AS Computer Science 9618

Complete Notes

Compiled by: Nadia Arif

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 Table of Contents

No. Chapter Name Page Number

1 Data Representation 1

2 Communication 30

3 Hardware 59

4 Processor Fundamentals 83

5 System Software 109

6 Security, Privacy & Data Integrity 126

7 Ethics & Ownership 137

8 Databases 146

9 Algorithm Design & Problem solving 162

10 & 11 Data Types & Structures 182

12 Software Development 209

13 Pseudocode Guide 221

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1.1 Number systems

1.1.1 Binary represents data:

The binary number system is a base 2 number system. It is based on
the number 2. Thus, only the two ‘values’ 0 and 1 can be used in this
system to represent all values.
 Binary to Denary (Decimal)
(1100110)2 ----> (? )10

26 25 24 23 22 21 20
64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 0

Only add the 1's

64 + 32 + 4 + 2 = 102
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 Denary to Binary:
(131)10 ----> (?)2
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

Guide:
 Step 1:
Turn the 128 bit on as it is the immediate number that's less than 131
Now subtract 128 from 131
131 - 128 = 3

 Step 2:
Now turn the 2 bit on as it is the immediate number that's less than 3
Subtract 2 from 3
3-2=1

 Step 3:
Now turn the 1 bit on
Subtract 1-1 = 0

 Step 4:
Write down the binary
131 = 10000011
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 Binary to Hexadecimal (16)

(100111011)2 ----> (?)16

Guide:
Make a group of four bits starting from the right hand side

0001 0011 1011

Write down the decimal of each group

0001 = 1
0011 = 3
1011 = 11 --> B (In hexa decimal any number greater than 9 and less
than 15 is written in alphabets)

A = 10
B = 11
C = 12
D = 13
E = 14
F = 15

So,
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100111011 = 13B

 Hexa to Binary
(9DC)16 ----> ( ? )2

9 D C
9 13 12
1001 1101 1100

9DC = 100111011100

 Decimal to Hexa:
(119)10 ----> (?)16

Step 1: Convert to binary

26 25 24 23 22 21 20
64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 1

Step 2: Convert binary to hexadecimal

1110111

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0111 = 7
0111 = 7

Step 3:

1110111 = 77

 Hexadecimal to Decimal:

(BD5)16 ---> ( ? )10

Method 1:

Step 1:
Write down the binary of each bit separately

B = 11 = 1001
D = 13 = 1101
5 = 0101

Step 2:
convert the binary to decimal
BD5 = 1010 1100 0101

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211 210 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
2048 1024 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1

2048 + 512 + 128 + 64 + 4 + 1 = 2757

BD5 = 2757

Method 2:

162 161 160

256 16 1
B = 11 D = 13 5

256 x 11 = 2,816
13 x 16 = 208
5x1=5

BD5 = 2816 + 208 + 5 = 3029

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1.1.3 Use of the hexadecimal system

 error codes
 MAC addresses
 IPv6 addresses
 HTML colour codes

Error codes:
Error codes are often shown as hexadecimal values. These numbers refer
to the memory location of the error and are usually automatically
generated by the computer.

Media Access Control (MAC) addresses:

Media Access Control (MAC) address refers to a number which uniquely
identifies a device on a network. The MAC address refers to the
network interface card (NIC) which is part of the device. The MAC
address is rarely changed so that a particular device can always be
identified no matter where it is.
A MAC address is usually made up of 48 bits which are shown as 6
groups of two hexadecimal digits (although 64-bit addresses also exist):

NN – NN – NN – DD – DD – DD
or
NN:NN:NN:DD:DD:DD

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where the first half (NN – NN – NN) is the identity number of the
manufacturer of the device and the second half (DD – DD – DD) is
the serial number of the device.

Internet Protocol (IP) addresses Each device connected to a network is

given an address known as the Internet Protocol (IP) address.

HyperText Mark-up Language (HTML) colour codes:

HyperText Mark-up Language (HTML) is used when writing and
developing web pages. A mark-up language is used in the processing,
definition and presentation of text

1.1.4 Addition of binary numbers

A B Sum (A+B) Carry

0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

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A B C Sum (A+B+C) Carry

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

1.1.5 Logical binary shifts

Logical Left Shift:

logical shift means moving the binary number to the left
Each shift left is equivalent to multiplying the binary number by 2

Logical Right Shift:

logical shift means moving the binary number to the right
each shift right is equivalent to dividing the binary number by 2

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Example 1:

The denary number 21 is 00010101 in binary.

If we put this into an 8-bit register:

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1

If we now shift the bits in this register one place to the left, we obtain:
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

The value of the binary bits is now

32 + 8 + 2 = 42

The original number was 21

21 x 2 = 42

Example 2:

The denary number 200 is 11001000 in binary.

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If we put this into an 8-bit register:

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0

If we now shift the bits in this register one place to the right, we
obtain:
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0

The value of the binary bits is now

64+32+4 = 100

The original number was 200

200/2 = 100

1.1.6 Two’s complement (binary numbers)

Convert -113 to binary
 Note that the most significant bit of a negative number is always
1

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Step 1: write the binary of 113

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1

Step 2: take 1's compliment (reverse all the bits)

01110001 = 10001110

Step 3: take 2's compliment (add 1 to the least significant bit)

10001110
+ 1
10001111

-113 = 10001111

Proof:

 To check if the answer is correct

-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

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-128 + 8 + 4 +2 +1 = -113

1.1.5 Binary coded decimal (BCD) system :

The binary-coded decimal (BCD) system uses a 4-bit code to represent each
denary digit:

0000=0 0101=5
0001=1 0110=6
0010=2 0111=7
0011=3 1000=8
0100=4 1001=9

Therefore, the denary number 3 1 6 5 would be 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

in BCD format

Uses of BCD:

The most obvious use of BCD is in the representation of digits on a calculator

or clock display.

1.2 Text, sound and images

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1.2.1 Character sets – ASCII code and Unicode

 The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bit codes

that represent the letters, numbers and characters found on a
standard keyboard, together with 32 control codes
 The main disadvantage is that it does not represent characters in
non-Western languages, for example Chinese characters.
 For this reason, different methods of coding have been developed
over the years. One coding system is called Unicode. Unicode can
represent all languages of the world, thus supporting many
operating systems, search engines and internet browsers used
globally.

The Unicode consortium was set up in 1991. Version 1.0 was published with
five goals; these were to:
 create a universal standard that covered all languages and all
writing systems
 produce a more efficient coding system than ASCII » adopt
uniform encoding where each character is encoded as 16-bit or 32-
bit code
 create unambiguous encoding where each 16-bit and 32-bit value
always represents the same character
 reserve part of the code for private use to enable a user to assign
codes for their own characters and symbols

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1.2.2 Representation of sound :

Sound waves vary continuously.
 This means that sound is analogue.
 Computers cannot work with analogue data, so sound waves need
to be sampled in order to be stored in a computer.
 Sampling means measuring the amplitude of the sound wave.
 This is done using an analogue to digital converter (ADC).
 To convert the analogue data to digital, the sound waves are
sampled at regular time intervals.
 The amplitude of the sound cannot be measured precisely, so
approximate values are stored.

The number of bits per sample is known as the sampling resolution (also
known as the bit depth).
Sampling rate is the number of sound samples taken per second. This is
measured in hertz (Hz), where 1Hz means ‘one sample per second’.
So how is sampling used to record a sound clip?
 the amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at set time
intervals (the sampling rate)
 this gives an approximate representation of the sound wave
 each sample of the sound wave is then encoded as a series of
binary digits.
Using a higher sampling rate or larger resolution will result in a more
faithful representation of the original sound source. However, the higher
the sampling rate and/or sampling resolution, the greater the file size.
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Benefits Drawbacks
larger dynamic range produces larger file size
better sound quality takes longer to transmit/download
music files
less sound distortion requires greater processing power

Frame rate: When recording a video the frame rate refers to the
number of frames recorded per second.
1.2.3 Representation of (bitmap) images
Bitmap images are made up of pixels (picture elements); an image is
made up of a two-dimensional matrix of pixels.
Each pixel can be represented as a binary number, and so a bitmap
image is stored in a computer as a series of binary numbers, so that:
 a black and white image only requires 1 bit per pixel – this means
that each pixel can be one of two colours, corresponding to either 1
or 0
 if each pixel is represented by 2 bits, then each pixel can be one
of four colours (22 = 4), corresponding to 00, 01, 10, or 11
 if each pixel is represented by 3 bits then each pixel can be one of
eight colours (23 = 8), corresponding to 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101,
110, 111.

