1

Properties of Fluids

CHAPTER TWO
1
 General objectives
2

 After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

 Identify the key fluid properties used in the analysis of fluid behavior.

 Calculate common fluid properties given appropriate information.

 Explain effects of fluid compressibility.

 Use the concepts of viscosity, vapor pressure, and surface tension.

 Specific Properties
3

 Calculate the density, specific weight, or specific gravity of a fluid from a

knowledge of any two of the three.

 Calculate the density, pressure, or temperature of an ideal gas (with a given gas
constant) from a knowledge of any two of the three.

 Relate the pressure and density of a gas as it is compressed or expanded

 Use the concept of viscosity to calculate the shearing stress in simple fluid flows.

 Calculate the speed of sound in fluids :-both in liquids and gases.

 Determine whether boiling or cavitation will occur in a liquid using the concept of
vapor pressure.

 Use the concept of surface tension to solve simple problems involving liquid–gas
or liquid– solid–gas interfaces.
 Fluid Mechanics Overview
Fluid Mechanics Chapter 1: Introduction

Gas Liquids Statics Dynamics

F  0i
 F  0 , Flows
i

Water, Oils, Stability

Air, He, Ar,
N2, etc. Alcohols, Pressure Buoyancy Compressible/
etc.
Incompressible
Laminar/
Surface
Turbulent
Tension
Compressibility Density Viscosity Steady/Unsteady
Vapor Viscous/Inviscid
Pressure
Chapter 2: Fluid properties Fluid Dynamics:
Chapter 3: Fluid Statics Rest of Course
 Property of fluids
5

 Any characteristic of a system is called a property.

 Intensive properties are independent of the mass of the system.

 Examples: temperature, pressure, and density.

 Extensive properties are those whose value depends on the size of the
system.

 Examples: Total mass, total volume, and total momentum.

 Extensive properties per unit mass are called Specific properties.

 Examples include specific volume v = V/m and specific total energy e=E/m.
Importance of continuum concept to study properties of a substance

 Atoms are widely spaced in the gas phase.

However, we can ignore the atomic nature
of a substance and view it as a continuous,
homogeneous matter with no holes, that is, a
continuum.

 This allows us to treat properties as smoothly

varying quantities.

 A good way to determine if the continuum

model is acceptable is to compare a
characteristic length of the flow region
with the mean free path of molecules,
( L )

 If  , continuum model is valid

 Mean
L  free
 path ( ) – Average distance a
molecule travels before it collides with
Characteristics length of the system another molecule.
 Thermodynamic properties of fluids
7

 There are different kind of flow property, while the velocity field ,v, is the
most important one as it interacts closely with the thermodynamic
properties of fluids
 The most significant thermodynamic properties of the fluids which are
helpful in velocity vector analysis are:
i. Pressure, p
ii. Density, 
iii. Temperature, T
 The following thermodynamic properties are useful when work, heat and
energy interaction are considered

iv. Internal energy, u

v. Enthalpy, h
vi. Entropy, s
vii. Specific heat, Cv & Cp
 Thermodynamic properties of fluids
8

 In addition friction and heat conduction effects are governed the two so
called transport properties

viii. Coefficient of viscosity

ix. Thermal conductivity

 All nine of these quantities are true thermodynamic properties, which

are determined by thermodynamic condition or state of the fluid.

 For a single phase substance such as water or oxygen two basic

properties such as pressure and temperature are sufficient to fix the
value of all the others

 =  ( P,T ), h = h ( P,T ),  =  (P, T)

 Density
9

 The density of a substance is the quantity of matter contained in a unit volume

 The density of a substance can be expressed in three different ways

1. Mass Density

 Mass density, r , is defined as the mass of substance per unit volume r = m/V

 Its SI unit is Kg/m3 and its dimension is [ML-3]

 Typical values are water 1000 kg/m3, Mercury 13546 kg/m3 , Air 1.23 kg/m3,
Paraffin oil 800 kg/m3 all are measured at pressure of 1.013x 105 N/m2 and
Temrature 288.15K
Fluid Density Density of water
versus temperature
dm
 Temp Density
dV (°C) (g/cm3)
30 0.9957
20 0.9982
The density of 10 0.9997
water at 4ºC is
4 1.0000
1000 kg/m3 [1 kg/l]
[1 g/cm3] 0 0.9998
−10 0.9982
−20 0.9935
−30 0.9839

The density of air

at 0ºC and 1 atm
of pressure is
1.293 kg/m3
Density
2. Specific Weight
 The specific weight is defined as the weight per unit volume, i.e., where g is the
gravitational acceleration.

