Chapter 1

Introduction: Matter and Measurement

• Chemistry is the study
of matter, its
properties, and the
changes it undergoes.
• It is central to our
fundamental
understanding of many
science-related fields.
 Chapter Goals

• Differentiate between the behavior of atoms in solids, liquids,

and gases. Also, understand phase transitions.
• Use appropriate terms in the classification of matter.
• Differentiate between physical and chemical changes; physical
and chemical properties; intensive and extensive properties.
• Become familiar with SI base units for mass, length,
temperature, volume, density.
• Become familiar with SI prefixes.
• Use dimensional (unit) analysis for unit conversion.
• Calculate densities and use density as a conversion unit.
 Classifications of Matter

• Matter – anything that has a mass or volume (takes up

space); examples?
• States of Matter
• Classification of Matter
States of Matter
➢ For our discussion, there will be three
states of matter:
1) Solid.
ice P HEYtorderly
• Characteristics:
– Fixed shape
– Fixed volume
– Atomic/Molecular behavior?
2) Liquid.
20
•
–
Characteristics:
18 3 2
No fixed shape
4 er
– Fixed volume
– Atomic/Molecular behavior?
3) Gas.
•
–
Hourani
Characteristics
No fixed shape
– No fixed volume
– Atomic/Molecular behavior?
➢ In this figure, those states are seen as ice,
liquid water, and water vapor.
 States of Matter

• The atoms and molecules in each

type of matter contain a certain
amount of kinetic energy, KE
(energy of motion).
• The atoms and molecules in a
solid contain the least amount of
KE. The particles in a liquid
contain a bit more KE. The
particles in gases contain the most
KE.
• By adding energy (in the form of
heat), we can increase the amount
of KE in a substance and change
the state of matter.
jewelry alloyonly Hommergenous solution Homogenousmixture
Classification of Matter Homogenousmixtures
alloys
Based on Composition
● If you follow this scheme, you
should be able to determine how
to classify any type of matter.
➢ a Homogeneous mixture
➢ Heterogeneous mixture
➢
l Element
➢
d Compound
• Classify each of the following as
mixtures (homogenous or
heterogeneous) or pure substances
(compounds or elements)
– Polluted air Dark chocolate a
– A gold necklace NaCl
a d
– H2O (water) Graphite c
– A silver block Red wine
– Vinaigrette salad dressingb C3H8
– Unpolluted air Aluminum foilad
b
 Definitions

Mixture – 1) combination
of two or more types of
matter 2) with no fixed
composition 3) that can
be physically separated
• Homogeneous mixture – a
mixture with a uniform
composition throughout (ex.
solutions, alloys)
• Heterogeneous mixture – a
mixture that does not have a
uniform composition throughout
(ex. sand in water)
 Definitions
Pure Substance – type of matter with a definite or fixed
composition that does not vary from one sample to another
• Element (atoms)– cannot be broken down into simpler substances with
chemical reactions (ex. You should start memorizing these element symbols
right away: hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), helium
(He), neon (Ne), phosphorus (P), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), potassium (K),
fluorine(F), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), gold (Au), silver (Ag),
nickel (Ni), chlorine (Cl), sulfur (S), aluminum (Al) )
• Compound (molecules)– 1) made up of two or more elements in 2) fixed
proportions that 3) can ONLY be separated by chemical reaction (ex. H2O,
NaCl, H2O2, MgSO4)
thesemajor
remember diatomic
elementsHz NaOaFaClaBra It
 Changes of Matter

• Physical change – changes

in matter that do not change
the composition of a
substance.
– Examples include melting,
freezing, dissolving, etc.
• Chemical change – changes
in matter that do change the
composition of a substance,
resulting in new substances
(reaction). The vapor burns,
– Examples include burning combining with
oxygen: a The liquid fuel
gasoline, dissolving metal in evaporates: a
chemical change.
acid, food spoilage, etc. physical change.
 1.3 Properties of Matter
Copper is red-
brown, opaque,
• Physical properties – can be solid: physical
properties.
observed without changing a
substance into another
substance.
– Examples include mass, color,
volume, melting point, etc.
• Chemical properties – can
only be observed when a
substance is changed into
another substance.
– Examples include
flammability, corrosiveness,
reactivity with acids, etc. Ethanol is flammable:
a chemical property.

