MODULE 1

1. Define Operating System and List Four Components of a

Computer System

An Operating System (OS) is system software that manages hardware

resources, provides services for application programs, and acts as an
intermediary between users and the computer hardware.

Four Components of a Computer System:

1. Hardware – Physical components such as CPU, memory, I/O

devices.

2. Operating System – Software that manages hardware and

software resources.

3. Application Software – Programs designed for users, e.g., web

browsers, games.

4. Users – People who interact with the computer system.

2. Operating System Functions with Examples

The OS performs the following functions:

1. Process Management – Manages CPU scheduling and multitasking

(e.g., Windows Task Manager).

2. Memory Management – Allocates and deallocates memory (e.g.,

Virtual Memory in Windows).

3. File System Management – Manages files and directories (e.g.,

NTFS, FAT32).

4. Device Management – Controls peripheral devices (e.g., printer

drivers).

5. Security & Protection – Manages user authentication (e.g., User

login in Linux).

6. Networking – Manages network connections (e.g., TCP/IP stack in

Windows).

7. User Interface – Provides GUI and CLI (e.g., Windows Desktop,

Linux Terminal).

3. Operating System Services with Examples

Operating system services provide useful functionalities such as:

1. Program Execution – Runs user programs (e.g., executing

Notepad.exe).

2. I/O Operations – Manages input/output (e.g., reading from a

keyboard).

3. File System Manipulation – Accesses and organizes files (e.g., file

renaming in Windows).

4. Error Detection & Handling – Identifies and corrects system

errors (e.g., Blue Screen in Windows).

5. Resource Allocation – Assigns CPU, memory, and storage (e.g.,

Task Scheduler).

6. Security & Protection – Controls access (e.g., File permissions in

Linux).

4. What is a System Call and Its Types

A System Call is an interface between a user application and the

operating system that allows access to OS services.

Types of System Calls:

1. Process Control – Create, terminate a process (e.g., fork(), exec()).

2. File Management – Read, write, close files (e.g., open(), close()).

3. Device Management – Request or release a device (e.g., ioctl()).

4. Information Maintenance – Get/set system time (e.g., getpid()).

5. Communication – Interprocess communication (e.g., socket()).

5. System Services with Examples

1. File Services – File operations (e.g., Windows Explorer).

2. Communication Services – Network management (e.g., Internet

Protocol stack).

3. Process Management Services – Handles processes (e.g., Task

Manager).

4. Memory Services – Manages RAM allocation (e.g., Paging in Linux).

5. Security Services – User authentication (e.g., Windows Login).

6. Define Linker and Loader with Diagram

 Linker: Combines object files into a single executable.

 Loader: Loads executable files into memory for execution.

Diagram:

Source Code → Compiler → Object Code → Linker → Executable File →

Loader → Memory Execution

7. Monolithic Architecture Diagram

A Monolithic Kernel is a single large program that includes all OS

functions.

Diagram:

-----------------------

| User Applications |

-----------------------

| System Calls |

-----------------------

| Monolithic Kernel (Includes Memory Mgmt, Process Mgmt, File Mgmt, I/O
Mgmt) |

-----------------------

| Hardware |

-----------------------

8. Layered Approach Architecture with Diagram

A Layered OS organizes OS into layers where each layer provides

services to the layer above.

Diagram:

-----------------------

| User Interface | (Layer 5)

-----------------------
| Application Layer | (Layer 4)

-----------------------

| Operating System | (Layer 3)

-----------------------

| Hardware Control | (Layer 2)

-----------------------

| Hardware | (Layer 1)

-----------------------

9. Microkernel Architecture with Diagram

A Microkernel OS minimizes kernel functions by handling essential

operations like IPC, memory, and process management.

Diagram:

-----------------------

| User Applications |

-----------------------

| Servers (File, I/O, Network) |

-----------------------

| Microkernel (IPC, Memory Mgmt, Process Mgmt) |

-----------------------

| Hardware |

-----------------------

10. Modular Operating System (MOS) Architecture

A Modular OS is divided into independent modules that can be

dynamically loaded.

Advantages:

 Better maintainability

 Higher flexibility

Disadvantages:
  Overhead in module communication

 Potential performance degradation

11. Compare Monolithic and Microkernel Architectures

Monolithic
Feature Microkernel
Kernel

Size Large Small

Performanc Slower due to IPC

Fast
e overhead

Stability Less stable More stable

Security Less secure More secure

Extensibilit
Difficult Easier to extend
y

12. Advantages and Disadvantages of Microkernel Architecture

Advantages:

 Improved security

 Easier to extend

 Better fault isolation

Disadvantages:

 Slower performance due to IPC overhead

 Complex to implement

13. Concept of Microkernel Architecture

A Microkernel only includes essential OS services (e.g., memory

management, IPC). Other services run in user space.