 Its SI unit is N/m-3 and its dimension is [ML-2 T-2]   g

 Typical values are water 9814 N/m3, Mercury 132943 N/m3 , Air 11.07 N/m3,
Paraffin oil 7851 N/m3 all are measured at pressure of 1.013x 105 N/m2 and T
288.15K

3. Specific Gravity (Relative density)

 Specific gravity, or relative density is defined as the ratio of the density of a
substance to the density of some standard substance at a specified temperature
(usually water at 4°C), i.e., SG = ρl/ρH20 @ 4oC . SG is a dimensionless quantity. It
is dimension is 1

 Typical values are water = 1, mercury =13.5 and Paraffin oil = 0.8

Density must take temperature into account, since the densities of most materials
11
vary with temperature. In the case of water, maximum density occurs at 4ºC
12
 Density of Ideal Gases
13

 Equation of State is equation for the relationship between pressure,

temperature, and density.

 The simplest and best-known equation of state is the ideal-gas equation.

P v = mRT or P = rRT

 Ideal-gas equation holds for most gases.

 Density of a gas highly depend s on temperature and pressure.

 However, dense gases such as water vapor and refrigerant vapor should not
be treated as ideal gases.
 Vapor Pressure
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• Saturation temperature Tsat :- The
temperature at which a pure substance
changes phase at a given pressure.

• Saturation pressure Psat:- The pressure at

which a pure substance changes phase at
a given temperature.

• Vapor pressure (Pv):- The pressure

exerted by pure substance vapor in
phase equilibrium with its liquid at a
given temperature. It is identical to the
saturation pressure Psat of the liquid (Pv =
Psat).
 Vapor Pressure and Cavitations
15

• There is a possibility of the liquid pressure in

liquid-flow systems dropping below the vapor
pressure at some locations, and resulting
unplanned vaporization.

• The vapor bubbles (called cavitation bubbles

since they form “cavities” in the liquid)
collapse as they are swept away from the low-
pressure regions, generating highly
destructive, extremely high-pressure waves. Cavitation damage on a 16-mm by 23-
mm aluminum sample tested at 60 m/s
for 2.5 h. The sample was located at the
• This phenomenon, which is a common cause cavity collapse region downstream of a
for drop in performance and even the erosion cavity generator specifically designed
of impeller blades, is called cavitation, and it to produce high damage potential.
is an important consideration in the design of
hydraulic turbines and pumps.
Vapor Pressure and Cavitation
 Vapor Pressure Pv is defined as the
pressure exerted by the vapor in phase
equilibrium with its liquid at a given
temperature

 If P (local pressure in fluid flowing)

drops below Pv, liquid is locally
vaporized, creating cavities of vapor.

 Vapor cavities collapse when local P

rises above Pv.

 Collapse of cavities is a violent process

which can damage machinery.

 Cavitation is noisy, and can cause

structural vibrations.
Vapor Pressure And Cavitation
 Energy and Specific Heats
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 Total energy E is comprised of numerous forms: Thermal, Mechanical,

Kinetic, Potential, Electrical, Magnetic, Chemical, and Nuclear.

 The forms of energy related to the molecular structure of a system and the
degree of the molecular activity are referred to as the microscopic energy.

 The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy
of a system, and is denoted by U (or u on a unit mass basis).

 Internal energy u is for a non-flowing fluid and is due to molecular

activity.
 Energy and Specific Heats
19

 In the analysis of systems that involve fluid flow, we frequently encounter

the combination of properties u and Pv. For convenience, this combination
is called enthalpy h. That is,

 P/ r is the flow energy, also called the flow work, which is the energy per
unit mass needed to move the fluid and maintain flow.

 In the energy analysis of flowing fluids, it is convenient to treat the flow

energy as part of the energy of the fluid and to represent the microscopic
energy of a fluid stream by enthalpy h.
 Energy and Specific Heats
20

 The macroscopic energy of a system is related to motion and the influence of some
external effects such as gravity, magnetism, electricity, and surface tension.

 Macroscopic energy includes such as kinetic and potential energy among others
 Kinetic energy ke=V2/2

 The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some
reference frame is called kinetic energy

 Potential energy pe=gz

 The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a gravitational field
is called potential energy

 In the absence of electrical, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear energy, the total energy
is eflowing= h+V2/2+gz.
Coefficient of Compressibility
 How does fluid volume change with P and T ?
 Fluids expand as T ↑ or P ↓
 Fluids contract as T ↓ or P ↑
 In this context there is a need for fluid properties that relate volume changes to
changes in P and T.
 P   P 
 Coefficient of compressibility   v      
 v T   T
 It can also be expressed approximately in terms of finite changes as

 Noting that ∆v/v or ∆  / is dimensionless, k must have the dimension of pressure

(Pa or psi). The coefficient of compressibility represents the change in pressure
corresponding to a fractional change in volume or density of the fluid while the
temperature remains constant. The coefficient of compressibility of a truly
incompressible substance (v = constant) is infinity.
 Isothermal Compressibility
22

 The inverse of the coefficient of compressibility is called the isothermal

compressibility a and is expressed as

 The isothermal compressibility of a fluid represents the fractional change in volume

or density corresponding to a unit change in pressure.

