UESTC 3002: Electronic
Devices
Dr. Amir Parnianifard
University of Glasgow UESTC
Lecture 12
In This Lecture
Optoelectronic Devices
(Solar Cells)
2
Solar Cells
Introduction
• Most solar cells use crystalline silicon since silicon-based semiconductor
fabrication is now a mature technology that enables cost-effective devices
to be manufactured.
• Typical Si-based solar cell efficiencies range from
about 18% for polycrystalline to 22-24% in high-
efficiency single-crystal devices that have special
structures to absorb as many of the incident
photons as possible.
• Solar cells fabricated by making a pn junction in
the same crystal are called homojunctions.
3
Solar Cells
History
1839 - Alexandre Edmond Becquerel observes the photovoltaic effect via an
electrode in a conductive solution exposed to light.
1941 - Russell Shoemaker Ohl was an American engineer who
is generally recognized for patenting the modern solar cell (US
Patent 2402662, "Light sensitive device") based on pn-junction
device.
1954 - Bell Labs announces the invention of the first
practical silicon solar cell. Solar cell inventors at Bell
Labs (left to right): Gerald Pearson, Daryl Chapin, and
Calvin Fuller. They are checking a Si solar cell sample
for the amount of voltage produced (1954). 4
Solar Cells
Sample Applications
This is Solar Impulse, a plane powered by solar cells.
Courtesy of Solar Impulse SA, Switzerland.
NASA used solar cells on its spacecraft from the very
beginning. For Example, Explorer 6, launched in 1959, had
four arrays that folded out once in orbit. They provided power
for months in space. 5
Solar Cells
Sample Applications
The roof, bonnet
and large parts
of the outer shell
of the Sion are
equipped with
highly efficient
monocrystalline
silicon cells.
The photovoltaic solar panels at the power plant in Alpes de
Haute Provence, soak up the Southeastern French sun in
2019. The 112,000 solar panels produce a total capacity of 100
MW of energy and cover an area of 494 acres (200 hectares).
6
Solar Cells
Sample Applications
7
Solar Cells
Declining Costs
Chart showing the price of solar photovoltaic panels as a
Price history chart of crystalline silicon solar cells in function of cumulative installed capacity, with annual
US$ per watt since 1977. values beginning in 1975. 8
Solar Cells
Exponential Growth
Exponential growth-curve on a semi-log scale of
worldwide installed photovoltaics in gigawatts since
CO2 mitigation
1992. 9
Solar Cells
Solar Cell Operation
Since power can be delivered to an
external circuit by an illuminated
junction, it is possible to convert solar
energy into electrical energy.
Why must a solar cell be
operated in the 4th quadrant of the
junction I-V characteristics?
Power is only generated in the 4th
quadrant (-I,+V). Power is consumed
in the 1st (+I,+V) and 3rd (-I,-V)
quadrant.
10
Solar Cells
Solar Cell Operation
The basic principle of operation of the solar cell structure is depicted in this Figure.
11
Solar Cells
Solar Cell Operation
• As the n-side is very narrow, most of the
photons are absorbed within the depletion
region (W) and within the neutral p-side and
photogenerated EHPs in these regions.
• EHPs photogenerated in the depletion
region are immediately separated by the
built-in field Eo which drifts them apart.
• The electron drifts and reaches the neutral
n-side whereupon it makes this region
negative by an amount of charge −e.
12
Solar Cells
Solar Cell Operation
• The electrodes attached to the n-
side must allow illumination to
enter the device and at the same
time with a small resistance.
• They are deposited on the n-side
to form an array of finger
electrodes on the surface as
depicted in Figure.
13
Solar Cells
Reflectivity
• An antireflective layer between the grid lines increases the amount of
light transmitted to the semiconductor.
• To Compute amount of reflectivity (R), the parameters below are
defined:
𝑛0 − 𝑛1
n0, n1, and n2 are refractive index 𝑟1 =
𝑛0 + 𝑛1
d1: thickness of n1 (nm) 𝑛1 − 𝑛2
𝑟2 =
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
ʎ: wavelength of light (nm) 2𝜋. 𝑛1. 𝑑1
𝜃=
2 2 ° λ
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 2𝜋 cos 2𝜃 (𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒)
𝑅=
1 + 𝑟12 𝑟22 + 2𝜋 cos 2𝜃 °
14
Solar Cells
Reflectivity
• While the reflection for a given thickness,
index of refraction, and wavelength can be
reduced to zero using the equations above,
the index of refraction is dependent on
wavelength and so zero reflection occurs
only at a single wavelength.
