be provided at
horizontal curves on single and two-lane roads is given in the table.

1.21 SET-BACK DISTANCE AT HORIZONTAL CURVES

Requisite sight distance should be available across the inside of horizontal curves.
Lack of visibility in the lateral direction may arise due to obstructions like walls, cut
slopes, wooded areas, high crops etc.
Set-back distance from the center line of the carriageway within which the
offending obstructions should be cleared to ensure the needed visibility can be
determined.
The set-back distance is calculated from the following equation:
M=R-(R-n) cos θ Where, θ = S / 2*(R-n) m= the

minimum set-back distance from the center line of the road to sight obstruction in meters

at the middle of the road

R= center line of the road in meters

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N= distance between the center line of the road and the inside lane in meters S=
sight distance in meters
For applying the above relationship, sight distance is measured along the middle of
inner lane. However, on single-lane roads, sight distance is measured along center line of
the carriageway and “n” is taken as zero.

1.22 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

General
The vertical alignment should provide for a smooth longitudinal profile consistent
with category of a road and the terrain. Grade changes should not be too frequent as to
cause kinks and visual discontinuities in the profile.
Gradients
Recommended gradients for different terrain conditions except at hair-pin bends
are given in the table 1.5
Table 1.5 Recommended Gradients for Different Terrain Conditions
Classification of gradient Mountainous terrain and
steep terrain having Steep terrain up to

elevation not 3000m height above

more than 3000 m above MSL

MSL
Ruling gradient 5% (1 in 20) 6% (1 in 16.7)
Limiting gradient 6% (1 in 16.7) 7% (1 in 14.3)
Exceptional gradient 7% (1in 14.3) 8* (1 in 12.5)
1.23 GRADE COMPENSATION AT CURVES
At horizontal curves the gradients should be eased by an amount known as the
“grade compensation” which is intended to offset the extra tractive effort involved at
curves. This may be calculated from the following formula:
Grade compensation (%) = (30 + EJ) /R Subject to a minimum of
75/R
Where,
R is radius of the curve in meters

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1.24VERTICAL CURVES
Vertical curves are introduced for smooth transition at grade changes. Both summit
curves and valley curves should be designed as square parabolas. The two types of
vertical curves are:
• Summit curves
• Valley curves
The design procedure of calculation of length of vertical curves is as follows:
• Summit Curves: The length of summit curves is governed by the
choice of sight distance, whether stopping sight distance of the
intermediate sight distance.
The required length may be calculated from the following formula:

A. For safe stopping sight distance

Case (i): When the length of the curve exceeds the required sight distance, i.e.
L greater than S:

L= NS2/4.4
Where,

N = deviation angle, i.e. the algebraic difference between the two grades
L = length of the parabolic vertical curve in meters
S = sight distance in meters
Case (ii): when the length of the curve is less than the required sight distance
i.e. L is less than S:
L= 2S- 4.4N

B. For Intermediate Sight Distance

Case (i): when the length of the curve exceeds the required sight distance, i.e.
L greater then S.
L= NS² /9.6
Case (ii): when the length of the curve is less than the required sight distance,
i.e. L is less than S
L = 2S- 9.6/N

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1.25 VALLEY CURVE

The length of the valley curves should be such that for night travel the headlight
beam distance is equal to the stopping sight distance. Based on this criterion, the length of
curve may be calculated as under:
Case (i): when the length of the curve exceeds the required sight distance. i.e.
L is greater then S.
L= NS2/(1.5+0.035 S)

Case (ii): when the length of the curve is less than the required sight distance,
i.e. L is less than S,

L= 2S- 1.5+0.035S/N
In both cases
N= deviation angle, i.e. the algebraic difference between the two grades
L = length of the parabolic vertical curve in meters
S = sight distance in meters
Note:
The above formula has been derived with the following
Assumptions: Headlight height = 0.75 m
Upward divergence of the light beam from the longitudinal axis of the vehicle = 1o

1.26 DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL CURVES

As per IRC recommendation for mountainous terrain
V =50kmph
Ruling minimum radius=V²/ 127(e+f)
Where, e=0 .07 &
f=0.15
R min =50²/127(0.07+0.15) =89.47m≈90m
T1=120m
T2=250m
Δ=33°
L = R tan(Δ/2) =130m R=438.87m

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1.27 LENGTH OF TRANSITION CURVE

Comfort condition:
Ls = 0.0215V³ / CR
Here, C = 80 / (75+V) = 80/(75+50) = 0.64
Ls = 0.0215*V³ / (CR)= (0.0215*50³) / (0.64*438.87)= 9.56m ≈10m
Rate of introducing Super
elevation:
LS = E*N= e (w + We) *Ne
w = width of pavement =
7.5m We = extra widening,
e=0.07
We = [nl² / 2r] + [V / 9.5 √R] No of lanes n = 2
Wheel base l = 6.1m
We = [2*(6.1) ²/ 2*438.87] + [ 50 / 9.5√ 438.87] = 0.33m
E = e (w + We) = 0.07 (7.5+0.33) = 0.55m