Example OS: Minix, QNX.

14. Concept of File Management System

A File Management System (FMS) organizes, stores, and retrieves
files.

Functions of FMS:

 File creation, modification, deletion

 Directory management

 File access control

 Backup and recovery

MODULE 2

15. Process Control Block (PCB) and Its Key Fields

A Process Control Block (PCB) is a data structure maintained by the

operating system for every process, containing information needed to
manage the process.

Key Fields in PCB:

1. Process ID (PID) – Unique identifier for the process.

2. Process State – Current state (New, Ready, Running, Waiting,

Terminated).

3. Program Counter (PC) – Address of the next instruction to

execute.

4. CPU Registers – Stores values of registers.

5. Memory Management Information – Details about allocated

memory.

6. I/O Status Information – List of I/O devices allocated.

7. CPU Scheduling Information – Priority and scheduling queue

details.

16. Mechanisms for Inter-Process Communication (IPC)

IPC allows processes to communicate and synchronize their actions.

Types of IPC Mechanisms:

1. Shared Memory – Processes communicate via a common memory

space.

2. Message Passing – Processes exchange messages via

send/receive operations.
 3. Pipes – Unidirectional or bidirectional data flow between processes.

4. Sockets – Communication over a network.

5. Signals – Asynchronous notifications sent to processes.

17. Characteristics of a Process

1. Unique Identifier – Each process has a PID.

2. Execution State – New, Ready, Running, Waiting, Terminated.

3. Scheduling Information – Priority, time slice.

4. Resource Allocation – Uses memory, CPU, and I/O resources.

5. Concurrency – Can be executed in parallel with other processes.

18. Process States with Diagram

A process undergoes different states during execution.

Process State Diagram:

sql

CopyEdit

New → Ready → Running → (Waiting or Terminated)

Waiting → Ready

 New – Process is created.

 Ready – Waiting for CPU.

 Running – Currently executing.

 Waiting – Waiting for I/O.

 Terminated – Process is finished.

19. Concept of IPC

Inter-Process Communication (IPC) enables communication between

processes to share data and synchronize execution.

Methods:
  Shared Memory (efficient, requires synchronization)

 Message Passing (more secure, but slower)

20. Shared Memory vs. Message Passing

Shared Message
Feature
Memory Passing

Speed Faster Slower

Synchronizati
Required Built-in
on

Complexity High Low

Security Less secure More secure

21. Long-Term vs. Short-Term Scheduler

Feature Long-Term Scheduler Short-Term Scheduler

Selects which processes to Selects which process runs

Function
admit next

Frequenc
Infrequent Very frequent
y

Speed Slow Fast

Controls degree of
Scope Controls CPU execution
multiprogramming

22. Semaphores and Their Role in Process Synchronization

A Semaphore is a synchronization mechanism to control process access

to shared resources.

Types:

1. Binary Semaphore (Mutex) – Takes values 0 or 1.

2. Counting Semaphore – Allows multiple accesses.

Role: Prevents race conditions, ensures mutual exclusion.

23. Critical Section Problem

A critical section is a part of a program where shared resources are

accessed.

Conditions for a solution:

1. Mutual Exclusion – Only one process in the critical section.

2. Progress – No unnecessary waiting.

3. Bounded Waiting – A process gets a turn eventually.

24. Concept of Monitors for Process Synchronization

A Monitor is a high-level synchronization construct that encapsulates

shared resources, allowing only one process to access them at a time.

Components:

 Data variables

 Entry procedures (to access resources)

 Condition variables (to handle waiting processes)

25. The calculated results for Priority Scheduling are:

 Average Waiting Time (AWT): 10.2 units

 Average Turnaround Time (TAT): 16.0 units

26. FCFS (First-Come, First-Served) Scheduling

 Average Waiting Time (AWT): 4.75 units

 Average Turnaround Time (TAT): 8.0 units

27. Round Robin (Time Quantum = 2) Scheduling

 Average Waiting Time (AWT): 19.2 units

 Average Turnaround Time (TAT): 25.2 units

28. SJF (Shortest Job First) Scheduling

 Average Waiting Time (AWT): 3.0 units

 Average Turnaround Time (TAT): 8.5 units

29. FCFS vs. SJF Comparison

 Feature FCFS SJF
Basis First process arrives first Shortest job first
Type Non-preemptive Can be preemptive or non-preemptive
Waiting Time Can be high (convoy effect) Lower on average
Starvation No Yes (long processes may starve)

MODULE 3

30. Page Frames and Page Tables

 Page Frame: A fixed-size block of physical memory in which a

process's pages are loaded.

