CALCULUS - Stuff You Should Know

Trig Identities Intermediate Value Theorem

sin(  x )   sin x cos(  x )  cos x If the function f(x) is continuous on [a, b], then for any number
sin 2 x  cos2 x  1 1  tan 2 x  sec 2 x 1  cot 2 x  csc 2 x c between f(a) and f(b), there exists a number d in the open
interval (a, b) such that f(d) = c.
sin(2 x )  2sin x cos x cos  2 x   cos x  sin x  2cos2 x  1  1  2sin 2 x
2 2

Motion of a Particle on a Line

If s(t ) is position at time t, then
Extreme Value Theorem
velocity = v(t )  s '(t ) and acceleration = a(t )  v '(t )  s ''(t ) . If the function f(x) is continuous a closed interval, then f has
If v(t )  0 the particle is at rest. If v(t )  0 motion is “right” or “up” and both a minimum and a maximum in that interval.
if v(t )  0 motion is “left” or “down”.
Mean Value Theorem
If v(t ) and a(t ) have the same sign the particle is “speeding up”. If the function f(x) is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on
If v(t ) and a(t ) have the different signs the particle is “slowing down”. (a, b) then there exists a number c in the open interval (a, b)
final time final time
f (b)  f (a)
Displacement = 
initial time
v(t)dt Total distance =  initial time
v(t) dt such that f '(c)  ba
s(b)  s(a) b

b  a a
1
Average velocity on [a, b] = or v(t )dt .
ba Average rate of change of f(x) on [a, b]: f (b)  f (a)
Instantaneous velocity at time a = v(a)  s '(a) . ba

1 Average Value of a Function

Area of a trapezoid A   b1  b2  h Just draw the If the function f(x) is continuous on [a, b] then the average
2 trapezoids and use the
1 b
a
Trapezoid Rule for equal subintervals area formula! value of f on this interval is given by
f ( x)dx
ba ba
a f ( x)dx  2n  f ( x0 )  2 f ( x1 )  2 f ( x3 )  ...  2 f ( xn1)  f ( xn )
b

Definition of Continuity at a Point

The function f is said to be continuous at c if the following
lim f ( x)  L if and only if lim f ( x)  L and lim f ( x)  L . conditions are met.
x a x a x a
1. f(c) is defined 2. lim f ( x) exists 3. lim f ( x)  f (c)
x c x c
Definition of Derivative Alternate Definition of Derivative
f ( x  h)  f ( x) f ( x)  f ( a ) Fundamental Theorem of
f '( x)  lim f '(a)  lim
h 0 h x a xa Calculus
b

First Derivative Test a

f ( x)dx  F (b)  F (a), where F '( x)  f ( x)
nd
If f '( x) changes from positive to negative at x = c, then f (c) is a relative 2 Fundamental Theorem of
maximum of f. If f '( x) changes from negative to positive at x = c, then Calculus
d  h( x)
f (t )dt   f (h( x))  h '( x)
dx  a
f (\c) is a relative minimum of f. (provided f (c) is defined)


Absolute extrema on [a, b] VOLUME

Check the critical numbers of f '( x) AND the endpoints of the interval. DISK V   r 2 h SHELL V  2 rhw
2
V     top curve  bottom curve dx r  axis to rectangle
b

Inflection Points occur at x = c if f (c) is defined and f ''( x) changes a

2
V    right curve  left curve dy
b
signs at x = c. h  height of rectangle
f is concave up when f ''( x)  0 and concave down when f ''( x)  0. a

WASHER r  dx or dy
V   R2 h   r 2h or   R2  r 2  h
1 1
If f and g are inverses then f '( x)  and g '( x)  . CROSS SECTIONS
g '( f ( x)) f '( g ( x))
V  Bh where B  area of cross section; h  dx or dy

Differentiability implies continuity, but continuity does NOT

imply differentiability.