 Show that for an ideal gas the coefficient of volume expansion is 1/T and the
coefficient of compressibility is P
 Coefficient of Volume Expansion
23

 The density of a fluid, in general, depends more strongly on temperature than it

does on pressure, and the variation of density with temperature is responsible for
numerous natural phenomena such as winds, currents in oceans, rise of plumes in
chimneys, the operation of hot-air balloons, heat transfer by natural convection.
 Coefficient of volume expansion
1  v  1   
      
v  T  P   T  P

 It can also be expressed approximately in terms of finite changes as

 Combined effects of P and T can be written as follows by differentiating v = v(p, T)

Viscosity
 Viscosity is a property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to
motion.
 Internal friction forces in flowing fluids result from cohesion and momentum
interchange between molecules.

 Viscosity of a fluid depends on temperature:

 In liquids, viscosity decreases with increasing temperature (i.e.

cohesion decreases with increasing temperature)

 In gases, viscosity increases with increasing temperature (i.e.

molecular interchange between layers increases with temperature
setting up strong internal shear)
Viscosity
 The force a flowing fluid
exerts on a body in the flow
direction is called the drag
force, and the magnitude of
this force depends, in part,
on viscosity.
Viscosity
 Viscosity is important, for example,

 In determining amount of fluids that can be transported in a

pipeline during a specific period of time

 In determining energy losses associated with transport of

fluids in ducts, channels and pipes
 Viscosity: No slip condition
27

 Because of viscosity, the fluid velocity is zero

relative to the solid wall

 The experimental observation that the fluid

“sticks” to the solid boundaries is a very
important one in fluid mechanics and is
usually referred to as the no-slip condition.

 All fluids, both liquids and gases, satisfy the

no slip condition.
28
Viscosity
 To obtain a relation for viscosity, consider
a fluid layer between two very large
parallel plates separated by a distance ℓ

 Definition of shear stress is t = F/A.

 The shear strain angle d will continuously

grow as long as the stress t is maintained.
 For no slip condition u(0) = 0 and u(ℓ) =
V=u,

 From the geometry

 tan  = a/ y = u *t/y
 Viscosity
30
 In the limit of infinitesimal changes , this becomes a relationship between
shear strain rate and velocity gradient.
tan  = = u *t/y = a/ y
 /t = u /y
 It can be conclude that the rate of deformation of a fluid element is
equivalent to the velocity gradient
 /t = u /y

 It can be verified experimentally that for most fluids the rate of deformation
(and thus the velocity gradient) is directly proportional to the shear stress t
 t /t , t  u /y

 Fluids for which the rate of deformation is proportional to the shear stress are called
Newtonian fluids
 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluid
obey refer
Fluid Newton’s law Newtonian fluids
of viscosity

Newton’s’ law of viscosity is given by; Example:

Air
Water
du
t Oil
Gasoline
dy Alcohol
Kerosene
t = shear stress Benzene
 = viscosity of fluid Glycerine
du/dy = shear rate, rate of strain or velocity gradient

• The viscosity  is a function only of the condition of the fluid, particularly its
temperature.
• The magnitude of the velocity gradient (du/dy) has no effect on the magnitude of .
 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluid
Do not obey

Fluid Newton’s law Non- Newtonian

of viscosity fluids

• The viscosity of the non-Newtonian fluid is dependent on the

velocity gradient as well as the condition of the fluid.

Newtonian Fluids
 a linear relationship between shear stress and the velocity gradient (rate
of shear),
 the slope is constant
 the viscosity is constant

non-Newtonian fluids
 slope of the curves for non-Newtonian fluids varies
 Newtonian /Non-Newtonian fluids
33

 Most common fluids such as water, air, gasoline, and oils are Newtonian
fluids.
 Blood and liquid plastics are examples of non-Newtonian fluids.