• For photovoltaic applications, the refractive
index, and thickness are chosen in order to
minimize reflection for a wavelength of 0.6
µm.
• This wavelength is chosen since it is close to
the peak power of the solar spectrum.
15
Solar Cells
Arrays of Solar Cells
• If we consider the fourth quadrant, it appears doubtful that much power can
be delivered by an individual device.
• For Si the voltage 𝑉𝑜𝑐 is less than about 1 𝑉.
• The current generated depends on the illuminated area, but typically 𝐼𝑜𝑝 is
in the range 10 − 100 𝑚𝐴 for a junction with an area of about 1 cm2 .
• If many such devices are used, the resulting power
can be significant.
• In fact, arrays of p-n junction solar cells are currently
used to supply electrical power. E.g., for many space
satellites.
16
Solar Cells
Cells, Modules, Panels and Arrays
• Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series and/or parallel circuits to produce
higher voltages, currents and power levels.
• Photovoltaic modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an environmentally protective
laminate and are the fundamental building blocks of PV systems.
17
Solar Cells
Cells, Modules, Panels and Arrays
• Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-
installable unit.
• A photovoltaic array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting of any number of
PV modules and panels.
18
Solar Cells
Current in an Illuminated Junction
The resulting current due to the collection of optically generated carriers by the
junction is
𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 𝐼𝑜𝑝 = 𝑞𝐴𝑔𝑜𝑝 𝐿𝑝 + 𝐿𝑛 + 𝑊
Where
𝐼𝑠𝑐 shows the short circuit current.
𝐴 is the cross-sectional area of the junction.
𝑞 is the elementary charge.
𝐿𝑝 is the diffusion length for holes.
𝐿𝑛 is the diffusion length for electrons.
𝑊 represents the width of the depletion region.
19
Solar Cells
Voltage in an Illuminated Junction
The open circuit voltage 𝑉𝑜𝑐 an across the device (𝐼 = 0) is computed by:
𝑘𝑇 𝐼𝑜𝑝
𝑉𝑜𝑐 = ln +1
𝑞 𝐼𝑡ℎ
where
𝑞 is the elementary charge: 1.602*10^-19 C (coulombs).
𝑘 is Boltzmann's constant: 1.38*10^-23 J/K
𝑇 is the absolute temperature in Kelvin (K)
20
Solar Cells
Example
A Si solar cell 2 cm × 2 cm with Ith = 32 nA has an optical
generation rate of 10^18 EHP/cm3-s within Lp = Ln = 2 μm of the
junction. If the depletion width is 1 μm, calculate the short-circuit
current and the open-circuit voltage for this cell? (T=300.29)
21
Solar Cells
I–V Characteristics
• Typical I–V characteristics of a Si
solar cell.
• The short circuit current is Iph
and the open circuit voltage is
Voc.
• The I–V curves for positive
current require an external bias
voltage.
• Photovoltaic operation is always
in the negative current region
23
Solar Cells
Maximum Power
• This Figure shows the fourth-quadrant portion
of a solar cell characteristic, with 𝐼𝑟 plotted
upward for the convenience of illustration.
• The maximum power delivered to a load by Operating Point
this solar cell occurs in the product 𝑉𝑚 × 𝐼𝑚 .
• We can see that the maximum delivered
power illustrated by the shaded rectangle is
less than the 𝑉𝑜𝑐 × 𝐼𝑠𝑐 product.
24
Solar Cells
Fill Factor
• Maximum power is delivered to the load when this rectangular
area is maximized (by optimizing R).
• The fill factor FF, which is a figure of merit for the solar cell, is
defined as
𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝐹𝐹 =
𝐼𝑠𝑐 𝑉𝑜𝑐
• The FF is a measure of the closeness of the solar cell I–V curve to
the rectangular shape (the ideal shape).
25
Solar Cells
Fill Factor
• Typically, FF values are in the range 70% to 85% and depend on the device material
and structure.
• The fill factor for a normal silicon PV cell is 80%.
• The Fill Factor (FF) is a critical parameter because it indicates how effectively a solar
cell can convert the portion of available sunlight to electrical power under optimal
conditions.
