Definition of Surveying

It is the art of determining the relative positions of points on, above or below the surface of the
earth by means of direct or indirect measurements distance, direction and elevations. It also in-
cludes the art of establishing points by predetermined angular and linear measurements.
The primary aims of field surveying are:

i. To measure the horizontal distance between points.

ii. To measure the elevation between points.
iii. To find out the relative direction of lines by measuring horizontal angles with reference to
any arbitrary direction and
iv. To find out absolute direction by measuring horizontal angles with reference to a fixed direc-
tion.

Primary divisions of survey

1. Plane survey – Surface of the earth is considered as plain ignoring the curvature of the earth.
All triangles formed by survey lines are considered as plane triangle.
2. Geodetic survey – It includes the works of larger magnitude and high degree of precision.
The objects of geodetic survey is to determine the precise position on the surface of the earth, of a
system of widely distant points which forms control stations to which surveys of less precise work
may be referred.

Classifications of survey

1. Based on nature of the field of survey

a. Land survey
 Topographical survey. This consists of horizontal and vertical location of certain points
by linear and angular measurement.
 Cadastral survey. Cadastral surveys are made incident to the fixing of property lines, the
calculation of land area, or transfer of land property
 City surveying. They are made in connection with the construction of streets, water sup-
ply system, sewers and other work.
 b. Marine survey. This survey deals with bodies of water for purpose of navigation, water sup-
ply, harbor works.
c. Astronomical survey. It helps to determine the absolute location of any point or the absolute
location and direction of any line on the surface of earth.

2. Based on objects of survey

a. Engineering survey. To investigate the feasibility studies of civil engineering projects.
b. Military survey. For determining points of strategic importance for both offensive and de-
fensive
c. Mine survey. For exploring the mineral wealth such as gold, copper, coal etc.
d. Geological survey. To study the earth’s strata
e. Archaeological survey. A systematic attempt to locate, identifies, and records the distribu-
tion, structure, and form of archaeological sites on the ground and in relation to their natural geo-
graphic and environmental setting.
3. Based on instruments used
a. Chain survey. It is the system of surveying in which the sides of various triangles or line
connecting stations are measured directly in the field. In this method no angular measurements are
taken. Chain surveying is the simplest type of surveying and it is suitable
i. When the ground is fairly level and open ground with simple details.
ii. When plans are required at large scale.
iii. When the area is small in extent.
 Equipment for chain survey are 20m, 30m chain, arrows, ranging rod, plumb-bob, peg, field
book etc.
b. Theodolite survey. Theodolite is the most common and accurate instrument used for meas-
urement of horizontal and vertical angles. Theodolites are primarily classified as (1) transit and
(2) non-transit. A Theodolite is called transit, when its telescope can be revolved through a com-
plete revolution about its horizontal axis and in the vertical plane.
c. Tacheometric survey (“quick survey”). This a method of surveying in which both the hori-
zontal and vertical distances are determined by observing a graduated staff with a Tacheometer or
transit equipped with a special telescope having stadia wires.

d. Plain table survey. It is a graphical method of surveying in which field work and plotting are
done simultaneously. It is suitable for small scale and medium scale mapping.
4. Based on methods of survey
a. Traverse survey. The survey in which the linear measurements are done with chain and tape
and the directions or angles are measured compass or transit respectively.
b. Triangulation survey. When the area is to be surveyed is of considerable extent, triangula-
tion is adopted. The entire area is divided into a network of triangles. Any one side of any of tri-
angles so formed is selected and is measured precisely. Such a line is called baseline. All the an-
gles in the network are measured with a transit. The length of the sides of all the triangles
c. Photographic survey. Photographic surveying is a method of surveying in which plans or
maps are prepared from photographs taken at suitable camera stations.
d. Aerial survey. The survey carried out from aero planes or satellite.