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The number of bits used to represent each colour is called the colour
depth. An 8 bit colour depth means that each pixel can be one of 256
colours

Image resolution refers to the number of pixels that make up an image;

for example, an image could contain 4096 × 3072 pixels (12 582 912
pixels in total).

Drawback:
The main drawback of using high resolution images is the increase
in file size.
As the number of pixels used to represent the image is increased,
the size of the file will also increase.
This impacts on how many images can be stored on, for example, a
hard drive.
It also impacts on the time to download an image from the
internet or the time to transfer images from device to device.
A certain amount of reduction in resolution of an image is possible
before the loss of quality becomes noticeable.

Image resolution: refers to the number of pixels that make up an

image; for example, an image could contain 4096 × 3192 pixels (12738
656 pixels in total).

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1.2.4 Vector graphics

Vector graphics are images that use 2D points to describe lines and
curves and their properties that are grouped to form geometric shapes.

A vector graphic will contain a drawing list (included in a file header)

that is made up of
 the command used for each object that makes up the graphic
image
 the attributes that define the properties that make up each
object (for example consider the ellipse of the robot’s mouth
 the relative position of each object will also need to be included
 the dimensions of each object are not defined, but the relative
positions of objects to each other in the final graphic need to be
defined; this means that scaling up the vector graphic image will
result in no loss of quality.

Comparison between vector graphics and bit-map images

Vector graphic images Bit-map images

made up of geometric shapes which made up of tiny pixels of
require definition/attributes different colours
to alter/edit the design, it is necessary possible to alter/edit each of
to change each of the geometric shapes the pixels to change the
design of the image
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they do not require large file size since because of the use of pixels
it is made up of simple geometric shapes (which give very accurate
designs), the file size is very
large
because the number of geometric since images are built up pixel
shapes is limited, vector graphics are not by pixel, the final image is
usually very realistic usually very realistic
file formats are usually .svg, .cgm, .odg file formats are usually .jpeg,
.bmp, .png

1.3 Data storage and file compression

1.3.1 Measurement of data storage

 A bit is the basic unit of all computing memory storage terms and
is either 1 or 0.
 The word comes from binary digit. The byte is the smallest unit of
memory in a computer. 1 byte is 8 bits.
 A 4-bit number is called a nibble – half a byte.

Name of memory size Equivalent denary value

1 kilobyte (1KB) 1000 bytes 1000 bytes
1 megabyte (1MB) 1000000 bytes 1000 KB
1 gigabyte (1GB) 1000000000 bytes 1000 MB
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1 terabyte (1TB) 1000000000000 bytes 1000 GB

1 petabyte (1PB) 1000000000000000 bytes 1000 TB
1 exabyte (1EB) 1000000000000000000 bytes 1000 PB

Name of memory Number of Equivalent denary value

size bytes
1 Kibibyte (1KiB) 210 1024 bytes 1024
bytes
1mebibyte (1MiB) 220 1048576 bytes 1024
KiB
1gibibyte (1GiB) 230 1073741824 bytes 1024
MiB
1tebibyte (1TiB) 240 1099511627776 bytes 1024
GiB
1pebibyte (1PiB) 250 1125899906842624 bytes 1024
TiB
1exbibyte (1EiB) 260 1152921504606846976 1024
bytes PiB

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1.3.2 Calculation of file size:

The file size of an image is calculated as:

image resolution (in pixels) × colour depth (in bits)

The size of a mono sound file is calculated as:

sample rate (in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in
seconds)

Example 1:

A photograph is 1024 × 1080 pixels and uses a colour depth of 32 bits.

How many photographs of this size would fit onto a memory stick of
64GiB?

 Multiply number of pixels in vertical and horizontal directions to

find
total number of pixels = (1024 × 1080) = 1105920 pixels

 Now multiply number of pixels by colour depth then divide by 8 to

give the
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number of bytes = 1105920 × 32 = 35389440/8 bytes = 4423680

bytes

 64 GiB = 64 × 1024 × 1024 × 1024 = 68719476736 bytes

 Finally divide the memory stick size by the files size =

68719476736/4423680 = 15534 photos

Example 2:

A camera detector has an array of 2048 by 2048 pixels and uses a

colour depth of 16. Find the size of an image taken by this camera in
MiB.
 Multiply number of pixels in vertical and horizontal directions to
find
total number of pixels = (2048 × 2048) = 4194304pixels

 Now multiply number of pixels by colour depth = 4194304 × 16 =

67108864bits
 Now divide number of bits by 8 to find the number of bytes in
the file = (67108864)/8 = 8388608bytes
 Now divide by 1024 × 1024 to convert to MiB =
(8388608)/(1048576) = 8MiB.

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Example 3:
An audio CD has a sample rate of 44100 and a sample resolution of
16bits. The music being sampled uses two channels to allow for stereo
recording. Calculate the file size for a 60-minute recording.

 Size of file = sample rate (in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) ×
length of sample (in seconds)
 Size of sample = (44100 × 16 × (60 × 60)) = 2540160000bits
 Multiply by 2 since there are two channels being used =
5080320000bits
 Divide by 8 to find number of bytes = (5080320000)/8 =
635040000
 Divide by 1024 × 1024 to convert to MiB = 635 040 000 / 1 048
576 = 605MiB.

1.3.3 Data compression

The size of a file can be quite large.It is therefore necessary to reduce
(or compress) the size of a file for the following reasons:
 to save storage space on devices such as the hard disk drive/solid
state drive
 to reduce the time taken to stream a music or video file
 to reduce the time taken to upload, download or transfer a file
across a network
 the download/upload process uses up network bandwidth – this is
the maximum rate of transfer of data across a network, measured
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in bits per second. This occurs whenever a file is downloaded, for

example, from a server. Compressed files contain fewer bits of data
than uncompressed files and therefore use less bandwidth, which
results in a faster data transfer rate.
 reduced file size also reduces costs. For example, when using cloud
storage, the cost is based on the size of the files stored. Also an
internet service provider (ISP) may charge a user based on the
amount of data downloaded.

1.3.4 Lossy and lossless file compression

 File compression can either be lossless or lossy.

Lossy file compression:

With this technique, the file compression algorithm eliminates
unnecessary data from the file. This means the original file cannot be
reconstructed once it has been compressed. Lossy file compression
results in some loss of detail when compared to the original file. The
algorithms used in the lossy technique have to decide which parts of the
file need to be retained and which parts can be discarded. For example,
when applying a lossy file compression algorithm to:
 an image, it may reduce the resolution and/or the bit/colour depth
 a sound file, it may reduce the sampling rate and/or the resolution

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Lossy files are smaller than lossless files which is of great benefit when
considering storage and data transfer rate requirements. Common lossy
file compression algorithms are:
 MPEG-3 (MP3) and MPEG-4 (MP4)
 JPEG.

MPEG-3 (MP3) and MPEG-4 (MP4):

MP3 files are used for playing music on computers or mobile phones.
This compression technology will reduce the size of a normal music file
by about 90%.
This is done using file compression algorithms that use perceptual music
shaping.

For example:
 removal of sounds outside the human ear range
 if two sounds are played at the same time, only the louder one can
be heard by the ear, so the softer sound is eliminated. This is
called perceptual music shaping.

MP4 files are slightly different to MP3 files. This format allows the
storage of multimedia files rather than just sound – music, videos,
photos and animation can all be stored in the MP4 format. As with
MP3, this is a lossy file compression format, but it still retains an
acceptable quality of sound and video.
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Movies, for example, could be streamed over the internet using the MP4
format without losing any real discernible quality.

