NAME : Ali Hassan

ROLL NO: 31

SUBJECT: Functional English

BS COMPUTER SCIENCE

Topic 1: Parts of Speech and Their Types

Definition of Parts of Speech

Parts of speech are the basic building blocks of sentences in English. They categorize words based on their
function and role within a sentence. This classification helps in constructing grammatically correct and
meaningful sentences.

Types of Parts of Speech (with Subtypes and Examples)

1.Nouns

1. Common Nouns

 Definition: A common noun refers to a general person, place, thing, or idea.

o Examples: dog, city, car, happiness

2. Proper Nouns

 Definition: A proper noun refers to a specific name of a person, place, or thing.

o Examples: John, Paris, Toyota, Shakespeare

3. Concrete Nouns

 Definition: Concrete nouns represent things that can be perceived with the five senses.
 o Examples: book, apple, mountain, music

4. Abstract Nouns

 Definition: Abstract nouns represent ideas, qualities, or conditions that cannot be perceived
with the senses.

o Examples: freedom, love, beauty, courage

5. Countable Nouns

 Definition: Countable nouns are those that can be counted and have both singular and plural
forms.

o Examples: cat (cats), car (cars), chair (chairs)

6. Uncountable Nouns

 Definition: Uncountable nouns refer to things that cannot be counted individually.

o Examples: water, air, rice, information

7. Collective Nouns

 Definition: A collective noun refers to a group or collection of things or people.

o Examples: team, family, herd, class

8. Possessive Nouns

 Definition: Possessive nouns indicate ownership or possession.

o Examples: John’s, the dog’s, children’s, woman’s

9. Compound Nouns

 Definition: Compound nouns are made up of two or more words that function as a single noun.

o Examples: toothbrush, mailbox, mother-in-law, basketball

10. Gerund Nouns

Definition: Gerunds are verbs that function as nouns, formed by adding "-ing" to a verb.

o Examples: swimming, reading, writing, singing

11. Appositive Nouns

 Definition: An appositive noun renames or gives more information about another noun.

o Examples: My friend, the doctor, is coming over.

2. Pronouns

o Definition: Pronouns replace nouns to avoid repetition.

o Subtypes:

1. Personal Pronouns

These pronouns refer to specific people or things. They can be in the subject or object form, and
they also show possession.

Example:

 I went to the store.

 The book is mine.

2. Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject of the sentence and are formed by adding "-self"
(singular) or "-selves" (plural) to personal pronouns.

 Myself

 Yourself/Yourselves
  Himself/Herself/Itself

 Ourselves

 Themselves

Example:

 She did the homework by herself.

 We enjoyed ourselves at the party.

3. Intensive Pronouns

Intensive pronouns are used to emphasize the noun or pronoun they refer to. They look the same
as reflexive pronouns but are used differently in sentences.

 Myself

 Yourself/Yourselves

 Himself/Herself/Itself

 Ourselves

 Themselves

Example:

 I will finish the project myself.

 The president himself attended the ceremony.

4. Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns are used to point to specific things or people. They include:

 This (singular, near)

 That (singular, far)

 These (plural, near)

 Those (plural, far)

 Example:

 This is my favorite book.

 Those were the best days of my life.

5. Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. They include:

 Who (subject)

 Whom (object)

 What

 Which

 Whose

Example:

 Who is coming to the party?

 Whose book is this?

6. Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses and link them to the rest of the sentence. They refer
to nouns mentioned earlier.

 Who (for people)

 Whom (for people, formal or as the object)

 Whose (indicating possession)

 Which (for animals or things)

 That (for people, animals, or things)

Example:

 The man who called is my brother.

  The book that I read was interesting.

7. Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns do not refer to a specific person, thing, or amount. They are general and
often refer to people or things in a non-specific way.

 Everyone

3. Verbs

o Definition: A verb expresses action, occurrence, or a state of being.

o Subtypes:

1. Action Verbs

These verbs express physical or mental actions.

