Calculus BC Formulas
Section 1: Limits
squeeze theorem
Conditions Conclusion
g(x) ≤ ƒ(x) ≤ h(x) for x ≠ c
lim ƒ(x) = L
x→c
lim g(x) = L and lim h(x) = L
x→c x→c
Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)
If a function ƒ is continuous on the interval [a, b] and k is a number between ƒ(a)
and ƒ(b), then there is at least one x-value c between a and b such that ƒ(c) = k.
y
ƒ(b)
ƒ(a) < k < ƒ(b)
k
c1 c2 c3
ƒ(a)
x
a b
a<c<b
Any continuous function connecting (a, �(a)) and (b, �(b)) must pass
through every y-value between �(a) and �(b) at least once.
A function ƒ(x) is continuous at x = c if all of the following conditions are met:
• ƒ(c) is defined
• xlim
→c
ƒ(x) exists
• lim ƒ(x) = ƒ(c)
x→c
The graph of a continuous function has no "gaps."
y y
Not continuous at x = c Continuous at x = c
lim ƒ(x) ≠ ƒ(c) lim ƒ(x) = ƒ(c)
x→c x→c
ƒ(c) ƒ(c)
ƒ(x)
ƒ(x)
x x
c c
Section 2: Derivatives
average rate of change definition of
over [a, b] derivative of ƒ at x = a
ƒ(b) − ƒ(a)
ƒ(x) − ƒ(a)
b−a ƒ'(a) = lim
x→a x−a
definition of derivative of ƒ at x = a ƒ is differentiable at x = c
ƒ(x) − ƒ(c)
ƒ(a + h) − ƒ(a) lim exists and is equal to ƒ′(c)
x−c
ƒ' (a) = lim
x→c
h→0 h difference quotient
Derivatives of trigonometric functions
Differentiation rules
d
[sinx] = cosx
d dx
Constant [c] = 0
dx
d
Power
d n
[x ] = nx n − 1
[cosx] = −sinx
dx dx
d x d
Natural exponential [e ] = e x [tanx] = sec 2 x
dx
dx
d x
Exponential [a ] = (ln a)a x
dx d
[cot x] = −csc 2 x
d 1 dx
Natural log [ln(x ) ] =
dx x
d
d [csc x] = −csc(x) cot(x)
Constant multiple [cƒ(x )] = cƒ' (x) dx
dx
d d
Sum and difference [ƒ(x) ± g(x)] = ƒ'(x) ± g'(x) [secx] = sec(x) tan(x)
dx dx
product rule quotient rule
d d u vu' − uv'
[uv] = uv' + vu' =
dx dx v v2
derivative of inverse
position x(t )
1
(ƒ −1)′(a) = velocity v(t) = x ′(t ) differentiate
ƒ′(b)
Where (b, a) is a point on acceleration a(t ) = x ″(t)
the graph of f, or a = f(b)
ƒ(x)
Use L'Hospital's Rule to find the limit of the ratio of two differentiable functions as x
g(x)
approaches c. If direct substitution produces one of the indeterminate forms 0 or ∞ , then
∞
0
differentiate the numerator ƒ and denominator g independently.
ƒ(x) ƒ'(x)
lim = lim
x→c g(x) x→c g'(x)
L'Hospital's Rule also applies to limits as x→∞ or x→−∞.
Mean Value Theorem
Conditions Conclusion
For some c in (a, b):
ƒ is continuous on [a, b]
ƒ(b) − ƒ(a)
ƒ′(c) =
b−a
ƒ is differentiable on (a, b) instantaneous rate average rate
of change at x = c of change on [a, b]
Extreme Value Theorem (EVT)
If a function ƒ is continuous on the closed interval [a,b], then ƒ is guaranteed
to attain an absolute minimum and absolute maximum value on [a,b].
y
maximum
ƒ(x)
minimum
x
O
a b
second derivative test for critical point at x = c
If ƒ″(c) < 0 If ƒ″(c) = 0 If ƒ″(c) > 0
ƒ(c) is a test is ƒ(c) is a
relative maximum inconclusive relative minimum
Section 3: Integrals and
Differential Equations
The base length bn of each rectangle is the distance between the endpoints n
of the subinterval, and the height hn is the function value at the left endpoint.
y
y
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ(m2)
ƒ(x2) ƒ(m1)
ƒ(x1) h2
h1
h2
h1 x
O a = x1 b1 x2 b2 x3
x
O a = x1 b1 x2 b2 x3
The base length bn of each rectangle is the distance between the endpoints The height hn of each trapezoid is the distance between the endpoints of the
of the subinterval, and the height hn is the function value at the right endpoint. subinterval, and the bases bn and bn + 1 are the function values at the endpoints.