4.4. Principles of survey

1. Location of a point from two well defined points

2. Working from whole to part
1. Location of a point from two well defined points

a. Two control points (any two important features) are selected in the area and the distance be-
tween them is measured accurately. Let ‘A’ and ‘B’ be the reference points on the ground and ‘C’
be a new point to be located with reference to ‘A’ and ‘B’. Also measure the distance to ‘C’ from
both ‘A’ and ‘B’
b. Plot the position of A and B on a drawing sheet using the measured distance AB to some
scale as ‘a’ and ‘b’. Swing an arc of length AC from ‘A’ and BC from ‘B’ to the selected scale.
The intersection will give the required point ‘c’ in the map.

Locate point c with reference to b and c

2. Working from whole to part
a. The second principle of surveying is working from whole to part. In plane and geodetic sur-
veying it is essential to establish a system of control points with high precision. To do this the area
to be surveyed is divided into large triangles which are surveyed with great accuracy. Vertexes of
these triangles are minor control points. The detail can be established using these minor control
points by the method of triangulation or by running minor traverse. Depending up on the im-
portance of work these triangles can be further divided into smaller triangles. This way of work-
ing is to prevent the accumulation errors.

Plans and maps

a. Plan: A plan is a graphical representation, to some scale of the features on, near or below the
surface of the earth as projected on a horizontal plain which is represented by the plain of paper.
b. Map: Graphical representation of features on or near the surface of the earth in small scale
on a horizontal plane and is constructed using a projection system other than orthographic.

 Scale. A scale is the fixed ratio that every distance on the plan bears a corresponding dis-
tance on the ground.

4.6. Measurements of distance

1. Direct measurements
2. Measurements by optical means
3. Electronic methods

4.6.1. Direct measurement:

When the distance between points or stations is measured directly from the field, it is called direct
method.

1. Methods of Direct measurements

a. Pacing
It is an approximate method of measuring the horizontal distance. In this method the surveyor
walks with gentle pace in the field and counts the number of pace taken to cover the distance to be
determined. Knowing the average pace length of the surveyor the distance can be determined.
b. Measurements with passometer
Passometer is an instrument resembling like a watch which automatically count the number of
pace covered by the surveyor if kept in his pocket. The distance can be determined by multiplying
the number of pace with the average pace length.
c. Measurements with pedometer
Pedometer is another instrument like passometer, which automatically display the distance cov-
ered by the surveyor if the average pace length is recorded and set in the instrument before starts
to walk.
d. Measurements with odometer or speedometer
Speedometer is an automatic device used to measure the horizontal distance covered by a rolling
wheel if the device is connected to the wheel.

e. Taping or chaining

Taping involves measurement of the distance with tapes (steel or linen), either by placing it on the
ground or sometimes by getting it suspended between points. Additional equipments employed
during taping are plumb bob, the hand level, pegs or pins and range pole (or flag or ranging rod)
etc. The precision of distance measured with tapes depends upon the degree of refinement with
which measurements are taken.

4.7. Chain survey

Chain survey is the oldest simple method of survey and can be done using a distance measuring
device alone, such as chain or tape. As triangles are the only figures that can be plotted with linear
measurements, only linear measurements are taken from the field using a tape or chain to provide
a skeleton consisting of a number of connected triangles. The principle of chain survey is triangu-
lation.
Some terms used in chain survey
1. Survey stations
These are the prominent points on the survey line
2. Survey lines
These are a line joining two survey stations.
3. Base lines
Base lines are the largest line in the framework of survey, which approximately divides the area in
to two equal parts. Base lines are the important line in the framework of survey because it acts as
the main reference line for all other works. The accuracy of survey much depends on the base
line.
4. Check lines
These are a line joining the apex of any two opposite triangles in the frame work of survey. The
purpose of running a check line is to check the accuracy in plotting the survey. The tie line meas-
ured in the field should tallies with the corresponding plotted distance the map.
5. Tie stations
These are less important survey stations located on main survey line, so as to facilitate running tie
line for locating ground features.
6. Tie lines
Tie lines are the line joining two tie or subsidiary stations. A tie line is laid close to the features to
be located in order to reduce the length of offset.

