● Atomic structure|NEB Grade 11 Notes|Physical Chemistry N
● eutron
● Neutron is discovered by James Chadwick in 1932 by bombarding α – particles
● Introduction to atomic structure: As far as the structure of the atom is on a thin sheet of beryllium. A highly penetrating neutral particle was observed
concerned, the first attempt was made by John Dalton in 1803. He put forward called a neutron.
an atomic theory which is called Dalton’s atomic theory.
● Following are thepostulates of Dalton’s atomic theory:
● 1. Every matter is composed of extremely small, indivisible and discrete
particles called atoms. ● T
hus a neutron is an electrically neutral particle having a mass nearly equal to
● 2. Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed in a chemical reaction. that of a hydrogen atom.
● 3. Atoms of the same element are identical in all respects. Mass of neutron=1.67 x 10-24 gm.
● 4. Atoms of different elements have different masses and properties.
● 5. Two or more atoms combine in a simple whole-number ratio to form a ● Rutherford’s atomic model (alpha particle scattering experiment)
compound atom (now called molecules). This model was put forward by ErnestRutherfordin1911withthehelpofan
● 6. The compound atoms of a compound are identical in all respects. alpha particle scattering experiment. In thisexperiment,hebombardedathin
sheet of gold foil with alpha particles (positive particles equal to helium ion)
F
● undamental particles of an atom which were obtained from a radioactive substance. The scattered alpha
● Electron particles were observed on the surface of the circular zinc sulphide screen.
● E lectron is discovered by J.J. Thomson through acathode raydischarge tube Leadcanabsorbalphaparticles.Soaleadplatewithaslitwasusedtoobtain
experiment. a beam of alpha particles.
● Theproperties of cathode raysare:
● 1. Cathode rays are a stream of negatively charged particles.
● 2. They travel in a straight line.
● 3. They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields towards the anode.
● 4. They produce a heating effect when they strike metal foil.
● 5. They have the property to ionize the gas through which they pass.
Later on, it was found thatcathode rays are nothing but a stream of an
electron. Thusan electron is a negatively charged particle having a unit
negative charge and mass isequal to 1/1837 of a hydrogen atom.
Mass of electron = 9.09 x 10-28 gm.
P
● roton ● Observations
● Proton was discovered by E. Goldstein in 1886 through ananode raydischarge 1
● . Most of the alpha particles passed through the gold foil without deflection.
tube experiment. ● 2. Some of the alpha particles deflected through small angles.
● TheProperties of anode raysare: ● 3. Very few alpha particles were deflected through angles more than 90° or
● 1. They consist of positively charged particles. bounced back.
● 2. They travel in a straight line.
● 3. They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields towards the cathode. Inference
●
● 4. They cause a heating effect. ● 1. Most of the space inside the atom is empty.
The observation above concludes that anode rays are positively charged ● 2. There is a presence of a heavy positively charged body at the center of the
protons. Thus, a proton is a positively charged particle having a unit positive atom.
charge and mass equal to that of a hydrogen atom. ● 3. There is a close encounter of alpha particles with a positively charged body.
Mass of proton = 1.67 x 10-24 gm.
● 2
. As long as the atom remains in a particular orbit, it will neither gain nor lose
energy and hence the energy of the electron in a particular orbit remains
constant. This means these orbits are non radiating and thus called stationary
state or energy level and designated as K, L, M, N, etc.
● 3
. Only those orbits are permitted in an atom whose angular momentum of the
electron is equal to the whole number multiple of h/2π where h is Plank’s
constant.
Angular momentum (mvr)=2πnh where,
m=mass of electron, v=velocity of electron, r=radius of orbit, n=1,2,3,....,
h=Planck′s constant=6.67×10-27 erg sec.
● 4
. Energy is emitted or absorbed by the electron in the form of a photon only
when it jumps from one energy level to another. The quantum or photon of
P
● ostulates
energy absorbed or emitted is the difference between the higher and lower
● 1. An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus at which the entire mass is
energy level.
concentrated and its size is extremely small as compared to the size of the
atom.
● Δ E=E2−E1=hν
● 2. The space between the nucleus and the revolving electron is empty.
E=energy emitted or absorbed
Δ
● 3. The centrifugal force of the revolving electron is balanced by the electrostatic
E2=higher energy level
force of attraction between the electron and nucleus.
E1=lower energy level
● Limitations
h=Plank′s constant
● 1. It could not explain the stability of an atom:
v=frequency of radiation
● According to the law of thermodynamics, any accelerated charged particles
must emit radiation. Charged particles such as an electron in motion lose
● Energy is absorbed when an electron jumps from lower to higher energy level
energy continuously and their energy should decrease gradually. Then
and energy is emitted when an electron jumps from higher to lower energy
electrons should ultimately fall into the nucleus and should collapse. But this
level.
could not happen.