 Physical Actions: Run, jump, write, speak, eat, sleep.

 Mental Actions: Think, decide, remember, imagine, understand.

2. Linking Verbs

These verbs link the subject to a subject complement (usually a noun or an adjective).
They describe the subject's state of being or condition.

 Common Linking Verbs:

o Be: am, is, are, was, were, be, been, being.

o Other Linking Verbs: seem, appear, become, feel, look, sound, taste, grow, remain.

o Example: "She is happy."

3. Helping (Auxiliary) Verbs

These verbs assist the main verb to form different tenses, moods, and voices.
  Examples:

o Primary Auxiliaries: am, is, are, was, were, have, has, had.

o Modal Auxiliaries: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must, ought to.

o Example: "She is running."

4. Transitive Verbs

These verbs require a direct object to complete their meaning.

 Examples: eat (something), read (a book), write (a letter).

 Example Sentence: "He bought a car."

5. Intransitive Verbs

These verbs do not require a direct object. They can stand alone in a sentence.

 Examples: sleep, arrive, run, laugh.

 Example Sentence: "He laughed loudly."

6. Regular Verbs

These verbs follow a standard pattern when forming their past tense and past
participles (typically adding -ed).

 Examples:

o Present: walk, jump, play.

o Past: walked, jumped, played.

o Past Participle: walked, jumped, played.

7. Irregular Verbs

These verbs do not follow the standard pattern for past tense and past participles.

 Examples:

o Present: go, eat, see.

 o Past: went, ate, saw.

o Past Participle: gone, eaten, seen.

4. Adjectives

o Definition: An adjective describes or modifies a noun or pronoun.

o Subtypes:

1. Descriptive Adjectives

These adjectives describe the qualities, characteristics, or features of a noun.

 Examples: beautiful, tall, large, colorful, happy.

 Example: "She wore a blue dress."

2. Quantitative Adjectives

These adjectives indicate the quantity or amount of a noun.

 Examples: some, many, few, several, all, enough.

 Example: "There are many books on the table."

3. Demonstrative Adjectives

These adjectives point to specific things or people.

 Examples: this, that, these, those.

 Example: "I like those shoes."

4. Possessive Adjectives

These adjectives indicate possession or ownership.

 Examples: my, your, his, her, its, our, their.

  Example: "It is my car."

5. Interrogative Adjectives

These adjectives are used to ask questions about a noun.

 Examples: which, what, whose.

 Example: "Which color do you prefer?"

6. Indefinite Adjectives

These adjectives describe nouns in a non-specific way.

 Examples: any, some, few, several, all, no.

 Example: "We have several options."

7. Comparative Adjectives

These adjectives compare two nouns. They often end in -er or use the word "more."

 Examples: taller, smaller, better, more expensive.

 Example: "This book is better than that one."

8. Superlative Adjectives

These adjectives compare three or more nouns and express the highest or lowest
degree. They often end in -est or use the word "most."

 Examples: tallest, smallest, best, most interesting.

 Example: "She is the best player on the team."

5. Adverbs

o Definition: An adverb modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb.

o Subtypes:
1. Adverbs of Manner

o Adverbs of manner describe how an action is performed. They typically answer the
question "How?" These adverbs often end in "-ly" but not always.

o Examples:

o Quickly

o Slowly

o Carefully

2. Adverbs of Time

o Adverbs of time tell us when an action happens or how often it occurs. They answer the
question "When?" or "How often?"

o Examples:

o Yesterday

o Today

3. Adverbs of Place

o Adverbs of place tell us where an action happens. They answer the question "Where?"

o Examples:

o Here

o There

o Anywhere

4. Adverbs of Frequency

o Adverbs of frequency tell us how often an action occurs. They answer the question
"How often?"

o Examples:

o Always
 o Usually

o Frequently

5. Adverbs of Degree

o Adverbs of degree show the intensity or extent of an action, adjective, or another

adverb. They answer the question "To what extent?"

o Examples:

o Very

o Quit

6. Adverbs of Certainty

o Adverbs of certainty express how sure we are about something. They answer the
question "How certain?"

o Examples:

o Definitely

o Certainly

o Probably

6. Prepositions

o Definition: A preposition shows the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and another
word in the sentence.

o Subtypes:

1. Prepositions of Place

These prepositions indicate the location of something.