 In one-dimensional shear flow of Newtonian fluids, shear stress can be

expressed by the linear relationship

 where the constant of proportionality  is called the coefficient of viscosity

or the dynamic (or absolute) viscosity of the fluid, whose unit is kg/m · s, or
equivalently, N · s/m2 (or Pa . s where Pa is the pressure unit Pascal).
 Newtonian /Non-Newtonian fluids
34

(Tooth paste)

(Shear thinning)

(Shear thickning)

Variation of shear stress with the

rate of deformation for Newtonian
The rate of deformation (velocity gradient) of and non-Newtonian fluids (the slope
a Newtonian fluid is proportional to shear of a curve at a point is the
stress, and the constant of proportionality is the apparent viscosity of the fluid at
viscosity. that point).
 Non-Newtonian fluids
35

Visco- elastic material are like Newtonian fluid however if there is

a sudden change in shear they act like plastic : example Silly puty
 Non-Newtonian fluids
36
 Non newtonian fluid
37
 kinematics viscosity, 23
m2/s or stoke (1 stoke = 1 cm2/s)

Where a, b, c are
experimentally detrained
constant and T is the
absolute temperature

The viscosity of liquids decreases and the

38 viscosity of gases increases with temperature.
Viscometer

Coefficient of viscosity  can be measured empirically using a viscometer

Example: Flow between two concentric cylinders (viscometer) of length L

r h r - radial coordinate

R y
Moving fluid
O

Fixed outer , T
cylinder x
Rotating inner z
cylinder
Viscometer

Inner cylinder is acted upon by a torque, T  T k , causing it to
rotate about point O at a constant angular velocity  and
causing fluid to flow. Find an expression for T


Because 
is constant, T  T k is balanced by a resistive torque
exerted by the moving fluid onto inner cylinder
 res
T  T res T  T res ( k)

The resistive torque comes from the resistive stress t res

exerted by the
 res This stress on the inner cylinder leads
moving fluid onto the inner cylinder.
to an overall resistive force F , which induces the resistive torque about O
point
 res
t res
F
y  R 
    res
T T T T
z x
Viscometer
T  T res  F res R

F res  t res A  t res (2 R L) (Neglecting ends of cylinder)

How do we get t res ? This is the stress exerted by fluid onto inner
cylinder, thus
du
t res
 
d r at inner cylinder ( r  R )

If h (gap between cylinders) is small, then

u(r )
du R

d r at inner cylinder ( r  R ) h
R
r
r R r  R h
Viscometer
R
Thus, t res
 
h

T  T res  F res R

T  T res  t res AR  t res (2 R L) R

 R 
   (2 R L) R
 h 

R 3  2 L
T
h

Given T , R,  , L, h previous result may be used to find  of

fluid, thus concentric cylinders may be used as a viscometer
 24
Viscometer
 How is viscosity measured? Consider
a rotating viscometer.
du  Two concentric cylinders with a fluid in
F t A  A the small gap ℓ.
dy
 Inner cylinder is rotating, outer one is
fixed.
 Use definition of shear force:
du
F t A  A
dy
 If ℓ/R << 1, then cylinders can be
modeled as flat plates.

 Torque T = FR, and tangential velocity

V=R

L length of the cylinder  Wetted surface area A=2RL.

number of revolutions per unit time
 25
Viscometer
44

The shear force can be expressed as

du
F t A  A
dy

This equation can be used to calculate the viscosity of a fluid by measuring torque
at a specified angular velocity.

Therefore, two concentric cylinders can be used as a viscometer, a device that

measures viscosity.
 26
Surface Tension
 Liquid droplets behave like small spherical
balloons filled with liquid, and the surface
of the liquid acts like a stretched elastic
membrane under tension.

 The pulling force that causes this is due to

the attractive forces between molecules called
surface tension ss.

• The magnitude of this force per unit length is

called surface tension (or coefficient of surface
Attractive force on surface molecule tension) and is usually expressed in the unit
is not symmetric. N/m.
• This effect is also called surface energy [per
Repulsive forces from interior
molecules causes the liquid to unit area] and is expressed in the equivalent
minimize its surface area and attain unit of N  m/m2.
a spherical shape.
 27

Surface Tension
46

Some consequences of
surface tension.
 28

Stretching a liquid film with a U-shaped

wire, and the forces acting on the
movable wire of length b.

47
 29

48
Capillary Effect
 Capillary effect is the rise or fall of a
liquid in a small-diameter tube. This
arises from the forces between the
molecules of a liquid and those of any
adjacent substance.

 The two basic phenomenon responsible

for rise or fall of fluids are Cohesion and
adhesion forces.

 Forces between the molecules of a fluid

and the molecules of a solid boundary
surface give rise to adhesion between the
fluid and the boundary.

 Cohesion is the tendency of the liquid to

remain as one assemblage of particles

 The curved free surface in the tube is

called the meniscus.
 Capillary Effect
 If the forces of adhesion are greater
than the forces of cohesion, the liquid
molecules tend to crowd towards the
solid surface, and the area of contact
between liquid and solid tends to
increase. This kind of fluids are known as
wetting fluids.

 Water meniscus curves up because water

is a wetting fluid.

 Mercury meniscus curves down because

mercury is a non wetting fluid.
Force balance can describe magnitude of capillary rise.

 Ccapillary rise is inversely proportional to the radius of the tube and density of the
liquid.