1
 e
ng
Reading Assignment: Types of Properties

• Intensive Properties are independent of the amount of the

substance that is present.
◦ Examples include density, boiling point,
or color.
• Extensive Properties depend upon the amount of the
substance present.
◦ Examples include mass, volume (amount of space the
substance takes up), or energy.
 Numbers and Chemistry
• Numbers play a major role in chemistry.
• Concepts of numbers in science
➢ Units of measurement
➢ Quantities that are measured and calculated
➢ Significant digits
➢ Dimensional (Unit) analysis

w units attached
units of measurement SI
Units
 Remember 1mL 1cm
1.4 Units of Measurements—SI Units

• Système International d’Unités (“The International System of

Units”) – SI Units
• A different base unit is used for each quantity.
 Units of Measurement—Metric System
• The base units used in the metric
system
– Mass: gram (g)
– Length: meter (m)
– Time: second (s or sec)
– Temperature: degrees Celsius (°C)
or Kelvin (K)
– Amount of a substance: mole
(mol)
– Volume: cubic centimeter (cc or
cm3) or liter (l)
 Quantities that are measured and calculated:
Mass, Length, Volume, Temperature, Density
• There are basic quantities that we measure in science.
• Mass (balance or scale) is a measure of the amount of material
in an object. SI uses the kilogram as the base unit. The metric
system uses the gram (g) as the base unit.
– Mass, not weight

• Length (ruler) is a measure of distance. The meter (m) is the

base unit.
 weight is gradient
Quantities gravity
mass int
that are measured and calculated:
Mass, Length, Volume, Temperature, Density
• Volume is the amount of space an object occupies
– For liquids - measure using appropriate glassware (ex. graduated
cylinder)
– Liter (l) units

– For solids
• Measure using displacement
– Volume of the object = Final volume – initial volume
– Liters (l) base unit
• Calculate the volume using formulas based on the shape of the object
– Ex. Vcube = length x width x height
– If a cube is 5.3 cm by 2.4 cm by 3.8 cm, volume would be 48 cm3
– (Length unit)3
Quantities that are measured and calculated:
Mass, Length, Volume, Temperature, Density
• In general usage,
temperature is considered
the “hotness and coldness”
of an object that determines
the direction of heat flow.
• Heat flows spontaneously
from an object with a higher
temperature to an object
with a lower temperature.
 Quantities that are measured and calculated:
Mass, Length, Volume, Temperature, Density
• The Fahrenheit scale is not used in scientific measurements,
but you hear about it in weather reports.
• The first two equations below allow for conversion between
the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales:
– F = 9/5( C) + 32
– C = 5/9( F − 32)
– K = C + 273.15
• Normal body temperature is 98.6 oF. What is this temperature
in oC and K? 37.0 oC, 310.15 K
• On your own: Room temperature is recognized as 25 oC.
What is this temperature in oF and K? 298.15 K, 77 oF
 Used in class
Units of Measurement—
Metric System Prefixes
• Prefixes convert the base
units into units that are
appropriate for common
usage or appropriate
1T
000,000g

1,000g measure.
– Ex. Relationship between
grams and kilograms?
– Ex. Relationship between
milliliters and liters?
– Ex. Relationship between
seconds and microseconds?
– Ex. Relationship between
centimeters and meters?
• Scientific notation review?
 Numbers Encountered in Science: Significant
Figures
• Exact numbers are counted or given by definition.
For example, there are 12 eggs in 1 dozen.
• Inexact (or measured) numbers depend on how they
were determined. Scientific instruments have
limitations. Some balances measure to ±0.01 g; others
measure to ±0.0001g.
 Significant Figures
• The term significant figures refers to digits that were
measured.
• When rounding calculated numbers, we pay attention to
significant figures so we do not overstate the accuracy of our
answers.
• See the handout posted in Canvas.
• You will be responsible for knowing the significant digit rules.