 Page Table: A data structure that maps logical addresses to

physical addresses, translating a program's virtual pages to physical
frames.

31. Fixed and Variable Partitioning

 Fixed Partitioning: Memory is divided into fixed-size partitions,

leading to internal fragmentation.

 Variable Partitioning: Partitions are created dynamically based on

process size, reducing fragmentation but leading to external
fragmentation.

32. Address Space and Memory Space

 Address Space: The range of addresses a process can use (logical

addresses).

 Memory Space: The actual physical memory available in the

system.

33. Page Faults

A page fault occurs when a process tries to access a page that is not in
memory, causing the OS to load it from disk.

34. Logical Address vs. Physical Address

Feature Logical Address Physical Address

Definition Address generated by the Actual address in RAM

Feature Logical Address Physical Address

CPU

Accessibilit Managed by hardware

Used by programs
y (MMU)

Translation Requires page table Directly used in memory

35. Multiple Partition Allocation

 Allocates memory dynamically to processes.

 Can use strategies like Best Fit, Worst Fit, and First Fit for
partitioning.

36. Contiguous Memory Allocation

 Allocates a single block of memory to each process.

 Can suffer from external fragmentation.

37. Demand Paging

 Pages are loaded into memory only when required.

 Reduces memory usage but can cause page faults.

38. FIFO (First-In-First-Out) Page Replacement Algorithm

 Replaces the oldest page when a new one needs space.

 Simple but may lead to Belady’s Anomaly (higher frames, more

faults).

39. Thrashing and Its Impact

 Thrashing occurs when excessive page swapping reduces CPU

performance.

 Causes: Insufficient memory, too many processes, poor page

replacement policy.

 Impact: High disk usage, low CPU efficiency.

40. Memory Protection via Segmentation and Paging

 Segmentation: Divides memory into variable-size segments

with access control.

 Paging: Ensures processes can only access their allocated

pages, preventing unauthorized access.

41. FIFO (First-In-First-Out) Page Replacement

Given:

 Page Reference String: 1, 3, 0, 3, 5, 6, 3

 Number of Page Frames: 3

FIFO Rule: The oldest page in the frame gets replaced when a new page
needs space.

Step-by-Step Table

Ste Referen Page

Frame 1 Frame 2 Frame 3
p ce Fault?

1 1 1 - - Yes

2 3 1 3 - Yes

3 0 1 3 0 Yes

4 3 1 3 0 No

5 (1
5 5 3 0 Yes
removed)

6 (3
6 6 5 0 Yes
removed)

3 (0
7 3 5 6 Yes
removed)

Total Page Faults: 6

42. Optimal Page Replacement Algorithm

Given:

 Page Reference String: 6, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 2, 3, 0, 3, 2, 3

 Number of Page Frames: 4

Optimal Rule: Replace the page that will not be used for the longest
time in the future.

Step-by-Step Table

Ste Referen Frame Frame Frame Page

Frame 1
p ce 2 3 4 Fault?

1 6 6 - - - Yes

2 0 6 0 - - Yes

3 1 6 0 1 - Yes

4 2 6 0 1 2 Yes

5 0 6 0 1 2 No

3 (6
6 3 0 1 2 Yes
removed)

7 0 3 0 1 2 No

4 (1
8 4 0 3 2 Yes
removed)

9 2 4 0 3 2 No

10 3 4 0 3 2 No

11 0 4 0 3 2 No

12 3 4 0 3 2 No

13 2 4 0 3 2 No

14 3 4 0 3 2 No

Total Page Faults: 6

43. LRU (Least Recently Used) Page Replacement Algorithm

Given:

 Page Reference String: 6, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 2, 3, 0, 3, 2, 3

 Number of Page Frames: 4

LRU Rule: Replace the page that has not been used for the longest
time.

Step-by-Step Table
Ste Referen Frame Frame Frame Page
Frame 1
p ce 2 3 4 Fault?

1 6 6 - - - Yes

2 0 6 0 - - Yes

3 1 6 0 1 - Yes

4 2 6 0 1 2 Yes

5 0 6 0 1 2 No

3 (6
6 3 0 1 2 Yes
removed)

7 0 3 0 1 2 No

4 (1
8 4 0 3 2 Yes
removed)

9 2 4 0 3 2 No

10 3 4 0 3 2 No

11 0 4 0 3 2 No

12 3 4 0 3 2 No

13 2 4 0 3 2 No

14 3 4 0 3 2 No

Total Page Faults: 6

44. LRU (Least Recently Used) Page Replacement Algorithm

 Keeps track of when each page was last used.