JPEG:
When a camera takes a photograph, it produces a raw bitmap file which
can be very large in size. These files are temporary in nature. JPEG is a
lossy file compression algorithm used for bitmap images.
The JPEG file reduction process is based on two key concepts:
 human eyes don’t detect differences in colour shades quite as well
as they detect differences in image brightness
 by separating pixel colour from brightness, images can be split into
8 × 8 pixel blocks

Lossless file compression

Lossless file compression is designed so that none of the original detail

from the file is lost.
Run-length encoding (RLE) can be used for lossless compression of a
number of different file formats:
 it is a form of lossless/reversible file compression
 it reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data (e.g.
repeated colours in an image)
 a repeating string is encoded into two values:
– the first value represents the number of identical data items
in the run
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– the second value represents the code of the data item

 RLE is only effective where there is a long run of repeated
units/bits.
Using RLE on text data
Consider the text string ‘aaaaabbbbccddddd’. Assuming each character
requires 1byte, then this string needs 16 bytes. If we assume ASCII code
is being used, then the string can be coded as follows:
a a a a a b b b b c c d d d d d
05 97 04 98 02 99 05 100

Using RLE with images

Black and white images

Coloured images

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This produces the following data:

2 0 0 0 4 0 255 0 3 0 0 0 6 255 255 255 1 0 0 0 2 0 255 0 4 255

0 0 4 0 255 0 1 255 255 255 2 255 0 0 1 255 255 255 4 0 255 0
4 255 0 0 4 0 255 0 4 255 255 255 2 0 255 0 1 0 0 0 2 255 255
255 2 255 0 0 2 255 255 255 3 0 0 0 4 0 255 0 2 0 0 0

1.3.5 General methods of compressing files

Movie Files reduce the sampling rate used

reduce the sampling resolution
reduce the frame rate
Image Files crop the image
decrease the colour/bit depth
reduce the image resolution

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2.1 - Networking:

Networks can be categorised as private or public

 Private networks are owned by a  Public networks are owned by a

single company or organisation communications carrier company
(they are often LANs or intranets (such as a telecoms company);
with restricted user access,  many organisations will use the
 For example, passwords and user network and there are usually no
ids are required to join the specific password requirements to
enter the network
network)  but sub networks may be under
security management.

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WANs & LANs

LAN WLAN WAN

 LANs are usually  Wireless LANs (WLANs)  Wide area networks
contained within are similar to LANs but (WANs) are used
one building, or there are no wires or when computers or
within a small cables. networks are
geographical area.  In other words, they situated a long
 A typical LAN provide wireless distance from each
consists of a network other
number of communications over  If a number of LANs
computers and fairly short distances are joined together
devices (such as (up to 100 metres) using a router or
printers) connected using radio or infrared modem, they can
to hubs or switches. signals instead of using form a WAN.
 One of the hubs or cables  The network of
switches is usually automated teller
connected to a machines (ATMs)
router and/or used by banks is one
modem to allow the of the most common
LAN to connect to examples of the use
the internet or of a WAN.
become part of a
wide area network
(WAN )

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Client - server and peer-to-peer networking models

Client - server model:
The client-server model uses separate dedicated servers and specific client
workstations; client computers will be connected to the server computer(s).
 Users are able to access most of the files, which are stored on dedicated

servers.
 The server dictates which users are able to access which files.

 The client-server model allows the installation of software onto a client’s

computer.
 The model uses central security databases which control access to the shared

resources.
 Once a user is logged into the system, they will have access to only those

resources (such as a printer) and files assigned to them by the network

administrator, so offers greater security than peer-to-peer networks.
 Client-server networks can be as large as you want them to be and they are

much easier to scale up than peer-to-peer networks.

 A central server looks after the storing, delivery and sending of emails.

 This model offers the most stable system, for example, if someone deletes a

shared resource from the server, the nightly back-up would restore the
deleted resource
 Client-server networks can become bottlenecked if there are several client

requests at the same time.

Advantages:

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 Central storage and management of data files, thus enabling other network
users to access files
 allowing users to share information without the need for offline devices (such
as a memory stick)
 allowing any computer to be configured as the host machine and act as the
file server (note that the server could be a storage device (such as SSD or
HDD) that could also serve as a remote storage device for other computers,
thus allowing them to access this device as if it were a local storage device
attached to their computer).

Examples of use of client-server network model:

 A company/user would choose a client-server network model for the
following reasons.
 The company/user has a large user-base

 Access to network resources needs to be properly controlled.

 There is a need for good network security.

 The company requires its data to be free from accidental loss (in other

words, data needs to be backed up at a central location).

Peer-to-peer model:
 On a peer-to-peer network, each node joins the network to allow

 the provision of services to all other network users; the services available are

listed on a nominated ‘look up’ computer – when a node requests a service,

the ‘look up’ computer is contacted to find out which of the other network
nodes can provide the required service
 other users on the network to simply access data from another node

 communication with other peers connected to the network

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 peers to be both suppliers and consumers

 peers to participate as equals on the network
 The peer-to-peer model does not have a central server.
 Each of the nodes (workstations) on the network can share its files with all
the other nodes, and each of the nodes will have its own data.
 Because there is no central storage, there is no requirement to authenticate
users.
 This model is used in scenarios where no more than 10 nodes are required
(such as a small business)
 where it is relatively easy for users to be in contact with each other on a
regular basis. More than 10 nodes leads to performance and management
issues.

Disadvantages:
 Peer-to-peer offers little data security since there is no central security

system. This means it is impossible to know who is authorised to share

certain data.
 Users can create their own network node share point which is the only real

security aspect since this gives them some kind of control. However, there
are no real authentication procedures.

Examples of peer-to-peer network model:

A user would choose the peer-to-peer network model for one or more of
following reasons:
 The network of users is fairly small.
 There is no need for robust security.
 They require workstation-based applications rather than being server-based.
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Thick and Thin Clients:

Thick Client Thin Client

always relies on a connection to a can run some of the features of the
remote server or computer for it to software even when not connected
work to a server
requires very few local resources (such relies heavily on local resources
as SSD, RAM memory or computer
processing time)
relies on a good, stable and fast more tolerant of a slow network
network connection for it to work connection
data is stored on a remote server or can store data on local resources
computer such as HDD or SSD

Thick Client Thin Client

Pros  more robust (device can  less expensive to expand (low-
carry out processing powered and cheap devices can be
even when not used)
connected to server)  all devices are linked to a server
 clients have more (data updates and new software
control (they can store installation done centrally)
their own programs and  server can offer protection against
data/ files hacking and malware

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Cons  less secure (relies on  high reliance on the server; if the

clients to keep their server goes down or there is a
own data secure) break in the communication link
 each client needs to then the devices cannot work
update data and  despite cheaper hardware, the
software individually start-up costs are generally higher
 data integrity issues, than for thick clients
since many clients
access the same data
which can lead to
inconsistencies

Network Topologies:
 bus networks
 star networks
 mesh networks
 hybrid networks

Bus networks
 A bus network topology uses a single central cable to which all computers
and devices are connected.
 It is easy to expand and requires little cabling.
 Data can only travel in one direction; if data is being sent between devices
then other devices cannot transmit.
 Bus networks are typically peer-to-peer

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Advantages Disadvantages
 Even if one node fails, the  If the main cable fails, the whole
remainder of the network network goes down.
continues to function.  The performance of the network
 It is easy to increase the size deteriorates under heavy loading.
of the network by adding  The network is not secure since
additional nodes. each packet passes through every
node.

Packet transfer over bus topology:

 In bus network topology, each node looks at each packet and
determines whether or not the address of the recipient in the package
matches the node address.
 If so, the node accepts the packet; if not, the packet is ignored.
 These are most suitable for situations with a small number of devices
with light traffic occurring. For example, a small company or an office
environment.

Star networks:
 A star network topology uses a central hub/switch and each
computer/device is connected to the hub/switch.
Data going from host to host is directed through the central
hub/switch.

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 Each computer/device has its own dedicated connection to the central

node (hub/switch) – any type of network cable can be used for the
connections

Advantages: Disadvantages:
Data collisions are greatly reduced due The initial installation costs are
to the topology. high.
It is a more secure network since If the central hub/switch fails,
security methods can be applied to the then the whole network goes down.
central node and packets only travel to
nodes with the correct address.
It is easy to improve by simply
installing an upgraded hub.
If one of the connections is broken it
only affects one of the nodes.

Packet transfer over star topology:

How packets are handled depends on whether the central node is a
switch or a hub.
If it is a hub, all the packets will be sent to every device/node on the
star network
if the address in the packet matches that of the node, it will be
accepted; otherwise, it is ignored
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 If the central node is a switch, packets will only be sent to nodes

where the address matches the recipient address in the packet.
 The latter is clearly more secure, since only nodes intended to see the
packet will receive it.

Mesh networks:
 There are two types of mesh network topologies: routing and flooding.
 Routing works by giving the nodes routing logic (in other words, they
act like a router) so that data is directed to its destination by the
shortest route and can be re-routed if one of the nodes in the route
has failed.
 Flooding simply sends the data via all the nodes and uses no routing
logic, which can lead to unnecessary loading on the network.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
It is easy to identify where faults on the A large amount of cabling is
network have occurred. needed, which is expensive
and time consuming.
Any broken links in the network do not Set-up and maintenance is
affect the other nodes. difficult and complex.
Good privacy and security, since packets
travel along dedicated routes.
The network is relatively easy to expand.
Hybrid networks:
A hybrid network is a mixture of two or more different topologies
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The main advantages and disadvantages depend on which types of network

are used to make up the hybrid network,
but an additional disadvantage is that they can be very complex to install,
configure and maintain.

