Class 12 Physics Notes - Part 2
26. Ratio of Electric and Magnetic Fields in EM Waves:
E/B = c, where c is the speed of light.
27. Microwaves:
Electromagnetic waves with wavelengths from 1mm to 1m, used in radar and communication.
28. Radio Waves:
Longest wavelength EM waves, used in broadcasting and communication.
29. Ultraviolet Waves:
EM waves with higher energy than visible light, responsible for sunburns.
30. Examples of Electromagnetic Waves:
Radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays.
31. How Electromagnetic Waves Are Produced:
They are generated by accelerating charges or oscillating electric and magnetic fields.
32. Mirror Formula:
1/f = 1/v + 1/u, where f is the focal length, v is the image distance, and u is the object distance.
33. Refraction at Spherical Surfaces:
It follows Snells law and depends on the curvature of the surface.
34. Total Internal Reflection (TIR):
Occurs when light moves from a denser to a rarer medium at an angle greater than the critical
angle.
35. Optical Fibers:
Use TIR to transmit light signals efficiently.
36. Lens Makers Formula:
1/f = (n - 1) (1/R1 - 1/R2), where R1 and R2 are the radii of curvature.
37. Prism:
A transparent optical element with flat, polished surfaces that refract light.
38. Telescope:
An optical instrument that magnifies distant objects using lenses or mirrors.
39. Huygens' Principle and Its Applications:
States that every point on a wavefront is a source of secondary wavelets, explaining reflection
and refraction.
40. Interference vs. Diffraction:
Interference is the superposition of waves, while diffraction is the bending of waves around
obstacles.
41. Coherent Sources:
Two sources are coherent if they have a constant phase difference and same frequency.
42. Conditions for Coherent Sources:
Same frequency and constant phase difference.
43. Sustained Interference of Light:
Requires coherent sources and a stable medium.
44. Laws of Photoelectric Emission:
1. Emission occurs only above a threshold frequency.
2. Number of electrons depends on intensity.
3. Kinetic energy depends on frequency, not intensity.
45. Effects of Intensity and Frequency on the Photoelectric Effect:
Higher intensity increases emitted electrons, while higher frequency increases their energy.
46. Work Function:
The minimum energy required to eject an electron from a metal surface.
47. Einsteins Photoelectric Equation:
K.E = hf - , where is the work function.
48. Compound Microscope:
Uses two lenses to magnify small objects.
49. Rectifier:
Converts AC to DC using diodes.
50. N-type vs. P-type Semiconductors:
N-type has extra electrons, P-type has holes.
51. Formation of Depletion Layer in a PN Junction:
Due to diffusion of charge carriers, a depletion region forms, preventing further diffusion.
52. Reverse and Forward Bias in a PN Junction:
In forward bias, current flows easily. In reverse bias, it is blocked.
53. Bohr's Model of the Atom:
Electrons orbit the nucleus in discrete energy levels.
54. Limitations of Bohrs Model and Derivation of Radius:
Does not explain spectra of complex atoms. Radius r = (0 h2) / ( m e2).
55. Binding Energy per Nucleon, Fission vs. Fusion, Mass Defect, Mass Number, Numerical
Problems, Isobars, and Isotones with Examples:
- Binding energy per nucleon determines nuclear stability.
- Fission splits heavy nuclei, fusion combines light nuclei.
- Mass defect is the difference between total nucleon mass and actual mass.
- Isobars have the same mass number but different elements.
