DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

1. Definitions
• Direct Speech: The exact words of the speaker are quoted within quotation marks.
• Example: She said, “I am happy.”
• Indirect Speech: The speaker's words are reported without quotation marks, often
changing the tense, pronouns, and other words to fit the reporting.
• Example: She said that she was happy.

2. Rules for Changing Direct Speech to Indirect Speech

• Tense Changes:
• Present tense in Direct Speech becomes past tense in Indirect Speech.
• Example: He says, “I like ice cream.” → He said that he liked ice cream.
• Past tense remains past or becomes past perfect.
Example: She said, “I went to the store.” → She said that she had gone
•
to the store.
• Pronoun Changes:
• Pronouns are changed according to the subject and object of the reporting
verb.
Example: He said, “I am here.” → He said that he was there.
•
• Time and Place Words:
• Change time and place words as per context.
Example: “Today” changes to “that day,” “here” changes to “there.”
•
• Reporting Verbs:
• Words like “said,” “told,” or “asked” may be used, depending on the sentence
type (assertive, interrogative, or imperative).
3. Types of Sentences and Their Changes
• Statements:
• Use “that” to connect the reporting and reported speech.
• Example: She said, “I am studying.” → She said that she was studying.
• Questions:
• Change question structure to statement structure.
Yes/No Questions: Use “if” or “whether.”
•
• Example: He asked, “Are you coming?” → He asked if I was
coming.
• Wh-Questions: Keep the question word (what, why, etc.) and change
to a statement.
• Example: She asked, “Where are you going?” → She asked
where I was going.
• Commands and Requests:
• Use “to” + verb or “not to” for negative commands.
• Example: He said, “Please sit down.” → He requested me to sit down.

4. Examples for Practice

• Direct: She said, “I am reading a book.”
Indirect: She said that she was reading a book.
• Direct: He asked, “Do you like music?”
Indirect: He asked if I liked music.
• Direct: The teacher said, “Write your answers carefully.”
Indirect: The teacher advised us to write our answers carefully.

5. Quick Tips
• Always check the tense in the direct speech before converting.
• Adjust pronouns, time, and place references as per context.
• For questions, change the structure from question form to statement form.
MODAL VERBS

Definition:
Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that express necessity, possibility,
permission, or ability. They help in understanding the speaker’s
attitude towards the action.

Characteristics of Modal Verbs:

They do not change form based on the subject.

They are followed by the base form of the verb (e.g., can go, should
eat).
They do not require auxiliary verbs to form questions or negatives
(e.g., Can he come? / He cannot come).
Common Modal Verbs and Their Uses
Can

Ability: “She can swim very fast.”

Permission: “Can I use your pen?”
Possibility: “It can rain today.”
Could
Past Ability: “She could sing well when she was younger.”
Polite Request: “Could you help me, please?”
Possibility: “It could rain tomorrow.”
May

Permission: “May I leave the room?”

Possibility: “It may snow tonight.”
Might

Possibility: “He might come to the party.”

Suggestion of Lower Probability: “It might rain, but I doubt it.”
Must

Obligation/Strong Necessity: “You must finish your homework.”

Logical Conclusion: “She must be tired after the journey.”
Shall

Future Action (Formal): “We shall overcome the obstacles.”

Suggestions/Offers: “Shall we dance?”
Should
Advice/Recommendation: “You should eat healthy food.”
Expectation: “He should be here by now.”
Will

Future Intentions: “I will visit you tomorrow.”

Promises: “I will always be there for you.”
Would

Polite Request: “Would you like some tea?”

Hypothetical Situations: “I would travel the world if I had money.”
Past Habit: “He would play cricket every Sunday.”
Ought to

Duty or Moral Obligation: “You ought to respect your elders.”

Advice/Expectation: “She ought to be here by now.”
Rules for Using Modal Verbs
No “to” with most modals: Modals like can, could, may, might, etc.,
do not need “to” before the main verb. For example, “I can swim”
(not “I can to swim”).
Negatives and Questions: Formed without additional auxiliary verbs
(e.g., “Can you drive?” or “She can’t drive”).
No Infinitive Forms: Modals do not have infinitives or -ing forms; they
remain as they are.
Examples and Practice Exercises
Fill in the blanks with appropriate modal verbs:

You ___ (can/must) take an umbrella as it ___ (might/would) rain.

He ___ (can/must) finish the work by tomorrow.
___ (Will/Would) you like to come to the party?
Answer Key:
Can, might
Must
Would

Determiners
Determiners are words placed before nouns to clarify what the noun
refers to. They are essential in specifying the quantity, possession,
specificity, or definiteness of a noun.

Types of Determiners
Articles: a, an, the
Indefinite Articles: a and an are used with singular, countable
nouns.
Example: a dog, an apple
Definite Article: the is used to refer to something specific or
previously mentioned.
Example: the sun, the book you gave me
Demonstratives: this, that, these, those

Used to point out specific nouns.

Example: this car, those books
Possessives: my, your, his, her, its, our, their

Indicate ownership or relationship.

Example: my house, their ideas
Quantifiers: some, any, few, many, several, all, much, each, every

Indicate quantity or amount.

Example: many students, each child
Numbers: one, two, three, etc.

Indicate specific quantities.

Example: two apples, five books
Distributive Determiners: each, every, either, neither

Refer to individuals within a group.

Example: every student, either option
Interrogative Determiners: what, which, whose

Used in questions to inquire about a noun.

Example: Which color do you like?, Whose book is this?
Rules for Using Determiners
Singular Countable Nouns must have a determiner.
Example: She has a car.
Uncountable and Plural Nouns can sometimes be used without a
determiner.

Example: Water is essential.

Article ‘the’ is used when referring to something specific.

Example: The sun rises in the east.

‘Some’ and ‘Any’:
Some is used in positive statements or offers/requests.
Example: I have some friends.
Any is often used in negative sentences and questions.
Example: Do you have any questions?
Exercises for Practice
Fill in the blanks with appropriate determiners:
I have __ book on history.
__ students in my class are hardworking.
Identify and correct errors related to determiners:

He has many money.