• A higher FF indicates better performance and efficiency.
• It is clearly advantageous to have the FF as close to unity as possible, but the
exponential pn junction properties prevent this.
• It helps researchers, manufacturers, and users assess the quality and efficiency of
different solar cell technologies.
26
Solar Cells
Example
• If a solar cell has an open-circuit voltage of 0.7 V and a short-
circuit current of 5 A, calculate the fill factor if the maximum power
point is 2.5 W.
27
Solar Cells
Types of Solar Cells
• There are several types of solar cells, each with its own materials and operating
principles.
• Three of the most common types of silicon solar cells are:
o Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells
o Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cells
o Thin-Film Solar Cells
29
Solar Cells
Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells
• Monocrystalline solar cells are made from a single crystal structure, typically
using high-purity silicon.
• They are known for their high efficiency and space-efficient design, making
them a popular choice for residential and commercial rooftop solar panels.
• Monocrystalline solar cells tend
to be more expensive to
manufacture compared to other
types, but their high efficiency
often justifies the cost.
30
Solar Cells
Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cells
• Polycrystalline solar cells are made from multiple silicon crystals, resulting in
a less uniform form compared to monocrystalline cells.
• They are less expensive to produce than monocrystalline cells, but they are
typically slightly less efficient.
• Polycrystalline solar panels are
commonly used for residential
and commercial applications due
to their balance between cost
and efficiency.
31
Solar Cells
Thin-Film Solar Cells
• Thin-film solar cells are made using thin layers of
semiconductor materials, such as amorphous silicon (a-Si),
cadmium telluride (CdTe), or copper indium gallium selenide
(CIGS).
• They are known for their flexibility and lightweight design,
making them suitable for various applications, including
building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV), portable solar
chargers, and even flexible solar panels.
• Thin-film solar cells tend to have lower efficiency compared to
crystalline silicon cells but can be cost-effective and
advantageous in certain situations.
32
Hints and Sample
Questions
Solar Cells
• Q1: Briefly define the following terms related to solar
cells: Open-circuit voltage, Short-circuit current, Maximum
Power Point.
• Q2: What three different common types of solar cells?
Briefly explain each type’s characteristics.
• Q3: Explain the fill factor ratio in the solar cell context.
References for Self-Study
35
I welcome your confidential feedback, comments, and suggestions on my
lectures in Moodle. Please feel free to share your thoughts with me.
If there will be any questions regarding any parts of my lectures, you can contact me using
my email address:
Office:
Research Building 6. Room no.374 (3rd floor).
36
Solar Cells
Example
A Si solar cell 2 cm × 2 cm with Ith = 32 nA has an optical
generation rate of 10^18 EHP/cm3-s within Lp = Ln = 2 μm of the
junction. If the depletion width is 1 μm, calculate the short-circuit
current and the open-circuit voltage for this cell? (T=300.29)
21
Solar Cells
Example
Response:
Lp = 2×10-4 cm, Ln = 2×10-4 cm, W = 1×10-4 cm, A = 4 cm2
𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 𝐼𝑜𝑝 = 𝑞𝐴𝑔𝑜𝑝 𝐿𝑝 + 𝐿𝑛 + 𝑊
𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 1.6 × 10−19 . 4 . 1018 . 2 × 10−4 + 2 × 10−4 + 1 × 10−4 = 3.2 × 10−4 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟
𝑘𝑇 𝐼𝑜𝑝
𝑉𝑜𝑐 = 𝑙𝑛 +1
𝑞 𝐼𝑡ℎ
1.38 × 10−23 . (300.29) 3.2 × 10−4
𝑉𝑜𝑐 = 𝑙𝑛 + 1 = 0.2386 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
(1.6 × 10−19 ) 32 × 10−9
22
Solar Cells
Example
• If a solar cell has an open-circuit voltage of 0.7 V and a short-
circuit current of 5 A, calculate the fill factor if the maximum power
point is 2.5 W.
27
Solar Cells
Example
Open-circuit voltage Voc = 0.7 V;
Short-circuit current Isc = 5 A;
Maximum power point (MPP) = 2.5 W
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
The formula for Fill Factor (FF) is: 𝐹𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝐹 =
𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝐼𝑠𝑐
FF = 2.5/(0.7*5) = 2.5/3.5 ≈ 0.714
28
