ER.
PRABIN KUMAR SHRESTHA POKHARA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
Chapter 1: Introduction to Surveying
Definition of surveying:
Surveying is the art of determining the relative position of
points on above or beneath the surface of earth by means
of direct or indirect measurements of distance, direction
and elevation.
The objective of a survey is to prepare plan or map so that
it may represent the area on a horizontal plane.
The application of surveying requires skill as well as
knowledge of mathematics, physics and to some extent
astronomy. For every engineering projects such as water
supply, bridges, buildings, irrigation, roads etc. requires
survey.
Primary Divisions of Survey:
Primarily surveying can be divided into two classes.
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
i) Plane surveying:
It is that type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is
considered as a plane and the curvature of earth is ignored.
All triangles formed by survey lines are considered as plane triangles.
Survey covering an area up to 260 sq. km may be treated as plane
surveys.
Plane survey are used for fixing boundary, pillars, construction of
bridges, factories etc.
ii) Geodetic surveying:
It is that type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is taken
into account. All lines lying in the surface are curved lines and the
triangles are spherical triangles. The objective of geodetic survey is to
determine the precise position on the surface of the earth. All geodetic
surveys include work of larger magnitude and high degree of precision.
The geodetic survey is carried out when area to be surveyed is greater
than 260 sq.km.
It requires sophisticated instruments, accurate method of observation
and their computation. It is carried out by national department of
survey. Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
Figure: Plane & Geodetic Survey
Classification of surveying:
Survey may be classified on the basis of
A) Nature of field survey:
i) Land / Topographical survey:
Survey which is used to determine natural features of country such as
rivers, lakes, hills, woods etc. and such artificial features as roads,
electric poles, buildings Prepared
etc. By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
ii) Cadastral survey:
These are generally plotted to a larger scale for fixing the property line,
calculation of area of landed properties.
iii) City Survey: These surveys are carried out for the construction of
roads, parks, water supply system, sewer and other constructional
works.
iv) Marine or Hydrographic survey: This survey deals with the mapping
of larger water bodies for the purpose of navigation, construction of
harbor works, and determination of mean sea level.
v) Astronomical survey: This survey is carried out for determining the
absolute location of any point on the surface of the earth.
B) Objective of survey:
i) Engineering survey:
It is carried out for determining sufficient data for designing
engineering works such as roads, reservoir, sewage, water supply etc.
ii) Military survey:
It is carried out for preparation of maps of the areas of military
importance. Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
iii) Mine survey:
Mine survey is carried out for exploration of minerals beneath the
surface of the ground i.e. copper, iron, coal etc.
iv) Geological survey:
It is used for determining different strata in the earth’s crust.
iii) Archaeological survey:
These surveys are carried out to prepare maps of ancient culture.
C) Instrument used:
According to the instruments used and method of surveying, it is
classified as
•Chain survey
•Compass survey
•Plane table surveying
•Theodolite surveying
•Tachometric surveying
•Triangulation surveying
•Aerial survey
•Photogrammetric survey Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
Chain survey compass survey Plane table survey
theodolite survey Tacheometric survey Triangulation survey
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
Principles of Surveying:
The principle of surveying can be stated under the following two
aspects.
i) Working from whole to part:
Weather the plane or geodetic surveying, it is to work from whole to
part.
A sufficient number of primary control points are established with
higher precision (accuracy) in and around the area to be detailed
survey. Minor control points are then established in between the
primary control points and further detailed are surveyed.
The main idea of working from whole to part is to prevent the
accumulation of errors and to control & localize minor errors with the
framework of control points.
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
ii) Location of points by measurement from two points of reference:
The relative position of the points to be surveyed should be located
by measurement from at least two points of reference, the positions
of which have already been fixed. Let P & Q be the reference points
on the ground.
Suppose P & Q be two given control points. Any other points say ‘R’ can
be located with reference of these points by any one of the following
method.
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
iii) Consistency of work: While performing the survey work the
consistence of work should be maintained i.e. same instruments & same
method should be applied according to the type of survey.
iv) Independent check: The observation & measurement taken during
survey should be checked timely. The error in observation and
measurement should be within the permissible range i.e.. With in
precision of the survey.
v)Accuracy should be maintained: Accuracy depends on Precised
instrument & helps to simplify the work.