 When a new page is needed, the least recently used page is

replaced.

 Advantage: More efficient than FIFO.

 Disadvantage: Requires extra tracking overhead (timestamps

or stack method).

Final Summary
Algorith Page
m Faults

FIFO 6

Optimal 6

LRU 6

MODULE 4

45. Types of File Organizations

File organization refers to how files are arranged on storage media. The
main types are:

1. Sequential File Organization

o Records are stored one after another in order.

o Example: Log files, tape storage.

o Advantage: Simple and efficient for sequential access.

o Disadvantage: Slow for random access.

2. Direct (or Hashed) File Organization

o Uses a hash function to store records in specific locations.

o Example: Databases using hashing for quick lookups.

o Advantage: Fast retrieval.

o Disadvantage: Collisions may require overflow handling.

3. Indexed File Organization

o Uses an index table to locate records.

o Example: Library catalogs.

o Advantage: Fast access.

o Disadvantage: Requires extra space for the index.

4. Clustered File Organization

o Similar records are stored together.

o Example: B+ trees in databases.

o Advantage: Improves access speed for related data.

o Disadvantage: More complex management.

46. Difference Between Single-Level Directory and Hierarchical
Directory

Single-Level
Feature Hierarchical Directory
Directory

Flat, all files in one

Structure Tree-like, with subdirectories
directory

Organizatio Simple, easy to Complex, allows better file

n implement management

All files must have Files in different directories can have

Naming
unique names the same name

Access Can have different access permissions

Limited
Control for different directories

47. Indexed Allocation

 Each file has an index block that stores pointers to data blocks.

 Example: File Allocation Table (FAT).

Advantages

 Fast random access.

 No external fragmentation.

Disadvantages

 Extra space needed for index blocks.

 Overhead in managing index blocks.

48. Basic Operations on Files

1. Create – Making a new file.

2. Open – Accessing an existing file.

3. Read – Retrieving data from a file.

4. Write – Modifying or adding data.

5. Close – Releasing file resources.

6. Delete – Removing a file.

 7. Seek – Moving to a specific position in a file.

49. Difference Between Opening and Closing a File

Action Description

Opening a Loads file metadata into memory, prepares file for read/write
File operations.

Closing a
Saves changes, updates metadata, releases resources.
File

50. Access Control Mechanisms

1. User-based Access Control (Owner, Group, Others) – Used in

UNIX/Linux.

2. Role-based Access Control (RBAC) – Permissions are assigned

based on roles.

3. Access Control Lists (ACLs) – Specifies individual user

permissions.

51. Advantages and Disadvantages of Contiguous Allocation

Advantages:

 Fast sequential and direct access.

 Simple implementation.

Disadvantages:

 External fragmentation.

 Difficult to resize files.

52. I-Node in File System

 Stores file metadata (size, owner, permissions, pointers to data

blocks).

 Advantage: Efficient management of files.

 Example: UNIX/Linux file systems.

53. Steps for File Creation & Deletion

Creating a File:

1. Allocate disk space.

2. Create an entry in the directory.

3. Initialize metadata.

Deleting a File:

1. Remove the directory entry.

2. Free the disk space.

3. Update metadata.

54. SCAN Scheduling Calculation

Given Requests: 12, 34, 52, 14, 25, 68, 39

Initial Position: 53
Tracks: 90

Process:

 SCAN moves in one direction first (e.g., toward 0), then reverses.

 Movement Order: 52 → 39 → 34 → 25 → 14 → 12 → (Direction

Change) → 68

 Total Head Movement: 103 tracks

55. FCFS (First Come First Serve) Scheduling Calculation

Given Requests: 12, 34, 52, 14, 25, 68, 39

Initial Position: 53

Process:

 Process requests in the given order: 12 → 34 → 52 → 14 → 25 → 68

→ 39

 Total Head Movement: 185 tracks

56. C-SCAN Scheduling Calculation

Given Requests: 12, 34, 52, 14, 25, 68, 39

Initial Position: 53
Process:

 Moves in one direction, reaches end (90), jumps back to start (0),
then continues.

 Movement Order: 52 → 68 → (Jump to 0) → 12 → 14 → 25 → 34 →

39

 Total Head Movement: 129 tracks

57. Difference Between SCAN and C-SCAN

Feature SCAN C-SCAN

Moves in one direction, then

Movement Moves in both directions
jumps to start

Better than FCFS but still

Efficiency More uniform waiting times
inefficient

Response
Varies for different requests More consistent
Time

58. File Attributes

 Metadata about a file.