Additional advantages include:

 They can handle large volumes of traffic.
 It is easy to identify where a network fault has occurred.
 They are very well suited to the creation of larger networks.

Public and Private Cloud Computing:

Public cloud is a storage environment where the customer/client and cloud

storage provider are different companies.

Private cloud is storage provided by a dedicated environment behind a

company firewall. Customer/client and cloud storage provider are integrated
and operate as a single entity.

Hybrid cloud is a combination of private and public clouds. Some data resides
in the private cloud and less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed
from a public cloud storage provider.
Pros of using cloud storage Cons of using cloud storage

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 customer/client files stored on  if the customer/client has a slow

the cloud can be accessed at or unstable internet connection,
any time from any device they would have problems
anywhere in the world provided accessing or downloading their
internet access is available data/files
 no need for a customer/client to  costs can be high if large
carry an external storage device storage capacity is required
with them, or use the same  expensive to pay for high
computer to store and retrieve download/upload data transfer
information limits with the customer/client
 provides the user with remote internet service provider (ISP)
back-up of data to aid data loss  potential failure of the cloud
and disaster recovery storage company is possible –
 recovers data if a this poses a risk of loss of all
customer/client has a hard disk back-up data
or back-up device failure
 offers almost unlimited
storage capacity

Wired and wireless networking

Wireless networking
It is easier to expand networks and is not necessary to connect devices


using cables.

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 Devices have increased mobility, provided they are within range of the
WAPs.
 Increased chance of interference from external sources.
 Data is less secure than with wired systems; it is easier to intercept
radio waves and microwaves than cables so it is essential to protect
data transmissions using encryption.
 Data transmission rate is slower than wired networks (although it is
improving).
 Signals can be stopped by thick walls (in old houses, for example) and
signal strength can vary, or ‘drop out’.

Wired networking
 More reliable and stable network (wireless connectivity is often
subjected to interference).
 Data transfer rates tend to be faster with no ‘dead spots’.
 Tends to be cheaper overall, in spite of the need to buy and install
cable.
 Devices are not mobile; they must be close enough to allow for cable
connections.
 Lots of wires can lead to tripping hazards, overheating of connections
(potential fire risk) and disconnection of cables during routine office
cleaning.

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Hardware requirements of networks

Hub :
 Hubs are hardware devices that can have a number of devices or
computers connected to them.
 They are often used to connect a number of devices to form a local
area network (LAN), for example a star network .
 A hub’s main task is to take any data packet (a group of data being
transmitted) received at one of its ports and then send the data to
every computer in the network.
 Using hubs is not a very secure method of data distribution and is also
wasteful of bandwidth.

Switch :
 Switches are similar to hubs, but are more efficient in the way they
distribute the data packet.
 As with hubs, they connect a number of devices or computers
together to form a LAN (for example, a star network).
 However, unlike a hub, the switch checks the data packet received
and works out its destination address (or addresses) and sends the data
to the appropriate computer(s) only.
 This makes using a switch a more secure and efficient way of
distributing data.
 Each device or computer on a network has a media access control
(MAC) address which identifies it uniquely.
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 Data packets sent to switches will have a MAC address identifying the
source of the data and additional addresses identifying each device
which should receive the data. Note that switches can be wired or
wireless devices.

Repeater:
 When signals are sent over long distances, they suffer attenuation or
signal loss.
 Repeaters are devices which are added to transmission systems to boost
the signal so it can travel greater distances.
 They amplify signals on both analogue (copper cable) and digital (fibre
optic cable) communication links

Bridge:
 Bridges are devices that connect one LAN to another LAN that uses
the same protocol (communication rules).
 They are often used to connect together different parts of a LAN so
that they can function as a single LAN.

Router:
 Routers enable data packets to be routed between the different
networks for example, to join a LAN to a WAN.
 The router takes data transmitted in one format from a network
(which is using a particular protocol) and converts the data to a

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protocol and format understood by another network, thereby allowing

them to communicate via the router.
We can, therefore, summarise the role of routers as follows.
 restrict broadcasts to a LAN
 act as a default gateway
 can perform protocol translation; for example, allowing a wired network
to communicate with a wireless (Wi-Fi) network
 the router can take an Ethernet data packet, remove the Ethernet
part and put the IP address into a frame recognised by the wireless
protocol (in other words, it is performing a protocol conversion)
 can move data between networks
 can calculate the best route to a network destination address
Gateway:
 A gateway is a network point (or node) that acts as an entrance to
another network.
 It is a key point for data on its way to or from other networks.
 It can be used to connect two or more dissimilar LANs (LANs using
different protocols).
 The gateway converts data packets from one protocol to another.
Modems:
 Modern computers work with digital data, whereas many of the public
communication channels still only allow analogue data transmission.
 To allow the transmission of digital data over analogue communication
channels we need to use a modem (modulator demodulator).
 This device converts digital data to analogue data.
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 It also does the reverse and converts data received over the analogue
network into digital data which can be understood by the computer
Routers Gateways
forward packets of data from convert one protocol (or data format)
one network to another; routers to another protocol (format) used in
read each incoming packet of a different network
data and decide where to forward
the packet
can route traffic from one convert data packets from one
network to another network protocol to another; they act as an
entry and exit point to networks
can be used to join LANs translate from one protocol to
together to form a WAN another
(sometimes called brouters) and
also to connect a number of
LANs to the internet
offer additional features such as do not support dynamic routing
dynamic routing (ability to
forward data by different routes)
Network interface card (NIC):
 A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to connect
to a network (such as the internet).
 It is usually part of the device hardware and frequently contains the
MAC address generated at the manufacturing stage.
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Wireless network interface card/controller (WNIC):

 Wireless network interface cards/controllers (WNICs) are the same as
the more ordinary NICs, in that they are used to connect devices to
the internet or other networks.
 They use an antenna to communicate with networks via microwaves
and normally simply plug into a USB port or can be internal integrated
circuit plug in.

Ethernet:
Ethernet is a protocol used by many wired LANs.A network using Ethernet
is made up of:
 a node (any device on the LAN)
 medium (path used by the LAN devices, such as an Ethernet cable)
 frame (data is transmitted in frames which are made up of source
address and destination address – the addresses are often the MAC
address).

Collisions:
 Ethernet supports broadcast transmission (communications where pieces
of data are sent from sender to receiver) and are used to send
messages to all devices connected to a LAN.
 The risk is that two messages using the same data channel could be
sent at the same time, leading to a collision.
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 Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) was

developed to try and resolve this issue.
 Collison detection depends on simple physics: when a frame is sent it
causes a voltage change on the Ethernet cable.
 When a collision is detected, a node stops transmitting a frame and
transmits a ‘jam’ signal and then waits for a random time interval
before trying to resend the frame.
 CSMA/CD protocol will define the random time period for a device to
wait before trying again.

Bit streaming:
 Bit streaming is a contiguous sequence of digital bits sent over the
internet or a network that requires a high speed data communication
link (such as fast broadband).
 Since bit streaming often involves very large files (such as video) it is
necessary for the files to undergo some data compression before
transmission.
 It is also necessary to have some form of buffering to ensure smooth
playback of the media files.
 The data transmission rate from the file server (containing the video,
for example) to the buffer must be greater than the rate at which
data is transmitted from buffer to media player.
 The larger the buffer, the better the control over the bit rate being
sent to the media player
2.2 - The Internet
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Internet
 The internet is a massive network of networks which are made up of
various computers and other electronic devices.
 It stands for interconnected network.
 The internet makes use of transmission control protocol
(TCP)/internet protocol (IP)

World Wide Web (WWW)

 This is a collection of multimedia web pages and other documents
which are stored on websites.
 http(s) protocols are written using HyperText Mark-up Language
(HTML).
 Uniform resource locators (URLs) specify the location of all web pages.
 Web resources are accessed by web browsers.
 The world wide web uses the internet to access information from
servers and other computers.

Hardware and software needed to support the internet

The fundamental requirements for connecting to the internet are
 a device (such as a computer, tablet or mobile phone)
 a telephone line connection or a mobile phone network connection
(however, it is possible that a tablet or mobile phone may connect to
the internet using a wireless router)
 a router (which can be wired or wireless) or router and modem
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 an internet service provider (ISP) (combination of hardware and

software)
 a web browser.

