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BUILDING ENGINEERING-I

Presented by
Dr. Jayvant Choudhary
Department of Civil Engineering
Assistant Professor
MNNIT Allahabad,
1 Prayagraj
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COURSE OUTCOMES
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SYLLABUS
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SYLLABUS
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ASSESSMENT METHOD
 SURVEYING 6

Surveying is the science and art of making all essential measurements to

determine the relative position of points on, above or beneath the surface of the
Earth, by means of direct or indirect measurement of distance, direction and
elevation and finally representing them on a sheet of paper known as plan or
map..
 IMPORTANCE OF SURVEYING 7

• The planning and design of all Civil Engineering projects such as

railways, highways, tunneling, irrigation, dams, reservoirs, waterworks,
Cut and Fill in road
sewerage works, airfields, ports, massive buildings, etc. are based upon
surveying measurements.
• The measurement of land and the fixation of its boundaries cannot be
done without surveying.
• The economic feasibility of the engineering feasibility of a project
cannot be properly ascertained without undertaking a survey work. Cadastral Map
• The execution of hydrographic and oceanographic charting and
mapping.
• Surveying is used to prepare a topographic map of a land surface of the
earth.

Topographic Map
 LEVELLING 8

Levelling is a branch of surveying, the object of which is:

i) to find the elevations of given points with respect to a given or assumed
datum
ii) to establish points at a given or assumed datum.
The first operation is required to enable the works to be designed while the
second operation is required in the setting out of all kinds of engineering works.
Levelling deals with measurements in a vertical plane.
 PRIMARY DIVISIONS OF SURVEY 9

Oblate Spheroid
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Involves smaller areas less Involves larger areas more than about
than about 195 km² 195 km²
PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING 12

1. Working from whole to part: According to this principle, it is always desirable to carryout survey work
from whole to part. It is achieved by covering the area to be surveyed with a number of spaced out control
point called primary control points whose pointing have been determined with a high level of precision
using sophisticated equipment. Based on these points, a number of large triangles are drawn. Secondary
control points are then established to fill the gaps with lesser precision than the primary control points. At
a more detailed and less precise level, tertiary control points at closer intervals are finally established to
fill in the smaller gaps. The idea of working this way is to prevent the accumulation of errors and to
control and localize minor errors which, otherwise, would expand to greater magnitudes if the reverse
process is followed, thus making the work uncontrolled at the end.
PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING 13

2. Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference: The relative positions of the points
to be surveyed should be located by measurement from at least two points of reference, the positions of
which have already been fixed. Let P and Q be the reference points on the ground. The distance PQ can
be measured accurately and the relative positions of P and Q can be plotted on sheet to some scale. The
points P and Q will be thus serve as reference points for fixing the relative positions of other points. Any
other point, such as R, can be located by any of the following direct methods
CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING 14

 Classification based on the nature of field

 Land Surveying: It can be further classified as i) Topographical
survey ii) Cadastrial Survey and iii) City Survey. It generally
deals with natural or artificial features on land such as rivers, City Surveying
streams, lakes, wood, hills, roads, railways, canals, towns, water
supply systems, buildings & properties etc.
 Marine Surveying: Marine or hydrographic survey deals with
bodies of water for purpose of navigation, water supply, harbour
works or for determination of mean sea level. The work consists in
measurement of discharge of streams, making topographic survey
of shores and banks, taking and locating soundings to determine Marine Surveying
the depth of water and observing the fluctuations of the ocean tide.
 Astronomical Surveying: The astronomical survey offers the
surveyor means of determining the absolute location of any point
or the absolute location of and direction of any line on the surface
of the earth. This consists in observations to the heavenly bodies
such as the sun or any fixed star.
Astronomical Surveying
 Classification based on the object of survey 15

 Engineering Surveying: This is done for determination of

quantities or to afford sufficient data for designing engineering
works.
 Military Surveying: This is done for determining points of Engineering Surveying
strategic importance.
 Mine Surveying: This is done for exploring mineral wealth.
 Geological Surveying: This is used for determining different strata
in earth’s crust.
 Archaeological Surveying: This is done for unearthing relics of Military Surveying
antiquity

Archaeological Surveying Geological Surveying Mine Surveying

 Classification based on instruments used 16

 Chain Surveying
 Compass Surveying
 Theodolite Surveying
 Tacheometric Surveying Chain Compass
 Plane Table Surveying
 Photogrammetric Surveying
 Aerial Surveying

Theodolite

Tacheometry

Photogrammetric Surveying Aerial Surveying Plane Table

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 Classification based on method used
 Triangulation Surveying : In order to make the survey, manageable,
the area to be surveyed is first covered with series of triangles. Lines
are first run round the perimeter of the plot, then the details fixed in
relation to the established lines. This process is called triangulation.
Triangulation Surveying
The triangle is preferred as it is the only shape that can completely
cover an irregularly shaped area with minimum space left.
 Traverse Surveying: A traverse surveying is one in which the
framework consists of connecting lines whose lengths are measured
with a chain or tape and directions are determined with an angular
instrument. A traverse station is each of the points of the traverse, while
the traverse leg is the straight line between consecutive stations.
Closed Traverse
Traverses may either be open or closed.
1. Closed Traverse: When a series of connected lines forms a
closed circuit, i.e. when the finishing point coincides with the
starting point of a survey, it is called as a closed traverse
2. Open Traverse: When a sequence of connected lines extends
along a general direction and does not return to the starting point,
it is known as ‘open traverse’ or unclosed traverse