 Examples: in, on, at, under, above, behind, next to.

 Example: "The book is on the table."

2. Prepositions of Time

These prepositions show when something happens.

 Examples: at, in, on, during, before, after.

 Example: "The meeting is at 3 PM."

3. Prepositions of Direction or Movement

These prepositions describe the direction in which something moves.

 Examples: to, into, onto, across, along, towards.

 Example: "She walked towards the park."

4. Prepositions of Manner

These prepositions explain how something happens or the way something is done.

 Examples: by, with, like, as.

 Example: "She did it with confidence."

5. Prepositions of Agent or Instrument

These prepositions show the agent performing the action or the instrument used to perform the action.

 Examples: by, with, on.

 Example: "The letter was written by her."

6. Prepositions of Cause, Reason, or Purpose

These prepositions express the cause or reason for something.

 Examples: because of, due to, for.

 Example: "They were delayed because of the traffic."

7. Compound Prepositions

These are prepositions made up of two or more words.

 Examples: in front of, in spite of, on behalf of, due to, in addition to.
 Example: "The cat is in front of the door."

7. Conjunctions

o Definition: Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses.

o Subtypes:

1. Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal rank or
importance. The most common coordinating conjunctions can be remembered using the acronym
FANBOYS:

 For — indicates reason or cause.

 And — adds one element to another.

 Nor — introduces a negative alternative.

 But — shows contrast or exception.

 Or — presents an alternative or choice.

 Yet — introduces a contrast or unexpected result.

 So — shows consequence or result.

 Examples:

o "I wanted to go, but it was too late."

o "He studies hard, and he gets good grades."

2. Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions connect an independent clause (main clause) to a dependent clause

(subordinate clause). These conjunctions show the relationship between the two clauses, often
indicating time, cause, condition, or contrast.
 Common Subordinating Conjunctions:

o Cause or Reason: because, since, as, so that.

o Time: when, while, before, after, until.

o Condition: if, unless, provided that, in case.

o Contrast: although, though, even though, whereas.

o Purpose: so that, in order that.

o Example Sentences:

 "She was late because she missed the bus."

 "You can go out if you finish your homework."

3. Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs to connect equal elements in a sentence. They work
together to show balance or contrast.

 Common Correlative Conjunctions:

o both...and

o either...or

o neither...nor

o not only...but also

o whether...or

o as...as

o Example Sentences:

 "You can either stay at home or go to the movies."

 "She is not only talented but also hardworking."

4. Conjunctions of Time
 These conjunctions specify when something happens or how two events are related in terms of
time.

 Examples:

o when, after, before, as soon as, while, until, since.

o Example Sentences:

 "I will call you when I arrive."

 "She left before the movie started."

5. Conjunctions of Condition

These conjunctions express conditions under which something happens.

 Examples:

o if, unless, provided that, in case.

o Example Sentences:

 "I will help you if you need it."

 "You won’t succeed unless you try harder."

6. Conjunctions of Reason and Cause

These conjunctions indicate the reason behind an action or situation.

 Examples:

o because, since, as, in that.

o Example Sentences:

 "I was late because the train was delayed."

 "He left early since he had an appointment."

 8. Interjections

o Definition: An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses strong emotion or reaction.

o Subtypes:

1. Mild Interjections

Mild interjections are often used in everyday conversation to express slight emotions, surprise, or
attention. These interjections typically don't require an exclamation mark unless they are particularly
strong.