Fig no principle of chain survey

4.7.2. Points to be considered while selecting survey stations

1. Survey stations must be mutually visible
2. Survey line must be as few as possible
3. The base lines must divide the area approximately in to two equal parts or intersect in the
form X, if two base lines are there.
4. Survey line must run through level ground
5. The survey lines must form well conditioned triangles
6. The skeleton of survey, is to provide sufficient check lines
7. The tie lines should pass near the ground feature
8. The survey line should not pass the obstacles
9. To avoid trespassing, the line should pass within the boundary itself
 Accessories used in chain survey

1. Chain and Tapes. A chain is composed of small pieces of 4mm dia. galvanized iron wires
called links interconnected with three numbers of circular or oval shaped rings. The length of one
link is the distance between the centre to centre distance of consecutive central ring and is equal to
20cm.It is hard and flexible and used in rough works such as land survey. The following are some
types of chain available.

Fig no details of a metric chain

a. Metric chain. Available in 5m,10m,15m,20m,30m

b. Gunter’s chain. Total length of 66ft and is divided in to 100 links.

i. 10 chain = 1 furlong
ii. 80 chain = 1 mile
iii. 10 sq. chain = 1 Acre
c. Engineer’s chain. Total length of 100ft and is divided in to 100 links.
d. Revenue chain. Total length of 33ft and is divided in to 16 links.
e. Tapes. The measuring tapes of different length and following types are available
Cloth or linen tape, metallic tape, steel tape and invar tape
2. Arrows
These are made out of 4mm dia. galvanized iron wire with a loop at one end and sharp edge at the
other end, about 400mm long. The arrows are used to facilitate marking and counting during
chaining.
3. Pegs
a. These are small wooden pieces of 25mm square in section and approximately 250mm long.
These are used for marking stations.

Arrow wooden Peg

4. Ranging rods
b. Ranging rods are well seasoned timber polls of 25mm dia. and 2 to 3m long. Ranging rods
are also made out of steel and is used for ranging survey lines.
5. Plumb bob
It is nothing but a weight attached to a string and is used to establish a vertical line in the field as
applicable for centering of the survey instrument.

6. Cross staff
It is an accessory used to set out perpendicular with a chain line. It is a block with opposite slits
mounted on a pole.
The following types are available.
(a) Open cross staff
(b) French cross staff and
(c) Adjustable cross staff.

Open Cross Staff French Cross Staff Adjustable Cross

Staff

7. Wooden hammer
These are wooden block of reasonable weight with a handle and are used for driving pegs.
 4.7.4. Nature of survey work
1. Field work
a. Reconnaissance
It is the primary inspection of the area to be surveyed. The surveyor should walk through the
boundaries of the area and prepare a sketch showing the important features with small descrip-
tions. The surveyor decides the method of survey and the type instruments used for completing
the work as per the requirements.
b. Ranging.
When the distance to be measured is more than a tape length, a straight line is required to be laid
between the points or stations along which measurements are to be carried out. The process of es-
tablishing the intermediate points between the given points so as to lay out a straight line to facili-
tate chaining is known as ranging.

i. Direct Ranging.
When the end stations are inter visible, ranging is being carried out directly. The intermediate
points are placed at distances having interval less than one tape length. The intermediate points
are found by moving a ranging pole in transverse direction and thus, points are selected in such a
way that the end points and the intermediate point’s lies in a straight line (Figure 8.1). In this
method, two flags, one ranging pole and a bunch of pegs are required in a team of at least one
surveyor and one assistant.