Place holder O's are notconsidered significan

ex 300,000 one significant digit
001 one significant digit
 w g g
Dimensional (Unit) Analysis
• We use dimensional analysis to convert one quantity to
another.
• Most commonly, dimensional analysis utilizes conversion
factors (e.g., 1 in. = 2.54 cm).
• We can set up a ratio of comparison for the equality either 1
in/2.54 cm or 2.54 cm/1 in.
• We use the ratio which allows us to change units (puts the units
we have in the denominator to cancel).
• See the handout posted in Canvas.
 Quantities that are measured and calculated:
Mass, Length, Volume, Temperature, Density
• Density (D) is a unit that we
will calculate.
• Density is a physical
property of a substance.
• It is a measure of how heavy
an object is for its size.
 D
Quantities that are measured and calculated:
Mass, Length, Volume, Temperature, Density
• D = mass/volume
• Density has units that are derived from the units for mass and
volume.
• The most common units are g/mL or g/cm3.
• What is the density of a substance that has a mass of 13.62
grams and a volume of 4.56 mL? 2.99 g/mL
• On your own: You come upon a shiny piece of rock near the cafeteria. You get excited
because you think that it could be a piece of gold. On the other hand, it could be iron pyrite
(fool’s gold). You look up the density of gold and find it to be 19.3 g/mL. You then look up
the density of fool’s gold and find it to be 4.9 g/mL. You take the rock to the lab and weigh it
on the balance. The mass is 13.65 grams. You use displacement to measure the volume. You
place 40.0 mL of water in a graduated cylinder. You then drop the rock into the graduated
cylinder. The volume of water increases to 42.8 mL. What is the density of your rock? Is
your rock gold or fool’s gold? Fool’s gold
 Quantities that are measured and calculated:
Mass, Length, Volume, Temperature, Density
• In addition to solving for density (given mass and volume), you must also
be able to find volume (given mass and density) and mass (given volume
and density).
• Copper has a density of 8.96 g/cm3. What would be the volume (in mL) of
a 15.00 gram piece of copper. 1.67 mL
• Mercury has a density of 13.6 g/mL. What is the mass (in grams) of 8.00
mL of mercury? 109 grams
• More on the Dimensional Analysis sheet.
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Chapter 2
Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

• Macroscopic – (Chp. 1)can be seen with the

unaided eye (grams, kilograms, meters, liters)
• Microscopic – (Chp. 2) cannot be seen with the
unaided eye (atoms, molecules, ions)
• Atom – smallest part of an element that still has the
characteristics of that element (ex. atom of Fe)
• Molecules – smallest part of a compound that still has
the characteristics of that compound (ex. molecule of
H2O)
• Remember the diatomic molecular elements
Quiz wed 9 11 24
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Dalton’s Atomic Theory of Matter

The theory that atoms

are the fundamental
gonna10m building blocks of
matter reemerged in the
early nineteenth century,
championed by John
Dalton.
Pay attention to
Postulate #2.
 Scientific Laws
• Scientific law – mathematical description that allows us to predict behavior
➢ Law of Conservation of Mass – The total mass of substances present at
the end of a chemical process (reaction) is the same as the mass of
substances present before the process took place.
– When 25.0 grams of CaCO3 are decomposed (broken down), CaO and
CO2 are formed. If 15.6 grams of CaO are formed from the
decomposition, how many grams of CO2 must be formed? 9.4 grams
– On your own: When 1.000 g of water is decomposed into its elements,
6
hydrogen and oxygen, 0.111 g of hydrogen is obtained. How many
grams of oxygen are obtained? 0.889 g

102
25g 15.6g
Calls Cao 9.4g
25g 91s.bg ycalosscaotc 2sy
S1s 6gt9.4g
 2.3 The Modern View of Atomic Structure

• Protons, p+, and neutrons, n0, are located at the center of an

atom (in the nucleus).
• Electrons, e-, orbit the nucleus in energy shells. e
electronsorbitaroundnuders
protons neutrons incenterofnucleus initial

