(Topic 1)Moles Notes

Key Concepts

1. Moles:

●​ A mole (mol) is a unit of measure in chemistry.

●​ Defined as the amount of substance that contains exactly 6.022 x 10²³ particles
(Avogadro's Number).

2. Molar Mass:

●​ Mass of one mole of any substance.

●​ For elements, it is the Relative Atomic Mass (Ar) expressed in g/mol.
●​ For compounds, it is the Relative Molecular Mass expressed in g/mol.

3. Calculations Involving Moles:

●​ Number of Moles: How many moles are in a given mass of a substance, calculated
using the substance's molar mass.
●​ Mass Calculation: The mass of a substance based on the number of moles and the
molar mass.

4. Moles and Gases:

●​ One mole of gas occupies 22.4 dm³ at standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p) and 24
dm³ at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p).
●​ Volume of Gas: The volume occupied by a specific number of moles of gas at s.t.p or
r.t.p.

5. Concentration:

●​ Measures how much of a substance is dissolved in a specific volume of liquid.

●​ Expressed as molar concentration (mol/dm³ or M) or mass concentration (g/dm³).

Stoichiometry Notes

Key Concepts

1. Empirical Formula:

●​ Shows the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a compound.

●​ Example: Water (H₂O) - For every two hydrogen atoms, there is one oxygen atom.
2. Molecular Formula:

●​ Shows the actual number of each type of atom in a molecule.

●​ Example: Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) - It tells us there are 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms,
and 6 oxygen atoms in each molecule of glucose.

3. Limiting Reagent:

●​ The ingredient that runs out first during a chemical reaction, stopping the reaction.
●​ Example: If you have 5 buns and 4 patties to make burgers, you can only make 4
burgers. The patties are the limiting reagent because you run out of them first.

4. Excess Reagent:

●​ The ingredient that is left over after the reaction is done.

●​ Example: In the burger example, you would have 1 bun left over. The buns are the
excess reagent.

5. Percentage Yield:

●​ Measures the efficiency of a reaction, comparing the actual amount of product made to
the theoretical amount that could have been made.
●​ Example: If you were supposed to make 10 cookies but only made 8, the percentage
yield is (8/10) * 100 = 80%.

6. Titration:

●​ A method to find out the concentration of a solution by adding a solution of known

concentration until the reaction is complete.
●​ Example: Imagine you are adding lemon juice to a baking soda solution slowly until it
stops fizzing. You measure how much lemon juice you added to know how strong the
baking soda solution was.

7. Back-titration:

●​ Used when direct titration is not possible. You add an excess amount of a known
substance to react with the sample, then titrate the remaining excess substance.
●​ Example: If you add too much lemon juice to baking soda and then measure how much
leftover lemon juice there is by adding more baking soda, you are doing a back-titration.

(Topic 2) Atomic Structure Notes

Key Concepts

1. Dalton’s Atomic Theory:

 ●​ Each element is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
●​ All atoms of an element are identical, but different from atoms of other elements.
●​ Atoms cannot be changed into atoms of another element by chemical reactions; they are
neither created nor destroyed.
●​ Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine.

2. Cathode Rays and Electrons (J.J. Thomson):

●​ Cathode rays are streams of negatively charged particles (electrons).

●​ Thomson proposed the atom consisted of a uniform positive sphere with electrons
embedded in it.

3. Rutherford’s Experiments:

●​ Conducted the gold foil experiment, discovering that most of the mass and positive
charge of an atom is concentrated in a small, dense nucleus.
●​ Suggested that electrons move around the nucleus in empty space.

4. Bohr’s Atomic Theory:

●​ Electrons move in circular orbits around the nucleus with quantized energy levels.
●​ Energy is emitted or absorbed when electrons change energy levels.

5. Modern Atomic Structure:

●​ Atoms consist of a dense, positively charged nucleus containing protons and neutrons,
with electrons orbiting the nucleus.
●​ Subatomic particles:
○​ Proton: +1 charge, mass ≈ 1 amu
○​ Neutron: 0 charge, mass ≈ 1 amu
○​ Electron: -1 charge, mass ≈ 0 amu

6. Atomic and Mass Numbers:

●​ Atomic number (Z): Number of protons in the nucleus.

●​ Mass number (A): Number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
●​ Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons.

7. Quantum Mechanics:

●​ Principal quantum number (n): Indicates the energy and size of the electron shell.
●​ Subsidiary (Angular momentum) quantum number (l): Indicates the shape of the subshell
(s, p, d, f).
●​ Magnetic quantum number (ml): Indicates the orientation of the orbital in space.
 ●​ Spin magnetic quantum number (ms): Indicates the spin direction of the electron (+½ or
-½).

8. Electronic Configuration:

●​ Distribution of electrons in an atom’s orbitals.

●​ Governed by three rules:
○​ Aufbau principle: Electrons fill the lowest energy orbitals first.
○​ Hund’s rule: Electrons occupy orbitals singly with parallel spins before pairing.
○​ Pauli’s exclusion principle: No two electrons can have the same set of four
quantum numbers.

9. Periodic Trends:

●​ Atomic radius: Increases down a group, decreases across a period.

●​ Ionization energy: Decreases down a group, increases across a period.
●​ Electron affinity: Energy change when an atom gains an electron, generally increases
across a period.

Simplified Explanations

Dalton’s Atomic Theory:

●​ Think of atoms as tiny building blocks. Each type of building block (element) is unique
and cannot be changed into another type of building block by chemical reactions. When
you put different types of building blocks together, you get compounds.

Cathode Rays and Electrons:

●​ Imagine a TV screen. The old cathode-ray tube TVs used streams of tiny particles called
electrons to create images. These particles are negatively charged.

Rutherford’s Experiments:

●​ Picture shooting tiny balls at a thin sheet of paper and most balls go straight through.
Occasionally, one bounces back. This showed that atoms are mostly empty space with a
small dense center (nucleus).

Bohr’s Atomic Theory:

●​ Imagine planets orbiting the sun. Electrons orbit the nucleus in specific paths and can
jump between these paths by absorbing or emitting energy.

Modern Atomic Structure:

●​ Think of a tiny solar system. The nucleus is the sun (center) with protons and neutrons,
and electrons are the planets orbiting around it.
Atomic and Mass Numbers:

●​ Atomic number is like an ID number for elements (number of protons). Mass number is
the total count of protons and neutrons in an atom.

Quantum Mechanics:

●​ Quantum numbers are like addresses for electrons, telling us their energy level, shape,
orientation in space, and spin direction.

Electronic Configuration:

●​ Electrons fill orbitals in a specific order. They prefer to occupy the lowest energy orbitals
available, fill orbitals singly before pairing, and no two electrons in an atom can have the
same set of quantum numbers.

Periodic Trends:

●​ Atomic radius and ionization energy change in predictable ways across the periodic
table. Atomic radius increases as you move down a group and decreases across a
period, while ionization energy decreases down a group and increases across a period.