y y
ƒ ƒ
ƒ(x3)
ƒ(x3) ƒ(x2)
ƒ(x1)
ƒ(x2)
h2 b2 b3
b1
h1
x x
O a = x1 b1 b2 O
x2 x3 a = x1 h1 x2 h2 x3
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus limit of right Riemann sum
b
a
a(t) acceleration Second FTC
integrate
v(t) velocity
integrate
s(t) position
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
(alternate form)
Integration rules
Constant
Power
Constant multiple
Sum and difference
Natural exponential
Natural log
The following are properties of definite integrals,
where functions f and g are continuous on the improper integral
closed interval [a, b] and a, b, and k are constants.
integration by parts
udv = uv − v du
Integrals of trigonometric functions logistic differential equation
dP P
= kP 1 −
dt a
logistic differential equation
dP
= kP(a − P)
dt
Euler's method equation
y n + 1 = yn + ƒ′(xn ) (Δx)
next derivative step
y-value at current size
xn-value
average value total distance
traveled
b
1 t2
ƒ(x)dx |v(t)| dt
b−a a t1
length of a curve
(arc length)
a
1 + (ƒ′(x))2 dx
area bounded by two
functions on [x1, x2]
x2
A= (top − bottom) dx
x1
Use the disk method to determine the volume of a solid of revolution formed
by rotating a region about a horizontal line y = c (axis of revolution) over the
interval a < x < b when y = c is a boundary of the region—there is no space
between the region and y = c.
b
y
ƒ(x)
y=c axis of
revolution
x
a b
When a region is revolved about an axis of revolution, a perpendicular cross
section of the solid is a disk where:
• r is the distance from the axis of revolution to the closest function ƒ(x)
• dx is the thickness of the disk
y
disk dx
ƒ(x)
y=c
x
a b
Use the washer method to determine the volume of a solid of revolution formed by
rotating a region bounded by ƒ(x) and g(x) about a horizontal line y = c (axis of revolution)
over the interval a < x < b when y = c is not a boundary of the region—there is space
between the region and y = c.
b
y ƒ(x)
g(x)
R
r
y=c
x
a b
When a region is revolved about an axis of revolution, a perpendicular cross section of the
resulting solid is a disk with a hole (washer) where:
• R is the distance from the axis of revolution to the farthest function ƒ(x)
• r is the distance from the axis of revolution to the closest function g(x)
• dx is the thickness of the washer
y y
dx
washer
radius of outer
circle = R
y=c axis of y=c
revolution
radius of inner
circle = r
x x
Section 4: Polar Coordinates, Parametric,
Equations, and Vector-Valued Functions
derivative of parametric equations
parametric speed
dy y'(t)
= s(t) = (x'(t)) 2 + (y'(t)) 2
dx x'(t)
length of parametric curve vector differentiation
t2 ƒ(t) = 〈x(t), y(t)〉
x'(t) 2 + y'(t) 2 dt
t1
ƒ'(t) = 〈x'(t), y'(t)〉
vector total distance ƒ''(t) = 〈x''(t), y''(t)〉
t2
t1
speed
slope of a polar curve
d
polar to rectangular
[y ]
dy dθ
=
dx d
x = r cosθ [x ]
dθ
y = r sinθ
Section 5: Infinite Series
The harmonic series is an infinite series given by
The harmonic series diverges by the p-series test.
nth term test
an
diverges inconclusive
lim an ≠ 0 lim an = 0
n→ n→
p-series converges if p > 1
p-series diverges if 0 < p ≤ 1
∞
1 1 1 1
If p = 1, the resulting series =1+ + + + ⋯ is called a
n=1
n 2 3 4
harmonic series, which diverges.
sum of geometric series
a1
S=
1−r
geometric series
ar n
r <1 r ≥1
The series converges to
a1 The series diverges.
S = 1 − r , where a1 is the
first term of the series.
integral test
converges diverges
then,
∞
n=c
then,
n=c
and
n=c
alternating series test
(−1)nan converges if:
• lim an = 0 and
n→
• an is a positive, decreasing sequence
nth-degree Taylor polynomial of ƒ about x = c
ƒ"(c) 2
ƒ(n)(c)
Pn(x) = ƒ(c) + ƒ'(c)(x − c) + (x − c) + … + (x − c)n
2! n!
Maclaurin polynomial
ƒ′′(0) 2 ƒ′′′(0) 3 ... ƒ (n)(0) n
Pn(x) = ƒ (0) + ƒ ′(0)x + x + x + x
2! 3! n!
Known power series
1
= 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + ... + x n + ...
1−x
x2 x3 xn
e =1+x+
x
+ + ... + + ...
2! 3! n!
x3 x5 x7 x 2n + 1
sinx = x − + − + ... + (−1) n
+ ...
3! 5! 7! (2n + 1)!
x2 x4 x6 x 2n
cosx = 1 − + − + ... + (−1) n
+ ...
2! 4! 6! (2n)!