8
compare
5
48
 Symbols of Elements
•We will use the shorthand below to represent the
number of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
A
Z E
•E is the element symbol, Z is the atomic number
(# of p+), and A is the mass number (# of p+ + #
of n0).
•More elements for you to know: lead (Pb), tin
(Sn), barium (Ba), lithium (Li), titanium (Ti),
chromium, (Cr), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn),
platinum (Pt), silicon (Si), arsenic (As), zinc (Zn),
bromine (Br), iodine (I), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr),
xenon (Xe), mercury (Hg), tungsten (W),
zirconium (Zr)
 find E on periodictable
find2 onperiodictable orange
Symbols of ElementsfindA
A
Z E
• E is the element symbol, Z is the
atomic number (# of p+), and A is the
mass number (# of p+ + # of n0).
• Z (atomic number) is found in the
periodic table.
• For potassium Z =19
• For carbon Z = 6
• On your own: For calcium Z = ?20
• On your own: For neon Z = ?
• On your own: For phosphorus Z is
=?
• A (mass number) is not found in the
periodic table. It must be given or
calculated.
 Representing Protons, Electrons, and Neutrons
P no A atoms areelectronically
Z E mbertt
nuetralcng.fi i
• Determine the number of p+, e-, and n0.
23 7 118 27
11 Na 3Li 82 Pb 14Si

– To name an atom:
• Name the element – mass number sodium 23
• Name each of the atoms above.
lithium 7
lead 118
• Write the shorthand for each of the following
–
–
35
35 p+, 35 e-, 44 n0
56 p+, 56 e-, 81 n0 fy52 56t81
3Brypaa.pt 137
– On your own: 33 p+, 33 e-, 45 n0 338A'S 33 45 78
– On your own: 8 p+, 8 e-, 7 n0
* You don’t have to show the atomic number.
 iii ia
I IE debunk
theories
Isotopes

• Consider hydrogen-1(protium) and hydrogen-2 (deuterium).

How many protons, electrons, and neutrons in each atom?
• Isotopes – atoms of the same element with different masses or
atoms that have the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons or atoms that have the same atomic
numbers but different mass numbers
 Example:
Complete the table of atoms
Symbol Protons Neutrons Electrons Mass Atomic
52 24 Number Number
52Cr
24 28 24 52 24
33 42
its 33 75 33
20 20
i a 20 40 20
311 17 18
11 35 17
85mn 136 86 222
86 86
i r 77 116 77 193 77
 Atomstoo small to use grams
2.4 Atomic Weight
• We will use isotopic masses to determine the average atomic masses
(atomic weights) found in the periodic table.
• Atomic mass is measured in atomic mass units (u or amu).
– Very small unit – 1 u = 1.66054 x 10-24 g = 1/12 of the mass of a 12C atom
• Average atomic mass is a weighted average. Calculate
like GPA
• Atomic Weight = Ʃ [(isotope mass) × (fractional natural abundance)].
– Note: the sum is for ALL isotopes of an element.

12C 13C
Mass 12.000 u atomicmass 13.003 u atomicmass
Percent Abundance 98.9% are 1.11% are
12C
• What is the atomic weight (average atomic mass) of carbon? 12.012 u
Franchikkhundance verysmallur.it lu 1.66054 10 24g Hofthe mass of a 12Catom

1100 989 aug9th 12.0004 989 12.0124

43.00344 011172.01235
12.012
 solveforfractionalabundance of a
P
qf.EE List frastinance
is 2 is
Lis S
9 9
Atomic Weight
63.546u X 62.92989m 11 x 64.92784

6916
• On your own: Calculate the average atomic mass of magnesium using the
data above. 24.310 u
• We can also determine the percent abundance of oooh
an isotope.
– The two naturally occurring isotopes of copper are copper-63, mass 62.9298 u, and
copper-65, mass 64.9278 u. What must be the percent abundances of the two isotopes if
the atomic mass of copper listed in a table of atomic masses is 63.546 u? 63Cu = 69.16%
and 65Cu = 30.84%

learnhowto calculatepercent
Abundantquisin
confusing
 Atomic Weight

• On your own - The two naturally occurring isotopes of

rubidium are rubidium-85, with an atomic mass of 84.91179 u;
and rubidium-87, with an atomic mass of 86.90919 u. What
are the percent natural abundances of these isotopes? 85Rb =
72.163% and 87Rb = 27.387%

AUGantiS of Rb 85.46784
 onch H2 nextFriday
test I 2.5 Periodic Table

• The periodic table is a

systematic organization of
the elements.
• Elements are arranged in
order of atomic number (Z).
• The rows on the periodic
table are called periods.
• Columns are called groups.
• Elements in the same
group have similar
chemical properties.
 Periodic Table

• There are several common

names for the parts of the
periodic table.
– “A” groups = Main group
elements
– “B” groups = Transition
elements
– 1st period at the bottom =
Lanthanides
– 2nd period at the bottom =
Actinides
Periodic Table
Except for H,
elements left of
the zigzag line
are metals.