O
● rigin of hydrogen spectrum
● When hydrogen gas is taken in a discharge tube and highvoltageisapplied,
then there is the dissociation of hydrogen molecules into hydrogen atoms.
Although hydrogen consists ofonlyoneelectron,itproducesdifferenttypesof
spectra. When energy is supplied, the electron ofthehydrogenatomabsorbs
energy and jumps to a high energy level. The electrons in high energy level
(excitedstate)areunstableandjumptolowerenergylevelwiththeemissionof
electromagnetic radiation which give rise to line spectra called spectral series.
B
● ohr’s atomic model
● In 1913, Neil Bohr proposed an atomic model to overcome the limitations of ● The equation to calculate the wavelength of different spectral series is:
Rutherford’s atomic model of the atom.
● Thepostulates of Bohr’s atomic modelare:
● 1. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in a defined circular path called orbits.
The electrostatic force of attraction between the revolving electron and nucleus
is equal to the centrifugal force acting on the electron.
● Significances of Bohr’s atomic model
● . Different types of spectral series are given below: 1
● . It explains the stability of the atom.
● 2. It explains the origin of line spectra of the hydrogen atom.
● Limitations of Bohr’s atomic model
● 1. No explanation for the multi-electron system:
This model only explained the origin of spectra of the hydrogen atom and
hydrogen-like ions like He+, Li++, etc. but it doesn’t explain the origin of the
spectra of the multielectron system.
● 2. No explanation of the hyperfine structure of spectra:
When the hydrogen spectra are observed with the help of a spectroscope of
high resolving power, it is found that the individual spectral lines are not really
single but consist of several closely packed lines called hyperfine lines. These
fine lines cannot be explained by this model. Such structure means that in a
given orbit, there are several orbits called sub orbits having different energies.
● 3. No explanation of Zeeman and Stark effect:
The splitting of spectral lines in presence of a magnetic field is called the
Zeeman effect and the splitting of spectral lines in presence of an electric field
■ is called the Stark effect. Bohr’s atomic model didn’t explain such effects.
● 1 . Lyman series (92-120 nm):
● It is observed when an electron jumps from a higher energy level to the first 4
● . No explanation for the dual nature of electron:
energy level. It lies in the ultraviolet region. ● This model has treated electrons as a particle of a certain mass revolving
around the nucleus in a fixed orbit. But de-Broglie suggested that electrons
2
● . Balmer series (400-650 nm): have a dual nature i. e. electron behaves as a particle as well as wave nature.
● It is observed when an electron jumps from a higher energy level to a second
energy level. It lies in the visible region. ● Dual nature of matter (de-Broglie equation)
● In 1905, Einstein suggested the dual nature of light. According to this, light
3
● . Paschen series (950-1875 nm): possesses a wave and particle nature. In 1924, de-Broglie advanced the idea
● It is observed when an electron jumps from a higher energy level to a third that not only photons or light but also matter like electrons shows dual nature.
energy level. It lies in the infrared region. The wave associated with matter is the matter wave or de-Broglie wave. So, the
electron is a subatomic particle that can behave sometimes as a particle and
4
● . Brackett series (1945-4050 nm): sometimes as a wave. The wave-particle duality of matter led de-Broglie to
● It is observed when an electron jumps from a higher energy level to a fourth derive the equation λ = h/P which indicates the wave and particle nature of the
energy level. It lies in the infrared region. matter in motion.
5
● . Pfund series (above 4050 nm): S
● ignificance
● It is observed when an electron jumps from a higher energy level to a fifth ● i. It shows the relation between particle and wave character of matter.
energy level. It lies in the infrared region ● ii. It is applicable for all matter but more significant for microscopic particles like
electrons.
● iii. It helps to deduce Bohr’s condition for quantization of angular momentum.
.
● Energy and Distance from the Nucleus:
● Heisenberg uncertainty principle ○ T n,the higher the energy level and the farther
he larger the value of
● It states that“It is impossible to determine the position and momentum of the electron is from the nucleus.
microscopic particles like an electron simultaneously and accurately”.
○ E nlevels (closer to the nucleus) are more tightly
lectrons in lower
● Mathematically,
bound to the nucleus, while those in higher nlevels have more
● Δx⋅Δy≥4πh
energy and are less tightly bound.
Δx=uncertainty in position
Δy=uncertainty in momentum ● S ncorrespond to different electron shells (e.g.,
hells: The different values of
Uncertainty means n = 1is the first shell,
n = 2is the second shell, and so on).
● i. If we measure the position more accurately, then the uncertainty in
momentum occurs.
● ii. If we measure the momentum more accurately, then the uncertainty in
position occurs.