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
Scale: It is the relation between points in map and the corresponding
distance of these points in ground. For e.g.. If 1cm on a map represent a
distance of 5m on the ground, the scale of the map is said to be 1cm =
5m or 1: 500.
Scales of the maps are represented by the following two methods.
i) Numerical Scale:
It is classified into Engineer’s scale ( 1cm =5m) and Fraction scale
(1:1000).
ii) Graphical Scale:
It is that type of scale in which a line is divided into several parts of
certain length which represent certain distance in field. The advantage
of this type of scale is that if map shrinks, line also shrinks in the same
proportion and error of the relation between distance of points in map
& ground is minimized.
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
Choice of a scale of a map:
•Building: 1: 1000 or less ( 1:250, 1:500)
•Reservoir, town planning: 1:5000, 1:10000
•Location survey: 1:5000, 1:20000
•Small scale topographical map: 1: 25000
•Cadastral map: 1:5000, 1:2500
•Geographical Map: 1:50000, 1:100000
Longitudinal section:
Horizontal scale: 1:1000, 1:2000
Vertical Scale: 1:100, 1:200
Cross section: 1:100, 1:200
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
Conventional Symbols :
Features which have to be repeatedly represented on maps are
depicted by special signs and symbols
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Land Area Conversion from Naapi App:
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
Unit of measurement: Area Conversion
Length – meter (m) 1 Ropani = 508.74 sq.m
Area – square meter (m²) 1 Ropani = 16 Aana
Volume –cubic meter (m³) 1Aana=4 Paisa
Time – Second (s) 1Paisa= 4 Dam
Temperature - Degree Celsius °C 1 Hectare =10,000 sq.m
Mass – Kilogram kg
Liquid –Liters( ltrs.)
Length conservesion: Example: Calculation of Ground
1m= 3.2808 ft. distance from given scale & measured
1haat= 1.5 ft. map distance.
1ft. =12 in. Scale: 1:500
1 in =25.4 mm Measurement taken= 12mm (map
distance)
Solution:
Ground distance =12mm*500=6000mm or
6m or, 6x3.2808ft=19.68 ft. or, 19.68/1.5
haat =13.12 haat
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
Accuracy
It is the degree of perfection obtained. It depends on
•Preciseness of instrument
•Preciseness of surveying methods.
•Planning
(कुनै पिन िववरणको मापन गदा उ िववरण स भएको मािणत गन degree लाई accuracy भिन छ
Precision
It is the degree of perfection used in the instruments, the
method & the observation.
(कुनै पिन िववरणको मापन गदा के कित प रणाममा exactly मापन गन सिक छ
सको degree लाई precision भिन छ )
Permissible error: The maximum allowable limit that a
measurement may vary from true value.
Discrepancy: It is the difference between two measured
value of same quantity.
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
Error: The difference between a measurement & true value
of quantity measured.
Source of errors:
i) Instrumental error
Error may arise due to faulty adjustment and
imperfection of the instrument with which measurement
is being taken. If the tape used in the operation is too
long
ii) Personal error
Error may arising due to the human. It is caused due to
careless during taking observation
iii) Natural error
Error may be arising due to the natural phenomenon
such as temperature ,humidity ,gravity, wind, refraction
and declination
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
Kinds of error:
i) Mistakes:
Mistakes are errors which arising from inattention, inexperience,
carelessness and poor judgment or confusion in the mind of observer.
ii) Systematic errors:
A systematic error may always be same under same condition and it will
have same size and sign. For example, in the case of a tape. If the tape
of length x short is stretched to N time then the total error in the tape
will be N times x
The reason for the systematic error is
1.Variation of temperature
2.Variation of humidity
3.Variation of pressure
iii) Accidental errors:
Accidental error are those which remain after mistakes and systematic
errors have been eliminated and are caused by a combination of reasons
beyond the ability of the observer to control.
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
iv) Compensating error:
This type of errors occurs in both direction, that is both
positive and negative. Therefore the resultant will be
compensating. They are automatically cancelled. Some
examples are
i) Inaccurate bisection
ii) Inaccurate centering
iii)Careless in marking chain lengths
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
Prepared By: Er. Prabin Kumar Shrestha
