PHY 102

COURSE OUTLINE:
 CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
(CRO)
 MILIKAN’S EXPERIMENT
 WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY OF
LIGHT
 X RAYS
 PHOTOELECTRICITY
 THERMIONIC EMMISION
 RADIOACTIVITY—NATURAL &
ARTIFICIAL

B.B. DEJI-JINADU
 CRO
CRO tube consists essentially of the following component parts:
 Highly evacuated glass tube with
 An emitter c of electrons which can be focused to a
 Fluorescent/screen s so that a spot of light is formed. Electron leaving c
passes through
 Cylinders or anodes A1 and A2 which are kept at high positive potentials
relative to c of the order of 1KV or ore so as to accelerate the electrons to
high speed
 The screen s is also kept at the same potential as A2 coating the inside of the
tube with graphite. The energy of the electron leaving A2 is maintained and
they arrive at s with enough energy to create a bright spot of light.
 Plates Y1 and Y2 deflect the beam in the vertical direction.
 Plates X1 and X2 deflect the beam in the horizontal direction
For safety reasons, tube A2 and s are earthed to prevent shock.

Uses of CRO
CRO can be classified to measure:
 DC and AC voltage v
 Frequency f
 Phase difference Ø
 Short-time intervals t
 Display of waveforms Ψ
MILIKAN’S EXPERIMENT (M E)
Millikan performed his experiment in 1916 using the alkali metals—Li(2,1);
Na(2,8,1) and K(2,8,8,1). These metals are capable of emitting electrons when
illuminated by ordinary light/visible). These metals were housed in three
vacuumed cylinders: A, B, and C and placed round a wheel W. a cutting knife, K
was used to keep their surfaces clean which was moved by means of a magnet M.
the metals are kept at variable positive potential by battery H, and illuminated by a
beam of monochromatic light of wavelength λ1 from a spectrometer. Any
photoelectrons emitted could reach a gauge cylinder G, which is connected to one
side of an electrometer E whose other terminal was earthed, and current I would
then flow in E. When the potential of A is increased, G has an increasing negative
potential relative to A(i.e. –V), and the current I then decreases and eventually
becomes zero. The potential of G relative to A is equal to the potential difference
of the battery H. Millikan obtained variations of current I with monochromatic
light of other wavelengths using light of constant intensity. The experiment aimed
at testing the relationship between the kinetic energy of the ejected electron and
frequency in relation
1⁄ 𝑚𝑉 2 = ℎ𝜈 − 𝑤 (1)
2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 0

Negative potential of G relative to A when no electron reaches G is called the

Slope of the line = ℎ⁄𝑒

e is known, then h could be calculated and the result was h= 6.26𝑋 10−34 𝐽𝑠
This value confirmed the Einstein’s photoelectric theory that light can be
considered to consist of particles with energyℎ𝜈.
From (2) one can write the work function energy 𝑤0 as ℎ𝑣0 where
𝑣0=𝑤0⁄
ℎ

⟺ 𝑒𝑉 = ℎ𝜈 − 𝑤0 =h (𝜈-𝑣0 )
This implies that no electrons are emitted from a metal when the incident light has
a frequency less than 𝑣0 . 𝑣0 is called: ’threshold frequency” of the metal.
The terminal velocity of an oil-drop falling through air was measured by Millikan.
He then charged the oil-drop and applied an electric field to oppose gravity. The
drop now moved with a different terminal velocity, which was again measured.
Suppose the radius of the oil-drop is a, the densities of oil and air are 𝜌 and
𝜎 respectively, and the viscosity of air 𝜂 . When the drop, without a charge, falls
steadily under gravity with terminal velocity 𝑣1 :
Upthrust+ viscous force= weight of drop
4 4
Therefore, 𝜋𝑎3 𝜎𝑔 + 6𝜋𝜂𝑎𝑣1 (𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒 ′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤) = 𝜋𝑎3 𝜌𝑔
3 3

4
6𝜋𝜂𝑎𝑣1 = 𝜋𝑎3 (𝜌 − 𝜎)𝑔
3

2 9𝜂𝑎𝑣1
𝑎=√
2(𝜌 − 𝜎)𝑔

Suppose the drop now acquires a negative charge and an electric field of intensity
E is applies to oppose gravity, so that the drop now has a terminal velocity 𝑣1 .
Then since the force due to E on the drop is Eé
4 3 4
𝜋𝑎 𝜎𝑔 + 6𝜋𝜂𝑎𝑣2 = 𝜋𝑎3 𝜌𝑔 − Eé
3 3
4
Eé = 𝜋𝑎3 (𝜌 − 𝜎)𝑔 − 6𝜋𝜂𝑎𝑣2
3

6𝜋𝜂 2 9𝜂𝑎𝑣
1
é=
𝐸
√2(𝜌−𝜎)𝑔 (𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )

EXPERIMENT
Millikan used two horizontal plate A, B about 20cm in diameter and 1.5cm apart,
with a small hole H in the center of the upper plate. He used a fine spray to atomize
the oil and create tiny drop above H, and would be observed in a low-power
microscope by reflected light when the chamber was brightly illuminated. The
drop was seen as a pin-point of light, and its downward velocity was measured by
timing its fall through a known distance by means of scale in the eyepiece.
The field was applied by connecting a battery of several KV across the plate A, B,
and its intensity E was known. Since, where V= p.d between the plates and d is
their distance apart. He found out that the friction between the drop when they
were formed by spray created electric charge, but was operated near the chamber to
ionize the air. From (3) it follows that when are all known, the
charge on the drop can be calculated. Millikan found, was working with hundreds
of drops, that the was always simple multiple of a basic unit