Biochemistry Summary: 10 Key Points for Each Topic
1. Chemistry of Life: Chemical Bonds
1. Atoms are the building blocks of all matter.
2. Elements contain only one type of atom, while compounds have different atoms bonded
together.
3. Ionic bonds form when electrons are transferred between atoms, creating charged particles
(cations and anions).
4. Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons, making strong connections.
5. Double and triple bonds occur when atoms share two or three pairs of electrons.
6. Non-covalent bonds (like hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and van der Waals forces) help maintain
the structure of biomolecules.
7. Water disrupts some weak non-covalent bonds, which is important for biological processes.
8. Chemical bonds determine the shape and function of biological molecules.
9. DNA strands are held together by hydrogen bonds, allowing them to separate during replication.
10. Proteins rely on multiple types of chemical bonds to maintain their structure.
2. Carbohydrates
1. Carbohydrates are made up of sugars and provide energy.
2. Monosaccharides are simple sugars like glucose, fructose, and galactose.
3. Disaccharides (e.g., sucrose, lactose) are made of two monosaccharides.
4. Polysaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose) are long chains of sugars.
5. Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in animals.
6. Cellulose provides structural support in plant cell walls.
7. Condensation reactions link sugar molecules by removing water.
8. Hydrolysis breaks down carbohydrates by adding water.
9. ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is generated from glucose to power cellular activities.
10. Dietary fiber (cellulose) helps digestion but is not broken down by human enzymes.
3. Lipids
1. Lipids are fats and oils that do not mix with water.
2. Triglycerides consist of glycerol and three fatty acid chains.
3. Saturated fats have only single bonds in their fatty acid chains, making them solid at room
temperature.
4. Unsaturated fats have double bonds, making them liquid at room temperature.
5. Phospholipids form the structure of cell membranes.
6. Steroids, like cholesterol, are lipid molecules with a ring structure.
7. Waxes provide protection in plants and animals (e.g., beeswax).
8. Lipids store more energy than carbohydrates due to their structure.
9. Essential fatty acids must be obtained from food (e.g., omega-3, omega-6).
10. Hormones like testosterone and estrogen are lipid-based steroids.
4. Proteins
1. Proteins are made of amino acids.
2. There are 20 different amino acids that combine to form proteins.
3. Proteins function as enzymes, hormones, and structural components.
4. Peptide bonds link amino acids together to form polypeptides.
5. Protein structure has four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
6. Denaturation (loss of structure) occurs due to heat, pH changes, or chemicals.
7. Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions without being used up.
8. Hemoglobin in red blood cells is a protein that carries oxygen.
9. Antibodies are proteins that help fight infections.
10. Keratin (in hair and nails) and collagen (in skin) are structural proteins.
5. Enzymes
1. Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up reactions.
2. Each enzyme has a specific shape that matches its substrate (reactant).
3. Enzymes lower activation energy, making reactions happen faster.
4. The "lock and key" model describes enzyme-substrate interactions.
5. Enzymes are not consumed in reactions, so they can be reused.
6. Temperature and pH affect enzyme activity.
7. Enzyme inhibitors can slow down or stop reactions.
8. Sucrase, lactase, and maltase break down sugars.
9. Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific sites.
10. Industrial and medical applications include drug production and food processing.
6. Hormones
1. Hormones are chemical messengers that regulate body functions.
2. They are secreted by glands and travel through the blood.
3. Insulin lowers blood sugar, while glucagon raises it.
4. Steroid hormones (like estrogen and testosterone) control growth and development.
5. Protein hormones act through receptors on cell surfaces.
6. Adrenaline (epinephrine) prepares the body for emergencies (fight or flight).
7. Thyroid hormones regulate metabolism.
8. Growth hormone controls body growth.
9. Hormones help maintain homeostasis.
10. Diabetes results from insulin deficiency or resistance.
7. Nucleic Acids (DNA & RNA)
1. DNA stores genetic information.
2. RNA helps make proteins using the instructions from DNA.
3. DNA has four bases: A (Adenine), T (Thymine), G (Guanine), C (Cytosine).
4. RNA replaces thymine (T) with uracil (U).
5. DNA is double-stranded, while RNA is single-stranded.
6. DNA replication allows genetic information to be copied.
7. mRNA (messenger RNA) carries genetic instructions.
8. tRNA (transfer RNA) helps assemble proteins.
9. rRNA (ribosomal RNA) makes up ribosomes.
10. Mutations in DNA can lead to genetic disorders.
8. Human Genome Project (HGP)
1. The Human Genome Project mapped all human genes.
2. It identified around 30,000 genes in humans.
3. The project lasted 13 years (1990–2003).
4. It provided a full sequence of 3 billion DNA base pairs.
5. It helps in understanding genetic diseases.
6. It allows personalized medicine based on genetic makeup.
7. Gene therapy uses HGP data to treat diseases.
8. It led to advancements in bioinformatics.
9. It helps scientists compare human DNA with other species.
10. The data is freely available online for researchers worldwide.
9. Genomics and Sequence Databases
1. Genomics is the study of entire genomes.
2. It includes structural and functional genomics.
3. Comparative genomics compares DNA between species.
4. Genome databases store massive amounts of genetic data.
5. Primary databases contain raw DNA sequences.
6. Secondary databases analyze and curate genetic data.
7. GenBank and UniProt store genetic and protein sequences.
8. Bioinformatics tools manage and analyze genome data.
9. Genomic data is used in medicine, agriculture, and forensics.
10. Genomics helps identify disease-causing genes.
10. BLAST (Bioinformatics Tool)
1. BLAST stands for Basic Local Alignment Search Tool.
2. It compares DNA or protein sequences.
3. It helps find similarities between different species.
4. BLAST is fast but less sensitive than some other tools.
5. It is widely used in genetics and molecular biology.
6. It identifies genes and their functions.
7. It predicts evolutionary relationships.
8. It helps diagnose genetic diseases.
9. BLAST results include sequence alignment scores.
10. It is freely available online for researchers.