Comparison between PSTN and internet when making a phone call

PSTN Phone calls using the internet

 Public switched telephone  Phone calls using the internet use
network (PSTN) PSTN uses a either an internet phone or
standard telephone connected microphone and speakers (video calls
to a telephone line. also require a webcam).
 The telephone line connection  The internet connection is only ‘live’
is always open whether or not while data (sound/video image) is
anybody is talking being transmitted.
 the link is not terminated until  Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
the receivers are replaced by converts sound to digital packages
both parties. (encoding) which can be sent over
 Telephone lines remain active the internet.
even during a power cut; they  VoIP uses packet switching; the
have their own power source. networks simply send and retrieve
data as it is needed so there is no
dedicated line, unlike PSTN.
 Data is routed through thousands of
possible pathways, allowing the
fastest route to be determined.
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Cellular networks and satellites

 Other devices, such as mobile phones, use the cellular network.
 Here, the mobile phone providers act as the ISPs and the phones
contain communication software which allows them to access the
telephone network and also permits them to make an internet
connection.
 Satellites are an important part of all network communications that
cover vast distances
IP addresses
 The internet is based on TCP/IP protocols.
 Protocols define the rules that must be agreed by senders and receivers
on the internet
Internet protocols (IP):
 IPv4 addressing
The most common type of addressing on the internet is IP version 4 (IPv4).
This is based on 32bits giving 232 (4294 967296) possible addresses. The
32bits are split into four groups of 8bits (thus giving a range of 0 to 255).
For example, 254.0.128.77.

Network IPv4 range Number of Number of Types of

class netID bits hostID bits network
A 0.0.0.0 to 8 24 very large
127.255.255.255
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B 128.0.0.0 to 16 16 medium size

191.255.255.255
C 192.0.0.0 to 24 8 small
223.255.255.255 networks
D 224.0.0.0 to – – multi-cast
239.255.255.255
E 240.0.0.0 to – – experimental
255.255.255.255

Drawback:
IPv4 system provides insufficient address range.


For example, a user with a medium sized network (class B) might have


284 host machines and their class B licence allows them 216.
This means several of the allocated host IDs will not be used, which is


wasteful.

Solution:
 Classless inter-domain routing (CIDR) reduces this problem by
increasing the flexibility of the IPv4 system.
 A suffix is used, such as 192.30.250.00/18, which means 18 bits will be
used for the net ID and the last 14 bits will be used for the host ID

 IPv6 addressing:
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IPv6 addressing has been developed to overcome some of the



problems associated with IPv4.

This system uses 128-bit addressing, which allows for much more


complex addressing structures.

An IPv6 address is broken into 16-bit chunks and because of


this, it adopts the hexadecimal notation.

For example:
A8FB:7A88:FFF0:0FFF:3D21:2085:66FB:F0FA

Note how a colon (:) rather than a decimal point (.) is used here. It has been
designed to allow the internet to grow in terms of number of hosts and the
potential amount of data traffic.

IPv6 has benefits over IPv4

 has no need for NATs (network address translation)
 removes risk of private IP address collisions
 has built in authentication
 allows for more efficient routing.

Sub-netting
CIDR is actually based on sub-netting and the two are similar in many
ways.
Sub-netting divides a LAN into two or more smaller networks.
This helps reduce network traffic and can also hide the complexity of
the overall network.
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Private IP addresses and public:

IP addresses Private IP addresses are reserved for internal use behind a
router or other NAT device. The following blocks are reserved for private IP
addresses.

Class A 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 16 million possible addresses

Class B 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 1 million possible addresses
Class C 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 65 600 possible addresses

Public IP addresses are the ones allocated by a user’s ISP to identify the
location of their device. Devices using these IP addresses are accessible from
anybody using the internet. Public IP addresses are used by
 DNS servers
 network routers
 directly-controlled computers.

Uniform resource service (URLs):

Protocol is usually http or https Website address is
 domain host (www)
 domain name (name of website)
 domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov, and so on)
 (sometimes) a country code (.uk, .de, .cy, .br, and so on).

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Path is the web page (if this is omitted then it is the root directory of the
website)
Filename is the item from the web page

For example: http://www.hoddereducation.co.uk/computerscience

Domain name service (DNS):

The domain name service (DNS) (also known as domain name system) gives
domain names for internet hosts and is a system for finding IP addresses of
a domain name. Domain names eliminate the need for a user to memorise IP
addresses. The DNS process involves converting a host name (such as
www.hoddereducation.co.uk) into an IP address the computer can understand
(such as 107.162.140.19)
Often, DNS servers contain a database of URLs with the matching IP
addresses.

1. The user opens their web browser and types in the URL
(www.hoddereducation.co.uk) and the web browser asks the DNS server
(1) for the IP address of the website.
2. The DNS server can’t find www.hoddereducation.co.uk in its database
or its cache and sends out a request to DNS server (2).
3. DNS server (2) finds the URL and can map it to 107.162.140.19; the IP
address is sent back to DNS server (1) which now puts the IP address
and associated URL into its cache/database.
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4. This IP address is then sent back to the user’s computer.

5. The computer now sets up a communication with the website server
and the required pages are downloaded. The web browser interprets the
HTML and displays the information on the user’s screen.

Scripting in HTML

A user may wish to develop a web application, which is client-server based,

on their own computer. To do this they would need to:
 download the necessary server software
 install the application on the chosen/allocated server
 use the web browser on their computer to access and interpret the
application web pages

JavaScript
JavaScript (unlike HTML) is a programming language which will run on the
client-side.

 Client-side – the script runs on the computer, which is making the

request, processing the web page data that is being sent to the
computer from the server.
 Server-side – the script is run on the web server and the results of
processing are then sent to the computer that made the request.

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PHP
 PHP is another language which can be embedded within HTML.
 However, when PHP is used it is processed on the server-side.
 Again, the code will be sandwiched inside HTML and will be stored as a
.php file.

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3.1: Computers and their components

3.1.1 Types of memory and storage:

Primary Memory:
Primary memory is the part of computer memory which can be accessed
directly from the CPU. Primary memory allows the processor to access
applications and services temporarily stored in memory locations.
 RAM:

RAM refers to the fact that any memory location can be accessed
independent of which memory location was last used. Access time to locate
data is much faster in RAM than in secondary devices.
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RAM can also be:

o written to or read from, and the data stored can be changed by the user

or by the computer
o used to store data, files, part of an application or part of the operating

system currently in use

o volatile (memory contents are lost on powering off the computer).

There are currently two types of RAM technology, dynamic RAM (DRAM) and
static RAM (SRAM).

DRAM SRAM
 consists of a number of  uses flip-flops to hold each bit of
transistors and capacitors memory
 needs to be constantly

refreshed  does not need to be constantly

 less expensive to manufacture refreshed
than SRAM  has a faster data access time than
 has a higher memory capacity DRAM
than SRAM  processor memory cache makes use of
 main memory is constructed SRAM
from DRAM  if accessed at a high frequency, power
 consumes more power than usage can exceed that of DRAM
SRAM under reasonable levels of
access, as it needs to be
constantly refreshed

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 ROM:
o non-volatile (the contents are not lost after powering off the computer)
o permanent memory devices (the contents cannot be changed)
o often used to store data which the computer needs to access when
powering up for the first time for example, the basic input/output
system (BIOS).

 PROM and EPROM

o A programmable read-only memory (PROM) is a type of ROM chip
that can be altered once.
o A PROM is made up of a matrix of fuses. Programming a PROM

requires the use of a PROM writer which uses an electric current to

alter specific cells by ‘burning’ fuses in the matrix.
o Due to the method of programming (writing), a PROM can only be

written to once.
o They are often used in mobile phones and in RFID tags.

o An Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM) is different to a

PROM because they use floating gate transistors and capacitors rather
than fuses.
o Ultra violet (UV) light is used to program an EPROM through a quartz
window.
o They are used in applications which are under development, such as the
programming of new games consoles.

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RAM ROM
 temporary memory device  permanent memory device
 volatile memory  non-volatile memory device
 can be written to and read from  data stored cannot be altered
 used to store data, files, programs,  sometimes used to store BIOS and
part of OS currently in use other data needed at start up
 can be increased in size to
improve operational speed of a
computer

Embedded systems
Embedded systems involve installing microprocessors into devices to enable
operations to be controlled in a more efficient way. Devices such as cookers,
refrigerators and central heating systems can now all be activated by a web-
enabled device (such as a mobile phone or tablet).