ii. Indirect Ranging

When the end stations between which a straight line is to be laid, are not inter visible, indirect
method of ranging is being adopted. It is being carried out either by reciprocal method or by ran-
dom line method.
c. Chaining
It is the operation measuring distance using a chain or tape is called chaining. For chaining two
surveyors are required. The chainmen at the forwards end is called leader and the other one is
called the follower. The leader drags the chain from the starting station to the end. The chain
length is marked by fixing arrows, after swinging the chain on the ground for straightening.
d. Offsetting
 The operation of measuring the distance from chainage to the points to be located is called offset-
ting. It is done for the purpose of locating details. The measurement thus taken is called offsets.
The following are the types of offsets.
i. Perpendicular offsets
a. Perpendicular offsets are the offsets taken perpendicular to the chain line.
ii. Oblique offsets
a. The offsets which are not perpendicular to the chain line are called the oblique offsets.
e. Booking field notes

i. Field book
The book in which the chainages, offsets, other measurements and sketches are called the field
book. It is a 12 *20 cm size book which opens lengthwise. It is of two types, single line field book
and double line field book. A single line or double line separated by 2cm is ruled in red at centre
of every page of the book according as single line or double line field book.
 ii. Booking field book
Field notes are entered from bottom to top in every page of the field book. The method of record-
ing field book for a particular survey work is described as below
iii. At the time of beginning of a survey, the fist pages of the field book contain the follow-
ing information.
a) Date and name of survey
b) General sketch of the layout of survey line
c) Details of survey line
d) Page index of survey line
e) Location sketch of survey stations
iv. At the time of starting of a survey line, every page contains the following information
a) Name of the survey line
b) Name of the survey station marked by a triangle
c) Bearing of a survey line
d) Details of any other lines meeting at the starting points

2. Office work
a. Design
b. Plotting maps
c. Care and adjustments of instrument

Obstacles in Chaining

The three main obstacles in chaining of a line are of the following types: 1. Chaining Free, Vision Ob-
structed 2. Chaining Obstructed, Vision Free 3. Chaining and Vision Both Obstructed.

It sometimes happens that a survey line passes through some object such as a pond, a building, a river, a
hedge etc. which prevents the direct measurement of that part of the line which the object intersects. The
interfering object in such a case is called on obstacle.

It is necessary to overcome obstacles so that chaining may be continued in a straight line. Special meth-
ods are, therefore, employed in measuring distances across the obstacles.

1. Chaining Free, Ranging Obstructed:

In this type of obstacles, the ends of the lines are not intervisible e.g. rising ground, hill or jungle inter-
vening.
Here two cases may arise:
(i) Both ends may be visible from any intermediate point lying on the line such as in the case of a hill.
The obstacle of this kind may easily be crossed over by reciprocal ranging and length measured by step-
ping method of chaining.

(ii) Both ends may not be visible from any intermediate point such as in the case of a jungle. The obstacle
of this kind may be crossed over by “Random line method”. In fig. 3.20, let AB be the line whose
length is required. From A, run a line AB’ called a random line, in the approximate convenient direction
of AB and continue it until point B is visible from B’ Chain the line to B’ where BB’ is perpendicular to
AB’ and measure BB’.

2. Chaining Obstructed, Ranging Free:

The typical obstacle of this type is a sheet of water, the width of which in the direction of measurement
exceeds the length of the chain or tape. The problem consists in finding the distance between convenient
points on the chain line on either side of obstacle.

Two cases may arise:

(a) When the obstacle can be chained around, e.g. a pond, a thorny hedge etc.

(b) When the obstacle cannot be chained around e.g. a river.

Case: (i) The distance between two points A and B on either side of the pond may be determined by
any of the following methods convenient at site:
(a) Set out equal perpendiculars AC and BD [Fig. 3.21 (a)]. Measure CD which is equal to AB.

(b) Erect perpendicular AC [Fig .3.21(b)] of such a length that CB clears the obstacle and measure AC
and CB.
(c) Find by optical square or a cross-staff a point C such that ∠ACB is right angle [Fig. 3.21(c)] Measure
AC and BC.

