Chemistry O-Level 5070 | Notes by Syeda Huda

Atoms, Isotopes and Ions

Atom: The smallest possible amount of matter which still retains its identity as a chemical
element, consisting of a nucleus surrounded by electrons.
Proton: Positively charged subatomic particle forming part of the nucleus of an atom and
determining the atomic number of an element. It weighs 1 amu.
Neutron: A subatomic particle forming part of the nucleus of an atom. It has no charge. It is
equal in mass to a proton or it weighs 1 amu.
Electron: Negatively charged subatomic particle present in the shells surrounding the nucleus
of an atom. It weighs 1/1840 amu.

Structure of an atom
An atom is composed of two regions: the nucleus, which is in the center of the atom and
contains protons and neutrons, and the outer region of the atom, which holds its electrons in
orbit around the nucleus. The outermost regions of the atom are called electron shells and
contain the electrons (negatively charged). Atoms have different properties based on the
arrangement and number of their basic particles. If an atom has the same number of protons
and electrons, it is electronically neutral. However, if the total number of electrons does not
equal the number of protons, the atom has a net electrical charge
Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass, about 1.67 × 10-24 grams, which
scientists define as one atomic mass unit (amu) or one Dalton.
Each electron has a negative charge (-1) equal to the positive charge of a proton (+1). Neutrons
are uncharged particles found within the nucleus.

Chemistry O-Level 5070 | Notes by Syeda Huda

Atomic Number
Neutral atoms of an element contain an equal number of protons and electrons. The number of
protons determines an element’s atomic number (Z) and distinguishes one element from
another. For example, carbon’s atomic number (Z) is 6 because it has 6 protons. The number of
neutrons can vary to produce isotopes, which are atoms of the same element that have different
numbers of neutrons. The number of electrons can also be different in atoms of the same
element, thus producing ions (charged atoms). For instance, iron, Fe, can exist in its neutral
state, or in the +2 state as an Fe (II) ion.

Mass Number
An element’s mass number (A) is the sum of the number of protons and the number of
neutrons. The small contribution of mass from electrons is disregarded in calculating the mass
number. Protons and neutrons both weigh about one atomic mass unit or amu.

Electronic Configuration
Electronic Configuration refers to how electrons are arranged around the nucleus of an atom in
energy levels (also called shells). Each shell can hold a certain number of electrons, and these
shells fill in a specific order. Understanding electronic configuration is essential for predicting
how elements will behave in chemical reactions.
Energy Levels (Shells):
Electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells around the nucleus.
Each shell can hold a limited number of electrons:
1st shell (K-shell): Holds up to 2 electrons.
2nd shell (L-shell): Holds up to 8 electrons.
3rd shell (M-shell): Holds up to 8 electrons (for elements with atomic numbers up to 20).
4th shell (N-shell): Starts to fill after the 3rd shell.
Electron Filling Order: Electrons fill the lowest energy levels first, starting with the innermost
shell.

Chemistry O-Level 5070 | Notes by Syeda Huda

Notation for Electronic Configuration:
Electronic configurations are written as the number of electrons in each shell.
Example: Sodium (Na), atomic number 11, has an electronic configuration of 2,8,1.

Understanding the Octet Rule and Stability:

Elements strive to achieve a stable electronic configuration, usually having 8 electrons in their
outer shell (like noble gases). This tendency is called the octet rule.
Elements will gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve this stable configuration. For example:
Sodium (Na), with the configuration 2,8,1, will lose 1 electron to become Na⁺, with the
configuration 2,8 (like Neon).
Chlorine (Cl), with the configuration 2,8,7, will gain 1 electron to become Cl⁻, with the
configuration 2,8,8 (like Argon).

Chemistry O-Level 5070 | Notes by Syeda Huda

Electronic Configurations of Ions:
When elements form ions, they gain or lose electrons to achieve stable electronic
configurations. Here are examples for common ions:
Magnesium Ion (Mg²⁺):
Neutral magnesium: 2,8,2
Magnesium loses 2 electrons to form Mg²⁺: 2,8
Stable configuration like Neon.
Oxide Ion (O²⁻):
Neutral oxygen: 2,6
Oxygen gains 2 electrons to form O²⁻: 2,8
Stable configuration like Neon.
Rules for Writing Configurations of Ions:
For Cations (Positive Ions): Electrons are lost from the outermost shell.
Example: K⁺ (Potassium ion)
Neutral K: 2,8,8,1
After losing 1 electron: K⁺ = 2,8,8
For Anions (Negative Ions): Electrons are gained to fill the outermost shell.
Example: S²⁻ (Sulfide ion)
Neutral S: 2,8,6
After gaining 2 electrons: S²⁻ = 2,8,8

Introduction to Periodic Table

Group VIII noble gases have a full outer electron shell:
Noble gases (Group VIII or Group 18) like helium, neon, and argon have a complete outer
electron shell.
This stable electron configuration makes them chemically inert and non-reactive under normal
conditions.