 Examples: Name, Size, Creation Date, Permissions, Last Modified.

59. File Locking

 Ensures data consistency in multi-user systems.

 Types:

1. Shared Lock: Allows multiple reads.

2. Exclusive Lock: Only one process can modify the file.

MODULE 5

60. Main Threats to Operating System Security

1. Malware (Viruses, Worms, Trojans) – Harmful software that can

steal or destroy data.

2. Phishing Attacks – Tricks users into revealing sensitive

information.
 3. Unauthorized Access – Hackers or malicious users gaining control
of the system.

4. Denial of Service (DoS) Attacks – Overloading system resources

to cause failure.

5. Privilege Escalation – Exploiting vulnerabilities to gain higher

access rights.

6. Rootkits – Malicious software that hides its presence and control.

7. Data Breaches – Unauthorized access leading to data theft.

8. Social Engineering – Manipulating users to bypass security.

9. Zero-Day Vulnerabilities – Security flaws exploited before a fix is

available.

61. Importance of User Authentication in OS Security

 Ensures only authorized users can access the system.

 Protects sensitive data and resources.

 Prevents identity theft and unauthorized modifications.

 Common methods: Passwords, Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA),

Biometrics.

62. Difference Between Discretionary Access Control (DAC) and

Mandatory Access Control (MAC)

Discretionary Access Mandatory Access Control

Feature
Control (DAC) (MAC)

Control User or owner decides access System enforces strict rules

Flexibility More flexible Highly restrictive

Security
Lower security Higher security
Level

Military and government

Example Windows NTFS permissions
systems

63. Main Advantage of Using an Open-Source OS

  Transparency & Security: Users can inspect and modify the code
to fix vulnerabilities.

 Cost-Effective: Usually free to use.

 Customization: Users can tailor the OS to their needs.

 Community Support: Large communities provide updates and

support.

64. How Encryption Helps to Protect Data in an OS

 Converts readable data into unreadable form.

 Prevents unauthorized access even if data is stolen.

 Types of Encryption:

1. Symmetric Encryption (AES, DES) – Same key for

encryption and decryption.

2. Asymmetric Encryption (RSA, ECC) – Uses a public and

private key.

3. Disk Encryption (BitLocker, LUKS) – Secures entire storage

drives.

65. How Firewalls Protect a Computer System

 Monitors and filters incoming and outgoing traffic.

 Prevents unauthorized access by blocking suspicious activity.

 Types of Protection:

o Blocks malicious IP addresses.

o Restricts access to certain applications.

o Stops malware from spreading.

66. Comparison of Different Types of Firewalls

Firewall Type Description Example

Packet Filtering Filters packets based on rules iptables (Linux)

Firewall Type Description Example

Stateful Windows Defender

Tracks connection state
Inspection Firewall

Intermediary between user and

Proxy Firewall Squid Proxy
network

Next-Gen Includes Deep Packet Inspection,

Palo Alto Networks
Firewall (NGFW) Intrusion Prevention

67. Concept of Security Policies and Their Importance

 Security policies are rules defining how a system is protected.

 Importance:

o Prevents security breaches.

o Ensures compliance with regulations (e.g., GDPR, HIPAA).

o Defines user roles and access permissions.

68. Concept of Security Hardening

 Security hardening means strengthening a system to reduce

vulnerabilities.

 Examples:

o Disabling unused services.

o Applying security patches.

o Implementing strong authentication.

o Using secure boot mechanisms.

69. Concept of a Linux Distribution

 A Linux distribution (distro) is a packaged OS version that

includes:

o Linux kernel.

o System utilities.

o Software applications.
 o Package manager.

 Examples: Ubuntu, Fedora, Debian, Arch Linux.

70. Comparison of Windows and Linux File System Structures

Windows (NTFS,
Feature Linux (EXT4, XFS, Btrfs)
FAT32)

File Structure Drive letters (C:, D:) Single root ("/")

Case
Not case-sensitive Case-sensitive
Sensitivity

File Basic user Advanced permissions (chmod,

Permissions permissions chown)

NTFS supports Most Linux file systems support

Journaling
journaling journaling

71. Role of the Kernel in Windows and Linux

 The kernel is the core of the OS, managing hardware and system
resources.

Feature Windows Kernel Linux Kernel

Type Hybrid kernel Monolithic kernel

Flexibility Proprietary, closed-source Open-source, customizable

Integrated with Windows More control over security

Security
security features mechanisms

Performanc Optimized for Windows Highly customizable for

e software different workloads