● Concept of orbital
● The space around the nucleus where the probability of finding the
electron is maximum is called orbital.
○
Shape of s and p orbital
● 2. Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)
● s-orbitals are spherical in shape and p-orbitals are dumb-bell shape.
● l
● Symbol:
● D
escription: The azimuthal quantum number (also called the angular
momentum quantum number) determines theshape of the orbitalwhere the
electron resides. The value of ldepends on the principal quantum number
n
n-1
and can range from 0 to .
● Shapes of Orbitals:
l = 0
○ When , the orbital is ans-orbital(spherical shape).
l = 1
○ When , the orbital is ap-orbital(dumbbell shape).
l = 2
○ When , the orbital is ad-orbital(cloverleaf shape).
● Quantum Number l = 3
○ When , the orbital is anf-orbital(more complex shapes).
uantum numbers are essential in understanding how electrons are arranged
Q ● S ldetermines the subshell within a given shell. For
ubshells: The value of
in atoms and how they behave. Each quantum number provides specific example:
information about the electron's properties and location within an atom. Let’s
n = 2
○ If lcan be 0 or 1.
, l = 0corresponds to the 2s subshell,
explore each of the four quantum numbers in detail.
l = 1c orresponds to the 2p subshell.
and
1. Principal Quantum Number (n)
n
● Symbol:
● D
escription: The principal quantum number determines theenergy levelof
an electron in an atom. It is like the floor number in a building where an
ncan be any positive integer (1, 2, 3, ...).
electron "lives." The value of
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (m(_l) ● A rrangement of electron in atomic orbitals
● 1. Pauli’s exclusion principle
m_l
● Symbol: ● It states that “No two electrons in an atom can have an identical set of four
● D escription: The magnetic quantum number determines the orientationof quantum numbers”.
theorbitalinspace.Itdefineshowtheorbitalisorientedrelativetotheother
orbitals around the nucleus. The value of
m_ldepends on the azimuthal
quantum number land can range from -lto
+l(including zero).
● Orientation of Orbitals:
or
○ F l
=
0(s-orbital),
m_lcan only be 0 (since an s-orbital is
spherical and has only one orientation).
○ F l
or =1(p-orbital),
m_lcanbe-1,0,or+1,correspondingtothe
three orientations of the p-orbitals (px, py, pz).
or
○ F l
= 2 (d-orbital),
m_l can be -2, -1, 0, +1, or +2,
corresponding to the five different orientations of the d-orbitals.
●
○
● 2 . Hund’s rule for maximum multiplicity
● It states that “In an orbital of the same subshell, electrons are filled singly first
before pairing starts”.
● Illustration: Let us take an example of the filling of electrons in a nitrogen atom.
The electronic configuration of nitrogen is 1s 2s 2p. There are the following
possibilities in filling the electrons in 2p.
●
■
○ ● 3 . Aufbau principle
4. Spin Quantum Number (m(_s) ● It states that “The orbitals are filled up with electrons in the increasing order of
their energy”.
m_s
● Symbol:
● D escription: The spinquantumnumberdescribesthespinoftheelectron,
whichisafundamentalpropertyofelectronslikechargeandmass.Electrons
canspininoneoftwopossibledirections,andthisspingeneratesamagnetic
field.
● Possible Spin Values:
1 1
m_scan be
○ The value of +2 (spin-up) or
-2 (spin-down).
○ T
his means that for each orbital, there can be two electrons, one
1 1
+2 and one with spin
with spin -2 .
●
● T he above sequence can also be satisfied by theMadelung rulewhich is also
called the(n+l) rule.
● According to the rule:
● 1. The orbitals with lower (n+I) value have lower energy than the orbitals of
higher (n+l) value.
● For 4s orbital, n = 4, l = 0, n+l=4
● For 3d orbital, n = 3, l = 2, n+l=5
● 2. When two orbitals have the same (n+l) value, the orbitals with a lower value
of n have lower energy.
● For 3d orbital, n = 3, l = 2, n+l=5
● For 4p orbital, n = 4, l = 1, n+l=5
● 3d orbitals have less value of n. so it is filled first.
● Limitations of Aufbau principle
● E xactly half filled and full filled orbitals have greater stability than other due to
following reasons:
● 1. Symmetry: Half filled and full filled orbitals are more symmetrical than any
other and symmetry leads to stability.
●
● 2. Exchange energy: The electrons present in different orbitals of the same
subshell can exchange their position. Each such exchange leads to a decrease
in energy known as exchange energy. Greater the number of exchanges, the
greater the exchange energy and the greater the stability.
● lectronic configuration of some ions
E
● ++ 2 2 6 2 6 0 6
● Fe = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
● +++ 2 2 6 2 6 0 5
● Fe = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