The number of outer shell electrons is equal to the group number in

Groups I to VII:
For elements in Groups I to VII (or Groups 1 to 17), the number of electrons in the outermost
shell corresponds to the group number.

Chemistry O-Level 5070 | Notes by Syeda Huda

Example: Group I elements have 1 electron in the outer shell, Group VII elements have 7 outer
electrons.

The number of occupied electron shells is equal to the period

number:
The period number (row) in the periodic table indicates how many electron shells are occupied.
Example: Elements in Period 2 have two occupied electron shells, while those in Period 3 have
three.
These principles help explain the periodicity and reactivity of elements in the periodic table.

Isotopes
Isotopes of the same element will have the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Isotopes are various forms of an element that have the same number of protons, but a different
number of neutrons.
Some elements, such as carbon, potassium, and uranium, have multiple naturally-occurring
isotopes. Isotopes are defined first by their element and then by the sum of the protons and
neutrons present. For Example:
Carbon-12 (or 12C) contains six protons, six neutrons, and six electrons; therefore, it has a
mass number of 12 amu (six protons and six neutrons).
Carbon-14 (or 14C) contains six protons, eight neutrons, and six electrons; its atomic mass is
14 amu (six protons and eight neutrons).
While the mass of individual isotopes is different, their chemical properties remain mostly
unchanged, however physical properties may differ.

Uses of Isotopes
1. Carbon–14 (C-14) is used in carbon dating. This technology is utilised for finding the age
of materials found in archaeological excavation. This helps in determining the periods of
various events in history. Even fossil's age can be determined by using this technology.
2. An isotope of uranium is used as fuel in nuclear reactor.
3. An isotope of cobalt is used in treatment of cancer.
4. An isotope of iodine is used in treatment of goitre (a disease of thyroid gland).

How to calculate the average mass of an atom

To calculate the average atomic mass(weight) of all atoms of an element taking into account the
mass of each isotope present and the percent abundance for each isotope. This can be done
through the following formula:

Chemistry O-Level 5070 | Notes by Syeda Huda

Average Atomic Mass = (Mass of Isotope 1 x Fractional Abundance of Isotope 1) + (Mass
of Isotope 2 x Fractional Abundance of Isotope 2) + ......
For example:
What is the average atomic mass of Neon, given that it has 3 isotopes with the following
percentage abundances;
20
Ne = 20 amu (90.51%), 21Ne = 21 amu (0.27%), 22Ne = 22 amu (9.22%).
Average Atomic Mass = (20 × 0.9051) + (21× 0.0027) + (22 × 0.0922) = 20.19

Ions (detailed)
Any atom or molecule with a net charge, either positive or negative, is known as an ion. An ion
consisting of a single atom is a monoatomic ion; an ion consisting of two or more atoms is
referred to as a polyatomic ion. The positive electric charge of a proton is equal in magnitude to
the negative charge of an electron; therefore, the net electric charge of an ion is equal to its
number of protons minus its number of electrons.
Anions have more electrons than protons and so have a net negative charge. Cations have
more protons than electrons and so have a net positive charge. An ion is denoted by writing its
net negative charge in superscript immediately after the chemical structure for the
atom/molecule.
Generally, the electrons are either added to or lost from the valence shell of an atom; the inner-
shell electrons are more tightly bound to the positively charged nucleus and so do not
participate in this type of chemical interaction.
A common example of an ion is Na+. Sodium has a +1 charge because sodium has eleven
electrons. However, according to the octet rule, sodium would be more stable with 10 electrons
(2 in its inner most shell, 8 in its outermost shell). Therefore, sodium tends to lose an electron to
become more stable. On the other hand, chlorine tends to gain an electron to become Cl–.
Chlorine naturally has 17 electrons but it would be more stable with 18 electrons (2 in its inner
most shell, 8 in its second shell, and 8 in its valence shell). Therefore, chlorine will take an
electron from another atom to become negatively charged.

Chemistry O-Level 5070 | Notes by Syeda Huda