Open Traverse
VARIOUS MEASUREMENTS IN SURVEYING 18
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INSTRUMENTS USED IN VARIOUS TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS

Clinometer Dumpy Level Sextant Total Station

VARIOUS MEASUREMENTS IN SURVEYING 20
VARIOUS MEASUREMENTS IN SURVEYING 21
PLANS & MAPS 22

Plan of a building

Map
 SCALE 23

Numerical Scale:

It is basic requirement for the preparation of

plan or map. It is the fixed ratio that every
distance on plan bears with corresponding
distance on ground. Scale is used to represent
large distances on paper. for example., if 1 cm
on a map represents a distance of 10 km on the
ground, the scale of the map is said to be 1 cm
= 10 km. It can also be known as Engineer’s
scale

The ratio of the distance on the drawing to the

corresponding actual length of the object on the
ground is known as the Representative
Fraction (RF).
 SCALE 24

Graphical Scale:
PLAIN SCALE 25
DIAGONAL SCALE 26
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VERNIER SCALE 28
VERNIER SCALE 29
VERNIER SCALE 30
VERNIER SCALE 31
SCALE OF CHORDS 32
SCALE OF CHORDS 33
SCALE OF CHORDS 34
 LINEAR DISTANCE MEASUREMENT 35

One of the basic measurements in surveying is the determination of the distance between two points on the earth’s surface for
use in fixing position, set out and in scaling. The method to be employed in measuring distance depends on the required
accuracy of the measurement, and this in turn depends on purpose for which the measurement is intended. They can be
mainly divided into three heads
 Direct Measurements: Distances are actually measured on the ground with help of a chain or a tape or any other
instrument.
1. Pacing
2. Measurement with passometer
3. Measurement with pedometer
4. Measurement by odometer and speedometer
5. Chaining or Taping
 Measurement by optical means: In the optical methods, observations are taken through a telescope and calculations
are done for the distances, such as in tacheometry or triangulation.
 Electro-magnetic methods: Distances are measured with instruments that rely on propagation, reflection and
subsequent reception of either radio waves, light waves or infrared waves.
 LINEAR DISTANCE MEASUREMENT 36

 Direct Measurements:
1. Pacing: This method consists in counting the number of paces between the two
points of a line. The length of the line can then be computed by knowing the
·average length of the pace. The length of the pace varies with the individual, and
also with the nature of the ground, the slope of the country and the speed of pacing. Pacing
2. Measurement with Passometer: Passometer is an instrument shaped like a watch
and is carried in pocket or attached to one leg. The mechanism of the instrument is
operated by motion of the body and it automatically registers the number of paces,
thus avoiding the monotony and strain of counting the paces, by the surveyor.
3. Measurement with pedometer: Pedometer is a device similar to the passometer
except that, adjusted to the length of the pace of the person carrying it, it registers
the total distance covered by any number of paces.
4. Measurement by odometer and speedometer: The odometer is an instrument for Passometer Pedometer
registering the number of revolutions of a wheel. The well-known speedometer
works on this principle. The odometer is fitted to a wheel which is rolled along the
line whose length is required. The number of revolutions registered by the
odometer can then be multiplied by the circumference of the wheel to get the
distance.
5. Chaining or Taping: Chaining is a term which is used to denote measuring
distance either with the help of a chain or a tape and is the most accurate method of
making direct measurements. Odometer & Speedometer
INSTRUMENTS USED IN CHAINAGE 37

The following instruments are used while chaining.

• Chains
• Tapes
• Arrows
• Ranging rods and offset rods Chain Tapes
• Pegs
• Plumb bob
• Line Ranger

Line Ranger Arrows Ranging Rods Pegs Plumb Bob

 BRIEF PROCEDURE OF CHAIN SURVEYING 38

 Chain Surveying consists of measuring the lengths of a series of

straight lines with tape/chain and then locating the details on the
ground relative to these lines.
 The details are located by measuring two other lines, known as
ties or by measuring offsets at right angles to the main survey line.
 When a larger area is to be surveyed using ties & offset methods, a
network of triangles covering the complete area is made. The
details are noted with respect to the sides of these triangles using
ties & offset methods
 TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO CHAIN SURVEYING 39

 Chainage: The distance measured along the chain from a specific starting point (usually a
reference point or benchmark) to a particular survey point.
 Ranging: The process of aligning survey points in a straight line by using ranging rods or other
visual aids. This ensures accurate measurements and helps maintain the straightness of the survey
line.
 Offsets: Measurements taken at right angles from a chain line to locate features, boundaries, or
objects that are not directly on the survey line. They are used to create a detailed plan of the
surveyed area.
 Main Station: Main station is a point in the chain survey where two sides of a triangle meet. These
basically command the boundaries of the survey. Here, A,B, C, D and E are the main stations.
 Tie Station: It is a station on the main survey line joining two main stations. Tie stations are
helpful in the inner detailings of the survey area. Tie station is also known as a subsidiary station.
Here, a,b,c and d are the tie stations.
 Main Survey Line: The chain line joining two main stations is called the main survey line. Here,
AB, BC, CD, DE, EA and AD are the main survey lines.
 Tie Line: A chain line joining two tie stations is called a tie line. T1T2 in the picture is the tie line.
 Check Line: After completing the main survey, the surveyor selects a specific line (the check
line) that is not directly involved in the main survey measurements. This line is measured
independently, often using different instruments or techniques.