Pros of embedded systems Cons of embedded systems

 small in size and therefore easy to  difficult to upgrade devices to take
fit into devices advantage of new technology
 relatively low cost to make  troubleshooting faults in the device
 usually dedicated to one task, becomes a specialist task
making for simple interfaces and  although the interface can appear to
often no requirement of an be simple, in reality it can be more
operating system confusing (changing the time on a
 consume very little power cooker clock can require several
steps, for example)
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 very fast reaction to changing  any device that can be accessed over
input (operate in real time) the internet is also open to hackers,
 with mass production comes viruses, and so on
reliability  due to the difficulty in upgrading and
fault finding, devices are often just
thrown away rather than being
repaired (wasteful)

Secondary storage devices (SSD):

 Secondary storage includes storage devices that are not directly accessible
by the CPU.
 They are non-volatile devices which allow data to be stored as long as
required by the user.
 This type of storage is much larger than primary memory, but data access
time is considerably slower than RAM and ROM

Hard disk drives (HDD) :

 Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surfaces of the disks (or

platters, as they are frequently called).

 The hard disk drive will have a number of platters which can spin at about

7000 times a second.

 A number of read-write heads can access all of the surfaces in the disk

drive.
 Data is stored on the surface in sectors and tracks.

 A sector on a given track will contain a fixed number of bytes.

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Issue: Latency
Explanation: hard disk drives have very slow data access when compared to, for
example, RAM. Many applications require the read-write heads to constantly seek
for the correct blocks of data; this means a large number of head movements.
The effects of latency then become very significant. Latency is defined as the
time it takes for a specific block of data on a data track to rotate around to
the read-write head.

Solution: When a file or data is stored on an HDD, the required number of

sectors needed to store the data will be allocated. However, the sectors allocated
may not be adjacent to each other. Through time, the HDD will undergo
numerous deletions and editing, which leads to sectors becoming increasingly
fragmented, resulting in a gradual deterioration of the HDD performance (in
other words, it takes longer and longer to access data). Defragmentation software
can improve on this situation by ‘tidying up’ the disk sectors.

Solid state drives (SSD)

 Latency is an issue in HDDs, Solid state drives (SSD) reduce this issue

considerably.
 They have no moving parts and all data is retrieved at the same rate.

 They do not rely on magnetic properties.

 The most common type of solid state storage devices store data by

controlling the movement of electrons within NAND chips.

 The data is stored as 0s and 1s in millions of tiny transistors within the

chip.

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 This effectively produces a non-volatile rewritable memory. However, a

number of solid state storage devices sometimes use electronically erasable
PROM (EEPROM) technology.
 The main difference is the use of NOR chips rather than NAND.

Benefits of SSD:
 are more reliable (no moving parts to go wrong)

 are considerably lighter (which makes them suitable for laptops)

 do not have to ‘get up to speed’ before they work properly

 have a lower power consumption

 run much cooler than HDDs (both these points again make them very

suitable for laptop computers)

 are very thin (because they have no moving parts)

 access data considerably faster.

 Drawback: unknown longevity of the technology.

Optical media: CDs, DVDs and Blu-ray discs

 CDs and DVDS are described as optical storage devices. Laser light is used

to read data from, and write data onto, the surface of a disk.
 Both CDs and DVDs use a thin layer of metal alloy or light-sensitive

organic dye to store the data.

 When a disk spins, the optical head moves to the point where the laser

beam ‘contacts’ the disk surface and follows the spiral track from the
centre outwards.
 As with an HDD, a CD/DVD is divided into sectors allowing direct access of

data. Also, as in the case of an HDD, the outer part of the disk runs
faster than the inner part of the disk.
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 The data is stored in ‘pits’ and ‘bumps’ on the spiral track. A red laser is
used to read and write the data.

disk laser wavelength disk construction track pitch (distance

type colour of laser light between tracks)
CD red 780nm single 1.2mm 1.60µm
polycarbonate layer
DVD red 650nm two 0.6mm 0.74µm
polycarbonate layers
Blu-ray blue 405nm single 1.1mm 0.30µm
polycarbonate layer

3.1.2 Input and output devices

Laser printers:

Stage Description of what happens

1 data from the document is sent to a printer driver
2 printer driver ensures that the data is in a format that the chosen
printer can understand
3 check is made by the printer driver to ensure that the chosen printer
is available to print (is it busy? is it off-line? is it out of ink? and so
on)
4 data is sent to the printer and stored in a temporary memory known as
a printer buffer

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5 printing drum given a positive charge. As this drum rotates, a laser

beam scans across it removing the positive charge in certain areas,
leaving negatively charged areas which exactly match the text/images
of the page to be printed
6 drum is coated with positively charged toner (powdered ink). Since the
toner is positively charged, it only sticks to the negatively charged parts
of the drum
7 negatively charged sheet of paper is rolled over the drum
8 toner on the drum sticks to the paper to produce an exact copy of the
page sent to the printer
9 to prevent the paper sticking to the drum, the electric charge on the
paper is removed after one rotation of the drum
10 the paper goes through a fuser (a set of heated rollers), where the heat
melts the ink so that it fixes permanently to the paper
11 a discharge lamp removes all the electric charge from the drum so it is
ready to print the next page

Inkjet printers

Stage Description of what happens

1 data from the document is sent to a printer driver
2 printer driver ensures that the data is in a format that the chosen
printer can understand
3 check is made by the printer driver to ensure that the chosen printer
is available to print
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4 data is sent to the printer and stored in a temporary memory known

as a printer buffer
5 a sheet of paper is fed into the main body of the printer. A sensor
detects whether paper is available in the paper feed tray – if it is out
of paper (or the paper is jammed), an error message is sent back to
the computer
6 as the sheet of paper is fed through the printer, the print head moves
from side to side across the paper printing the text or image. The four
ink colours are sprayed in their exact amounts to produce the desired
final colour
7 at the end of each full pass of the print head, the paper is advanced
very slightly to allow the next line to be printed. This continues until
the whole page has been printed
8 if there is more data in the printer buffer, then the whole process
from stage 5 is repeated until the buffer is empty
9 once the printer buffer is empty, the printer sends an interrupt to the
processor in the computer, which is a request for more data to be sent
to the printer. The process continues until the whole of the document
has been printed

3D Printers:
 3D printers use additive manufacturing this is in contrast to the more
traditional method of subtractive manufacturing
 The subtractive method would involve carving the statue out of solid stone
(removing the stone not required) until the final item was produced.
Similarly, CNC machining removes metal to form an object; 3D printing
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would produce the same item by building up the object from layers of
powdered metal.

Speakers:
Digitised sound stored in a file on a computer can be converted into analogue
sound as follows:
 The digital data is first passed through a digital to analogue converter

(DAC) where it is converted into an electric current.

 This is then passed through an amplifier (since the current generated by

the DAC will be small) to create a current large enough to drive a

loudspeaker.
 This electric current is then fed to a loudspeaker where it is converted into

sound.
 If the sound is stored in a computer file, it must first pass through a digital

to analogue converter (DAC) to convert the digital data into an electric

current which can be used to drive the loudspeaker.

how a loudspeaker can convert electric signals into sound waves:

 When an electric current flows through a coil of wire that is wrapped around

an iron core, the core becomes a temporary electromagnet; a permanent

magnet is also positioned very close to this electromagnet.
 As the electric current through the coil of wire varies, the induced

magnetic field in the iron core also varies. This causes the iron core to be
attracted towards the permanent magnet and as the current varies this will
cause the iron core to vibrate.
 Since the iron core is attached to a cone (made from paper or thin

synthetic material), this causes the cone to vibrate, producing sound.

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 The rate at which the DAC can translate the digital output into analogue
voltages is known as the sampling rate.

Microphones:
Microphones are either built into the computer or are external devices connected
through the USB port or through wireless connectivity. The current produced can
either be stored as sound amplified and sent to a loudspeaker, or sent to a
computer for storage.
 When sound is created, it causes the air to vibrate.

 When a diaphragm in the microphone picks up the air vibrations, the

diaphragm also begins to vibrate.

 A copper coil is wrapped around a permanent magnet and the coil is

connected to the diaphragm using a cone. As the diaphragm vibrates, the

cone moves in and out causing the copper coil to move backwards and
forwards.
 This forwards and backwards motion causes the magnetic field around the

permanent magnet to be disturbed, inducing an electric current.

 The electric current is then either amplified or sent to a recording device.

The electric current is analogue in nature. The electric current output from
the microphone can also be sent to a computer where a sound card converts
the current into a digital signal which can then be stored in the computer.