 Examples:

o oh, well, hmm, eh, oops, ah, uh, uh-oh, phew.

o Example Sentences:

 "Oh, I forgot my keys!"

 "Hmm, that sounds interesting."

2. Strong Interjections

Strong interjections express intense emotions such as shock, joy, anger, or surprise. These are often
followed by an exclamation mark to indicate heightened emotion.

 Examples:

o wow, ouch, hooray, hey, alas, yikes, bravo.

o Example Sentences:

 "Wow! That was amazing!"

 "Ouch! That hurt!"

3. Expressive Interjections

These interjections convey personal feelings or a reaction, like joy, surprise, sadness, or relief.

 Examples:

o hooray, alas, wow, yippee, oh, oops, whoa.

 o Example Sentences:

 "Hooray! We won the game!"

 "Alas, it was too late to stop him."

4. Interjections of Greeting or Farewell

These interjections are used to greet or bid farewell to someone.

 Examples:

o hi, hey, hello, goodbye, bye, welcome, farewell.

o Example Sentences:

 "Hi! How are you today?"

 "Goodbye, see you later!"

5. Interjections of Surprise or Shock

These interjections express surprise, astonishment, or disbelief.

 Examples:

o what, wow, gee, whoa, oh my, no way.

o Example Sentences:

 "What! I can’t believe it!"

 "Wow! That’s incredible!"

6. Interjections of Pain

These interjections convey physical or emotional pain.

 Examples:

o ow, ouch, owie, aah.

o Example Sentences:
  "Ouch! That really hurt!"

 "Ow! I stepped on something sharp!"

7. Interjections of Disgust or Displeasure

These interjections show dislike, disgust, or discomfort.

 Examples:

o yuck, ugh, bleh, phew, eww.

o Example Sentences:

 "Yuck! This food tastes terrible!"

 "Eww! That’s gross!"

Topic 2: Use of Articles and Their Types

Definition of Articles

Articles are words used before nouns to specify whether the noun is general or specific. They help define
whether we are talking about a particular object or any object of a certain type. Articles are a fundamental
part of English grammar and fall into two main categories: definite and indefinite.
Types of Articles 1.

Definite Article: "The"

• Definition:
The definite article "the" is used to refer to a specific noun that is already known to the listener or
reader, or when the context makes it clear which noun is being referred to.

• Explanation:
"The" emphasizes specificity and uniqueness. It is used for singular, plural, countable, and
uncountable nouns when we speak about a particular thing or person.

• Examples:

1. The sun rises in the east. (specific, unique object)

2. The book on the table belongs to Sarah. (known or previously mentioned)

3. The children are playing in the park. (specific group)

4. The water in this glass is cold. (specific uncountable noun)

2. Indefinite Articles: "A" and "An"

• Definition:
Indefinite articles "a" and "an" refer to a noun that is not specific or mentioned for the first time.
They indicate that the noun is one among many or unknown to the listener.

• Explanation:
The use of "a" or "an" depends on the initial sound of the noun it modifies:

o Use "a" before nouns that begin with a consonant sound.

o Use "an" before nouns that begin with a vowel sound (a, e, i, o, u) or a silent h.

• Examples:

1. I saw a dog in the park. (any dog, not specific)

2. She wants an apple for lunch. (any apple)

3. A university is a place of learning. ("university" begins with a consonant sound /ju:/)

4. He is an honest man. ("honest" begins with a vowel sound /o:/)

3. Omission of Articles (No Article)

• Definition:
Articles are omitted in certain cases, especially when referring to general ideas, uncountable nouns,
or plural nouns in a general sense.

• Explanation:
Articles are not used:

o Before proper nouns (unless used with a title like the United States)

o Before uncountable nouns used in a general sense o Before

plural countable nouns when speaking generally

• Examples:

1. She likes coffee. (general, uncountable noun)

2. Books are a source of knowledge. (plural, general statement)

3. He went to school yesterday. (institution used for its primary purpose)

4. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the world. (proper noun)