To the right of
the line we find
nonmetals,
including the
noble gases.

Some elements
adjacent to the
line are called
metalloids.
 2.6 Molecules and Molecular Componds
no subscript
• Compounds are represented with formulas understood 1

0
– H2O – 1 molecule of water contains 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen
atom 0
–
Had subscript
(CH3)2CHOH – 1 molecule of rubbing alcohol contains 3 carbon
atoms, 8 hydrogen atoms, and 1 oxygen atom
rpkfff.fi mgat.ms
Hatoms
– g . 7H2O –
MgSO4 ll
– C12H22O11 - ???
– 1 Iqgsatomsa0atoms
CaCO3 . 3Ca3(PO4)2 - ???
• These are molecular formulas.
 Chemical Formulas
• Three types of formulas: • Molecular formula =
1. Molecular formula – gives the
number of each kind of atom in a
C2H4O2
molecule. • Empirical formula = simplified
CH2O
2. Empirical formula – gives the
whole number ratio of atoms in a • Structural formula =
molecule CH3COOH
3. Structural formula – shows the
order in which atoms are
attached. They do NOT depict the
three-dimensional shape of
molecules.
• Perspective drawings also show the
three-dimensional order of the atoms
in a compound. These are also
demonstrated using models.
 yellowis
Molecules and Molecular Compounds
• Now that you can write formulas.
Let’s talk about the types of metal
compounds.
• Two types of compounds:
1. Binary molecular compounds–
compounds made up of 2 nonmetals
– can’t predict formulas 0
Ex. CO2, H2O,
2. Ionic compounds – compounds
made up of a positive ion and a
metalt negative ion – can (and will)
metal predict formulas
non
Ex. NaCl, CaCO3,
• Label the following as ionic compounds or
binary molecular compounds.
– NH3 BaCl2
– C3H8 Li3N
– CO O3molecular.EE
– NaF H2O2
metalsreactwithnonmetals
onmetakdonotreactwihnonmetalsgreendpmrp.tl non
 g p PH metal
Naming Binary Molecular Compounds
• The name consists of two
words.
• First word: name of the
element that appears first in
the formula.
• Second word: stem of the
name of the second element,
ending with -ide.
• Names are further modified
by adding prefixes to denote
the numbers of atoms of
each element in the
molecule. **(Don’t use “mono”
with the first element.)
 Naming Binary Molecular Compounds
• Name the following binary molecular compounds.
– N2Odinitrogen monoxide
– H2O2 dihydrogendioxide
– CO bromine pentachloride
MANS
phosphorusdeca
hydride
– CO2
Afford tetra
OFa oxygendifloarde
– NH3 decahydide
liggyhhhhhetratarbon
– H2O
• Give formulas for
– Tetraphosphorus hexaoxide
– Phosphorus pentachloridePus
– On your own: Disulfur decafluoride
 2.7 Ions and Ionic Compounds
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• Ionic compounds are made from positive and negative ions.
• Ions – atoms that have lost or gained electrons atomsopket
– Cations – atoms that have lost electrons and now have a
positive charge
Atom
• Na 11 p+ and 11 e-
• Na 11 p+ and 10 e- Na+sundestood
– Anions – atoms that have gained electrons and now have a
negative charge
• O 8 p+ and 8 e-
• O 8 p+ and 10e- O-2
 elementsinthe havethesame
samegroup
behavior