1.28 DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS PAVEMENTS

Objects and Requirements of Pavements
The surface of the roadways should be stable and non-yielding, to allow the heavy
wheel loads of road traffic to move with least possible rolling resistance. The road surface
should also be even along the longitudinal profile to enable the fast vehicles to move
safely and comfortably at the designed speed.
Based on the vertical alignment and the environmental conditions of the site, the
pavement may be constructed over the embankment, out of almost at the ground level.
It is always desirable to construct the pavement well above the maximum level of
the ground water to keep the sub-grade dry even during monsoons.
Types of Pavement structures
Based on the structural behavior, pavements are generally classified into two categories.
• Flexible pavements: Flexible pavements are those, which on the whole have low
or negligible flexural strength and are rather flexural in their structural under
loads. The flexible pavement layers reflect the deformation of the lower layer to
the surface of the layer. Thus if the lower layer of the pavement or soil sub-grade
is undulated, the flexible pavement surface also gets undulated. A flexible
pavement consists of four pavements:
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➢ Soil sub-grade
➢ Sub-base course
➢ Base course
➢ Surface course
• Rigid pavements: Rigid pavements are those, which possess noteworthy flexural
strength or flexural rigidity. The stresses are not transferred from grain to grain to
the lower layers as in the case of flexible pavements layers. The pavements are
made of Portland cement concrete plain, reinforced or prestressed concrete. The
rigid pavements are usually designed and the stresses are analyzed using elastic
theory, assuming the pavement as an elastic plate resting over elastic or a viscous
foundation. It consists of three components:
➢ Cement concrete slab
➢ Base-course
➢ Soil sub-grade Traffic is estimated based on 7 day 24-hr
classified counts.
In exceptional cases, 3-day count is used. The rate of growth is estimated based on
past trends. If not, 7.5% is taken for rural roads.
Design life is usually 10 to 15 years.
The design traffic is considered in terms of cumulative no. of standard axles (C.S.
A). It is done using the following equation:
Ns =365 A {(1+r )x - 1] F

Ns=C.S. A
Where,
A=Initial traffic * D.F. R= rate of growth
F= vehicle damage factor
Dual carriage way: 75% of the number of vehicles in each direction.
Where distribution factor (D.F)
Single lane (3.75 m) 2

Intermediate road (5.5m) 1.5

Two-lane 0.75

Four-lane 0.40

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CHAPTER 2
LAYOUT PLANNING
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Layout planning involves decisions about the physical arrangement of economic activity
centre within a production or service facility. An economic activity centre could be a
machine, a worker or group of employees, a workstation etc. It is anything which
occupies space and is used in production of an output. Layout planning is an important
decision for management as a proper layout has a direct effect on the efficiency of
production. The proper and effective arrangement of economic centers ensures the smooth
and rapid movement of material, from the raw material stage to the end product stage.
Layout planning involves decisions regarding following aspects

2.2 IMPORTANCE OF LAYOUT PLAN

Having a well-thought-out layout plan offers numerous benefits across different
domains. Let's explore some of the key reasons why layout planning is essential:
Optimal Space Utilization: A layout plan helps maximize the efficient use of available
space. It ensures that every square foot is utilized effectively, minimizing wasted areas
and creating room for necessary amenities or activities.
Improved Flow and Efficiency: By carefully arranging elements within a space, a layout
plan enhances the flow of movement. It allows for smooth navigation and minimizes
unnecessary obstructions, reducing time and effort required to access different areas or
complete tasks.
Enhanced Functionality: A well-designed layout plan ensures that a space serves its
intended purpose effectively. It takes into account the specific requirements and activities
associated with the area and organizes elements accordingly, leading to improved
functionality and convenience.
Visual Appeal: Aesthetics play a crucial role in any space. A layout plan considers the
visual impact of the arrangement, ensuring a pleasing and inviting environment that aligns
with the desired ambiance or branding.

2.3 SURVEY OBJECTIVES

1. To identify an appropriate area for formation of a layout.
2. To obtain the profile of the selected area through establishing the contour.
3. To prepare the layout plan accommodating various requirements.

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2.4 FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN DESIGNING A LAYOUT PLAN

Designing an effective layout plan requires careful consideration of various factors. Some
important aspects to keep in mind include:
Function and Purpose: Understanding the intended function and purpose of the space is
vital to create a layout plan that meets the specific requirements and objectives.
User Needs and Preferences: Considering the needs, preferences, and behavior patterns
of the users or occupants to ensure the layout plan caters to their comfort, convenience,
and preferences.
Spatial Constraints: Evaluating the limitations and constraints of the space, including
dimensions, structural elements, building codes, and regulations.
Accessibility: Incorporating elements that ensure accessibility for individuals with
disabilities, adhering to relevant accessibility guidelines and standards.
Future Flexibility: Anticipating potential changes or modifications and designing the
layout plan to accommodate future adaptations or expansions.

2.5 PROCEDURES
1. Reconnaissance survey for selection of site.
2. Mark the boundary of the site.
3. The whole area is divided in to number of squares of size 5m x 5m.
4. The elevation of the corners of the square are then determined by levelling
staff and Dumpy level.
5. The contour lines are than drawn by interpolation.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1 Chase, B.R., Shankar, R., Jacobs, F.R. and Aquilano, N.J., Operations & Supply Chain
Management, 12th Edition, McGraw Hill.
2 Stevenson, W.J., Operations Management, 9th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill.
3 Lee J. Krajewski, Operations Management, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi, 8th
Edition.

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