Derivatives - Let u and v be functions of x. Integrals- Know all the integrals that
correspond to the derivatives on the left
d d d 1 and these.
 uv   uv ' vu ' sin x  cos x sin 1 x  du
dx dx dx 1  x2  u  ln u  C
d  u  vu ' uv ' d d 1
 
dx  v  v2 dx
cos x   sin x
dx
cos 1 x 
1  x2
 tan u du   ln cos u  C
d
c0
d
tan x  sec 2 x
d
tan 1 x 
1  cot u du  ln sin u  C
1  x2
dx
d n
dx
d
dx
d 1
 sec u du  ln sec u  tan u  C
x  nx n 1 cot x   csc2 x cot 1 x 
dx dx dx 1  x2  csc u du   ln csc u  cot u  C
d
ln x 
1 d
sec x  sec x tan x
d
sec1 x 
1  du u
  sin 1  C
dx x dx dx x x2  1  a2  u2 a
d x d d 1  du 1 u
e  ex csc x   csc x cot x csc1 x    sec 1  C
dx dx dx x x2  1  u u2  a2 a a
d x  du  1 tan 1 u  C
a  ln a  a x  2
dx  a  u2 a a
Trig Identities Logistics Convergence Tests
1  cos(2 x ) dP  P nth-Term Test for Divergence
cos2 x  If  kP 1   then
Series diverges if lim an  0 .
2 dt  L n 
1  cos(2 x ) L L  P0 Infinite Geometric Series
sin x 
2
P  kt
, where A  .
1  Ae P0 

 ar
2 n
 a  ar  ar 2  ...  ar n  ...., a  0
lim P(t )  L n 1
t 
L’Hospital’s Rule
L a
f (a ) 0  Population grows fastest when P  Diverges if r  1 and converges to if r  1 .
If  or  , then 2 1 r
g (a ) 0  Telescoping Series
f ( x) f ' ( x) Integration by Parts All terms after the first few cancel (use partial fractions)
lim  lim .
x a g ( x ) x a g ' ( x )
 u dv  uv   v du and the series converges to the remaining terms.
p-Series Test

1
Polar
x  r cos 
Integration by partial fractions
n 1 n
p
converges if p > 1 and diverges if p  1 .

y  r sin  Euler’s Method Harmonic Series (A Special p-Series)

xnew  xold  x 1 1 1
dy d 1    ...  .... is divergent since p = 1.
dy d  r( ) sin  
 
dy 2 3 n
 d ynew  yold   x
dx dx d dx  xold , yold  Direct Comparison Test
 r( ) cos   Let 0  an  bn for all n .
d d

1  
Area   r 2 d ,  and  are
2 
Arc Length If b n
converges, then a n converges.
1   f '  x  dx
b
L
2 n1
n1
the "first" two times that r = 0. a  
If a n diverges, then b n
diverges.
Parametrics and Vectors n1 n1

If x  f (t ) and y  g (t ) then Alternating Series Test

 

  1   1
n1
dy d  dy  If an  0 , then
n
an and an converge
dy dt d 2 y d  dy  dt  dx  n1 n1
  
dx dx dx 2 dx  dx  dx if: 1) 0  an 1  an for all n and 2) lim an  0
n 
dt dt Error: S  SN  RN  aN 1
x  t  , y   t  is the velocity vector at any time t. Integral Test
x ' '  t  , y ' '  t  is the acceleration vector at any time t. If f is positive, continuous, and decreasing for x  1 and
 
2 2 an = f(n), then  an and  f(x)dx either both
 dx   dy  1
Speed of particle or magnitude of vector =      n1

 dt   dt  converge or both diverge.

b Ratio Test (inconclusive if limit = 1)
  dx  2  dy  2  
Length or distance traveled =       dt
a  dt   dt 
If a
n1
n is a series on nonzero terms, a
n1
n converges if

an 1 a
Taylor Polynomial of Degree n f ( x)  Pn ( x) = lim  1 and diverges if lim n 1  1 .
n  an n  an
f ''(c) f ( n ) ( c)
f (c)  f '(c)( x  c)  ( x  c) 2  ...  ( x  c) n
2! n! Maclaurin Series
Taylor Series
x2 xn
f ''(c) f ( n ) ( c) e x  1  x   ...   ... , for all real x
f (c)  f '(c)( x  c)  ( x  c)2  ...  ( x  c)n  ... 2! n!
2! n!
x3 x5 x 2 n 1
sin x  x    ...   1  ... , for all real x
n

Radius of Convergence 3! 5!  2n  1!

x2 x4 n x
2n
  ...   1
an 1 a
lim  L  0 then R = 1/L, if lim n 1  0 then R is infinite, cos x  1   ... , for all real x
n  an n  an 2! 4!  2n  !
1
and if lim
an 1
  then R = 0.
You must check endpoints on the  1  x  x 2  ...  x n  ... , for x  1
n  an
interval of convergence. 1 x

M n 1
Lagrange Error Bound for Taylor Polynomial If f (n1) (t)  M , for all t between x and c, then f(x)  Pn (x)  x c
(n  1)!