Screens:
screens use an LCD, backlit with LEDs or the newer organic light emitting diode
(OLED) technology.

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OLED: OLEDs use organic materials (made up of carbon compounds) to create

flexible semiconductors. Organic films are sandwiched between two charged
electrodes (one is a metallic cathode and the other a glass anode). When an
electric field is applied to the electrodes, they give off light. This means that no
form of back lighting is required. This allows for very thin screens

Touch screens
Capacitive:
 Made up of many layers of glass that act like a capacitor creating electric

fields between the glass plates in layers.

 When the top glass layer is touched, the electric current changes and the

coordinates where the screen was touched are determined by an on board

microprocessor.
Benefits Drawbacks
 Medium cost technology.  Only allows use of bare fingers as
 Screen visibility is good even in the form of input; although the
strong sunlight. latest screens permit the use of a
 Permits multi-touch capability. special stylus to be used.
 Screen is very durable; it takes a
major impact to break the glass.

Resistive:
 Makes use of an upper layer of polyester (a form of plastic) and a bottom

layer of glass.

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 When the top polyester layer is touched, the top layer and bottom layer
complete a circuit.
 Signals are then sent out, which are interpreted by a microprocessor and
the calculations determine the coordinates of where the screen was touched.

Benefits Drawbacks
 Relatively inexpensive  Screen visibility is poor in strong
technology. sunlight.
 Possible to use bare fingers,  Does not permit multi-touch capability.
gloved fingers or stylus to carry  Screen durability is only fair; it is
out an input operation. vulnerable to scratches and the screen
wears out through time

Virtual headsets:
Video is sent from a computer to the headset
 Two feeds are sent to an LCD/OLED display ; lenses placed between the

eyes and the screen allow for focusing and reshaping of the image/video for
each eye, thus giving a 3D effect and adding to the realism.
 Most headsets use 110° field of view which is enough to give a pseudo 360°

surround image/video.
 A frame rate of 60 to 120 images per second is used to give a true/realistic

image.
 As the user moves their head, a series of sensors and/or LEDs measure this

movement, which allows the image/video on the screen to react to the

user’s head movements.

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 Headsets also use binaural sound so that the speaker output appears to
come from behind, from the side or from a distance, giving very realistic 3D
sound
 Some headsets also use infrared sensors to monitor eye movement, which
allows the depth of field on the screen to be more realistic; an example of
this is to make objects in the foreground appear fuzzy when the user’s
eyes indicate they are looking into the distance.

Sensors
Sensors are input devices which read or measure physical properties, such as
temperature, pressure etc

Sensor Example applications

temperature control a central heating system
control/monitor a chemical process
control/monitor temperature in a greenhouse
moisture/humidity control/monitor moisture/humidity levels in soil/air in a
greenhouse
monitor dampness levels in an industrial application
light switch street lighting on at night and off during the day
monitor/control light levels in a greenhouse
switch on car headlights when it gets dark
infrared/motion turn on windscreen wipers on a car when it rains
detect an intruder in a burglar alarm system
count people entering or leaving a building
pressure detect intruders in a burglar alarm system
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check weight
monitor/control a process where gas pressure is important
acoustic/sound pick up noise levels in a burglar alarm system
detect noise of liquids dripping from a pipe
gas (such as O2 or monitor pollution levels in a river or air
CO2) measure O2 and CO2 levels in a greenhouse
check for CO2 or NO2 leaks in a power station
pH monitor/control acidity/alkalinity levels in soil
monitor pollution in rivers
magnetic field detect changes in in cell phones, CD players, and so on
used in anti-lock braking systems in motor vehicles

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Examples of monitoring Examples of control

monitoring a patient in a checking for intruders in a burglar
hospital for vital signs such as alarm system
heart rate, temperature, and so
on
checking the temperature levels monitoring pollution levels in a river
in a car engine
turning street lights on at night controlling the temperature in a central
and turning them off again heating/air conditioning system
during daylight
controlling the traffic lights at a operating anti-lock brakes on a car
road junction when necessary
controlling the environment in a
greenhouse

3.2 Logic Gates and Logic Circuits

3.1 Truth Tables

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Truth Table using a circuit

A B C P = A AND B Q = B NOR R = P OR Q X = R XOR

C C
0 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 1 0

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Truth table using a statement

X = 1 if (A = 1 AND B = NOT 1 OR B = 1 AND C = NOT 1)

A B C P = (A = 1 AND B = Q =( B = 1 AND C = X = P OR
NOT 1) NOT 1) Q
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0

Statement from a Truth Table

A B C X
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
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1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
Step 1: Write down the statement by looking at the truth table

 Write the statement only for the rows where the output is 1
Statement for row 5 will be:
A AND NOT B AND NOT C

Statement for row 8 will be:

A AND B AND C

The complete statement will be:

X = 1 if (A=1 AND B = 0 AND C = 0) OR (A=1 AND B=1 AND C=1)
OR
X = 1 if (A AND NOT B AND NOT C) OR (A AND B AND C)

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4.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU) Architecture:

4.1.1 Von Neumann Model

features of the Von Neumann architecture were

 a central processing unit (CPU or processor)

 a processor able to access the memory directly

 computer memories that could store programs as well as data

 stored programs made up of instructions that could be executed in

sequential order.

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4.1.2 Components of the processor (CPU):

The main components of the processor are the:

 arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

 the control unit (CU)

 the system clock

 the immediate access store (IAS).

Arithmetic logic unit (ALU):

 The ALU allows the required arithmetic or logic operations to be carried out

while a program is being run.

 It is possible for a computer to have more than one ALU – one will

perform fixed point operations and the other floating-point operations

 The accumulator (ACC) is a temporary register used when carrying out ALU

calculations.

Control unit (CU):

 The CU reads an instruction from memory (the address of the location

where the instruction can be found is stored in the program counter (PC).
 This instruction is then interpreted.

System clock:
 A system clock is used to produce timing signals on the control bus to
ensure this vital synchronisation takes place – without the clock the
computer would simply crash.

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Immediate access store (IAS) :

 The IAS holds all the data and programs that the processor (CPU) needs to

access.
 The CPU takes data and programs held in backing store and puts them

into the IAS temporarily.

 This is done because read/write operations carried out using the IAS are

considerably faster than read/write operations to backing store.

4.1.3 Registers

Register Abbreviation Function/purpose of register

current CIR stores the current instruction being decoded
instruction and executed index register IX used when
register carrying out index addressing operations
(assembly code)
memory address MAR stores the address of the memory location
register currently being read from or written
to memory MDR/MBR stores data which has just been read from
data/ buffer memory or data which is about to be written to
register memory (sometimes referred to as MBR)
program PC stores the address where the next instruction
counter to be read can be found
status register SR contain bits which can be set or cleared
depending on the operation (for example, to
indicate overflow in a calculation)

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A status register is used when an instruction requires some form of arithmetic or

logic processing. Each bit is known as a flag. Most systems have the following
four flags.

 Carry flag (C) is set to 1 if there is a CARRY following an addition operation.

 Negative flag (N) is set to 1 if the result of a calculation yields a NEGATIVE
value.
 Overflow flag (V) is set to 1 if an arithmetic operation results in an
OVERFLOW being produced.
 Zero flag (Z) is set to 1 if the result of an arithmetic or logic operation is
ZERO.

4.1.4 System buses

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There are three common buses used in the Von Neumann architecture known as
address bus, data bus and control bus.

Address bus:
 The address bus carries addresses throughout the computer system. Between

the CPU and memory the address bus is unidirectional (in other words, bits
can travel in one direction only).
 This prevents addresses being carried back to the CPU, which would be

undesirable.
 The width of a bus is important.

 The wider the bus, the more memory locations which can be directly

addressed at any given time; for example, a bus of width 16 bits can address
216 (65 536) memory locations, whereas a bus width of 32 bits allows 4
294 967 296 memory locations to be simultaneously addressed.

Data bus:
 The data bus is bidirectional (in other words, it allows data to be sent in

both directions along the bus).

 This means data can be carried from CPU to memory (and vice versa) as

well as to and from input/output devices.

 It is important to point out that data can be an address, an instruction or a

numerical value.
 As with the address bus, the width of the data bus is important: the wider

the bus, the larger the word length that can be transported

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Control bus:
 The control bus is also bidirectional. It carries signals from the CU to all the

other computer components. It is usually 8-bits wide since it only carries

control signals.
 The clock defines the clock cycle which synchronises all computer

operations.
 .By increasing clock speed, the processing speed of the computer is also

increased

Summary:
 Increasing bus width (data and address buses) increases the performance and
speed of a computer system
 Increasing clock speed usually increases the speed of a computer
 a computer’s performance can be changed by altering bus width, clock
speed and use of multi-core CPUs
 use of cache memories can also speed up a processor’s performance.