Predicting Ionic Charge

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• We can predict the number of electrons lost

or gained for main group elements.
• Main group metals lose electrons to
become isoelectronic (have the same
before noble
number of e-) with the preceding
gas. IAi2A A
– Na (11p+ and 11e-) wants to be
isoelectronic with Ne (10e-) so Na
H
loses one e- (11p+ and 10e-) and
becomes Na+
– Li (3p+ and 3e-) wants to be
isoelectronic with He (2e-) so Li loses
one e- (3p+ and 2e-) and becomes Li+
– All alkali metals form +1 ions.
– What about Mg and other alkaline
earth metals?
– What about Al in Group 3A?
 Predicting Ionic Charge

• Nonmetals (when forming ionic

compounds) gain electrons to become
isoelectronic with the noble gas that
follows.
– F (9p+ and 9e-) wants to be
isoelectronic with Ne (10e-) so F
gains one e- (9p+ and 10e-) and
becomes F-
– Br (35p+ and 35e-) wants to be
isoelectronic with Kr (36e-) so Br
gains one e- (35p+ and 36e-) and
becomes Br-
– All halogens form the -1 ion.
– What about Group 6A?10 s se 02,5 2
– What about N and P in Group
5A? 3
N p
Symbols and Periodic Table Locations of Some
Monatomic Ions
Copper forms either
copper(I) or copper(II) ions.
Titanium forms both
titanium(II) and
titanium(IV) ions.
C meansaddandt means subtract
protons charge Example:
Complete the table of ions
Symbol Protons Neutrons Electrons Charge Mass Atomic
Number Number
127I- 53 127 3374 127
54 1 53
it3 22 44 2222
8
+4 44
22
8 10 87 7
140 7 3 15
88Sr+2 38 883850 36 2 88 38
3416 -2 34 16
3452 16 18 18
19 21 18
4014 H 40 19
 ionsmade
fromOffom

Naming Monatomic Ions

• Main Group Cations
Maingroup
– Name of metal and “ion” element
• Ex. Na+ = sodium ion
• Transition Metal Cations (those that form more than one ion)
– Name of metal (roman numeral for charge) and “ion”
• Ex. Cu+ = copper (I) ion
• Anions for 0
transitionmetals
use
romannumeralforcharge
– Stem of the nonmetal with the suffix –ide
• Ex. F- = fluoride ion Stem ide
• Name the following monatomic ions.
– Mg+2 = ? Magnesiumion
– P-3 = ? Phosphide ion
– S-2 = ? Sulfide ion
– Fe+2 = ? Iron I ion
– Ti+4 = ?titanium Iion
 Polyatomic Ions

A polyatomic ion is a
charged group of covalently
bonded atoms.
You will have to be familiar
with some of them.
– AmmoniumNHyt
– Acetate
– Carbonate
– Cyanide
– Hydroxidef
– Nitrate
– Phosphate poi
– Sulfate 5042
Ionic f bewritten
Compounds

withempiricalformulas
Making Ionic Compounds
• Ionic compounds are made from cations (+) and anions (-).
• The ions must be combined so that their charges add up to zero
because compounds must be neutral. don'tputcharges in compound

cation anion Li to Liao

– Na+ + Cl- NaCl 4ᵗʰ N CusNa
– Fe+2 + Cl- FeCl2
– Fe+3 + O-2 Fe2O3
• Make ionic compounds from the following sets of ions.
cation anion
– Ba+2 + SO4-2 ?Baj50 Basoy
– Al+3 + CN- ? ALLEN
– NH4+ + SO4-2 ? NH12504
 Naming Ionic Compounds

• To name an ionic compound

1. Name the cation first.
2. Name the anion.
Nat 1
• NaCl = sodium chloride
Fend
• FeCl2 = iron (II) chloride
 Naming Ionic Compounds

• Name the following ionic compounds.

– Fe2O3 = ? IronCIoxide
– CaSO4 = ? calciumsulfate
– Al(OH)3 = ?aluminumhydroxide
– MgS = ? Magnesiumsulfide
– CrCl3 = ? romium II Chloride
– NaCN = ? Sodium Cyanide
• Give formulas for the following ionic compounds.
– Sodium nitrate = ? NaN03
– Ammonium sulfate = ?NH12504 NHI5042
2
– On your own: Potassium oxide = ?1420 K0
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