(d) Mark a point C so that CA and CB clear the obstacle [Fig. 3.21. (d)]. Range E in line with AC so that
CE = AC. Then range D in the line with BC so that CD = BC. The triangles CAB and CED are congru-
ent. Therefore DE = AB.
Case (ii): Any one of the following methods may be employed to find the width of the river along
the direction of the chain line:
(a) Select two points A and B on the chain line on opposite banks of the river. [Fig. 3.22 (a)]. From A and
C, erect perpendicular or parallel lines AD and CE, such that E, D and B are in line. Measure AC, AD
and CE. If a line DF is drawn parallel to AC, meeting CE in F, the triangles ABD and FDE are similar.

(b) Select two points A and B on the chain line on either side of the river [Fig. 3.22. (b)]. Set a perpen-
dicular AC and mark its midpoint D. From C, erect CE perpendicular to AC such that E, D and B are in
the same range and measure CE. Then triangles ABD and CED are congruent. Therefore AB = CE.
(c) Select two points A and B as before [Fig. 3.22 (c)]. Erect a perpendicular AC and using an optical
square at C, find D on the chain line so that ∠BCD is a right angle. Measure AC and AD. Triangles ABC
and ACD are similar.
(d) Fix two points A and B as before [Fig. 3.22 (d)].

Erect a perpendicular AC of such a length that triangle ABC is well conditioned. Measure AC and the
angle ACB with prismatic compass or box-sextant or with any other angle measuring instrument.

(e) If a survey line crosses the river obliquely, then the following method is used to find the width of
the river:
Select two points A and B as before [Fig. 3.22. (e)].

At A, set out a line AC in a convenient direction so that C is the foot of the perpendicular from B on AC.
Produce CA to D and measure AD = AC. At D, erect a perpendicular DE, E being a point on the chain
line. Then triangles ABC and AED are congruent. Therefore AB = AE (the oblique width of the river.

3. Chaining and Ranging Both Obstructed:

A building is a typical example of this class of obstacles. The problem in this case consists both in pro-
longing the line beyond the obstacle and finding the distance across it.
Any one of the following methods may be employed:
(a) Select two points A and B on the chain line [Fig. 3.23 (a)]. At A and B, erect equal perpendiculars AC
and BD. Join CD and produce it past the obstacle. Select two points E and F on it. At E and F, set out
perpendiculars EG and FH, each equal in length to AC. The points G and H then lie on the chain line and
BG = DE.

The direction and length of perpendiculars must be set out with great accuracy. The check can be made
by measuring diagonals of the rectangles. For the same rectangle, diagonals should be equal. Here AD
should be equal to BC, and EH equal to FG.

(b) Choose two points A and B on the chain line [Fig. 3.23. (b)]. With AB as base, construct an equilat-
eral triangle ABC by swinging equal arcs with a tape. Produce AC to D and take a point E of DA. Again
contract an equilateral triangle DEF with DE as the base.

Produce the line DF to G such that DG = DA. ADG then forms an equilateral triangle and G is a point on
the chain line. Determine the second point K on the chain line by forming an equilateral triangle GHK on
GH as the base. The line joining KG determines the direction of the chain line past the obstacle, and the
obstructed length BK = AG-AB-GK = DA – AB – GK.
Example:
There is an obstacle in the form of a pond on the main chain line AB. Two points C and D were taken on
the opposite sides of the pond. On left of CD, a line CE was laid out 100 m in length and a second line
CF, 80 m long was laid out on the right of CD such that E, D and F are in the same straight line. ED and
DF were measured and found to be 60 m and 56 m respectively. Find out the obstructed length CD.

Solution:
In Fig. 3.24, CD is the obstructed length of the pond on the chain line AB. CE and CF are known to be
100 and 80 m respectively and EF = 60 + 56= 116 m.