4.1.5 Computer ports

Input and output devices are connected to a computer via ports. The interaction
of the ports with connected input and output is controlled by the control unit.

USB ports
The Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an asynchronous serial data transmission
method.

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 the computer automatically detects that a device is present (this is due to

a small change in the voltage level on the data signal wires in the cable)
 the device is automatically recognised, and the appropriate device driver is
loaded up so that computer and device can communicate effectively
 if a new device is detected, the computer will look for the device driver
which matches the device. If this is not available, the user is prompted to
download the appropriate software.

Pros of USB system Cons of USB system

 devices plugged into the computer  the present transmission rate is
are automatically detected and limited to less than 500 megabits
device drivers are automatically per second
loaded up  the maximum cable length is
 the connectors can only fit one presently about five metres
way, which prevents incorrect  the older USB standard may not
connections being made be supported in the near future
 this has become the industry
standard, which means that
considerable support is available to
users
 several different data transmission
rates are supported
 newer USB standards are backward
compatible with older USB standards

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High-definition multimedia interface (HDMI):

High-definition multimedia interface (HDMI) ports allow output (both audio and
visual) from a computer to an HDMI-enabled device.
They support high definition signals (enhanced or standard). HDMI was introduced
as a digital replacement for the older Video Graphics Array (VGA) analogue
system.
 They use a widescreen format (16:9 aspect ratio).

 The screens use a greater number of pixels (typically 1920 × 1080).

 The screens have a faster refresh rate (such as 120Hz or 120 frames a

second).
 The range of colours is extremely large.

Video Graphics Array (VGA):

VGA supports 640 × 480 pixel resolution on a television or monitor screen. It can
also handle a refresh rate of up to 60Hz (60 frames a second) provided there are
only 16 different colours being used. If the pixel density is reduced to 200 × 320,
then it can support up to 256 colours.

Pros of HDMI Cons of HDMI

 the current standard for modern  not a very robust connection (easy
televisions and monitors to break connection when simply
 allows for a very fast data transfer moving device)
rate  limited cable length to retain good
 improved security (helps prevent signal
piracy)  there are currently five cable/
 supports modern digital systems connection standards
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Pros of VGA Cons of VGA

 simpler technology  old outdated analogue technology
 only one standard available  it is easy to bend the pins when
 it is easy to split the signal and making connections
connect a number of devices  the cables must be of a very high
from one source grade to ensure good undistorted
 the connection is very secure signal

4.1.6 Fetch-execute cycle

To execute a set of instructions, the processor first fetches data and instructions
from memory and stores them in suitable registers. Both the address bus and data
bus are used in this process. Once this is done, each instruction needs to be
decoded before being executed.

Fetch:
 The next instruction is fetched from the memory address currently stored

in the program counter (PC) and is then stored in the current instruction
register (CIR).
 The PC is then incremented (increased by 1) so that the next instruction

can be processed.
 This is decoded so that each instruction can be interpreted in the next part

of the cycle.

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Execute :
 The processor passes the decoded instruction as a set of control signals to

the appropriate components within the computer system.

 This allows each instruction to be carried out in its logical sequence.

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When registers are involved, it is possible to describe what is happening by using

Register Transfer Notation (RTN). In its simplest form:

MAR ← [PC] contents of PC copied into MAR

PC ← [PC] + 1 PC is incremented by 1
data stored at address shown in MAR is copied into MDR
MDR ← [[MAR]] contents of MDR copied into CIR
CIR ← [MDR]

Double brackets are used in the third line because it is not MAR contents being
copied into MDR but it is the data stored at the address shown in MAR that is
being copied to MDR.

Interrupt Handling:
There are many different reasons for an interrupt to be generated. Some
examples are:
 a fatal error in a program

 a hardware fault

 a need for I/O processing to begin

 user interaction

 a timer signal.

A special register called the interrupt register is used in the fetch-execute cycle.
While the CPU is in the middle of carrying out this cycle, an interrupt could
occur, which will cause one of the bits in the interrupt register to change its
status.

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 At the next fetch-execute cycle, the interrupt register is checked bit by

bit.
 The contents 0000 1000 would indicate an interrupt occurred during a
previous cycle and it still needs servicing. The CPU would now service this
interrupt or ignore it for now, depending on its priority.
 Once the interrupt is serviced by the CPU, it stops its current task and
stores the contents of its registers.
 Control is now transferred to the interrupt handler (or interrupt service
routine, ISR).
 Once the interrupt is fully serviced, the register is reset and the contents
of registers are restored.

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Once the interrupt signal is received, the processor either carries on with what it
was doing or stops to service the device/program that generated the interrupt.
The computer needs to identify the interrupt type and also establish the level of
interrupt priority.

4.2 Assembly Language:

Important Definitions:
Opcode: defines the action associated with the instruction
Operand: defines any data needed by the instruction
Machine code instruction: a binary code with a defined number of bits that
comprises an opcode and, most often, one operand
Assembly language: a low-level language related to machine code where opcodes
are written as mnemonics and there is a character representation for an operand
Assembler: a program used to translate an assembly language program into
machine code
Directive: an instruction to the assembler program

4.2.2 Stages of assembly

 Before a program written in assembly language (source code) can be

executed, it needs to be translated into machine code.

 The translation is performed by a program called an assembler.

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 An assembler translates each assembly language instruction into a machine

code instruction.
 An assembler also checks the syntax of the assembly language program to
ensure that only opcodes from the appropriate machine code instruction set
are used.
 This speeds up the development time, as some errors are identified during
translation before the program is executed.

There are two types of assembler: single pass assemblers and two pass assemblers.

Pass 1
 Read the assembly language program one line at a time.
 Ignore anything not required, such as comments.
 Allocate a memory address for the line of code.
 Check the opcode is in the instruction set.
 Add any new labels to the symbol table with the address, if known.
 Place address of labelled instruction in the symbol table.

Pass 2
 Read the assembly language program one line at a time.

 Generate object code, including opcode and operand, from the symbol table

generated in Pass 1.
 Save or execute the program.

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4.2.3 Assembly language instructions

 Data movement instructions:

These instructions allow data stored at one location to be copied into the
accumulator. This data can then be stored at another location, used in a
calculation, used for a comparison or output.

Input and output of data instructions:

These instructions allow data to be read from the keyboard or output to the
screen.

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 Arithmetic operation instructions:

These instructions perform simple calculations on data stored in the accumulator
and store the answer in the accumulator, overwriting the original data.

 Unconditional and conditional instructions:

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 Compare instructions:

4.2.4 Addressing Modes

Addressing mode Use of the operand

Immediate The operand is the value to be used in the instruction;
SUB #48 is an example.
Direct The operand is the address which holds the value to be
used in the instruction; ADD TOTAL is an example.
Indirect The operand is an address that holds the address which has
the value to be used in the instruction.
Indexed The operand is an address to which must be added the
value currently in the index register (IX) to get the address
which holds the value to be used in the instruction.
Relative addressing the memory address used is the current memory address
added to the operand. For example, JMR #5 would transfer
control to the instruction 5 locations after the current
instruction.
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Symbolic addressing only used in assembly language programming. A label is

used instead of a value. For example, if the memory
location with address labelled MyStore contained the value
20, the assembly language instruction LDD MyStore would
store 20 in the accumulator.

4.3 Bit Manipulation:

4.3.1 Binary shifts

A shift involves moving the bits stored in a register a given number of places
within the register.
There are several different types of shift.

Logical shift – bits shifted out of the register are replaced with zeros.
For example, an 8-bit register containing the binary value 10101111 shifted left
logically three places would become 01111000.

Arithmetic shift – the sign of the number is preserved.

For example, an 8-bit register containing the binary value 10101111 shifted right
arithmetically three places would become 11110101. Arithmetic shifts can be used for
multiplication or division by powers of two.

Cyclic shift – no bits are lost during a shift. Bits shifted out of one end of the
register are introduced at the other end of the register.
For example, an 8-bit register containing the binary value 10101111 shifted left
cyclically three places would become 01111101.
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4.3.2 Bit manipulation used in monitoring and control

 AND is used to check if the bit has been set.

 OR is used to set the bit.

 XOR is used to clear a bit that has been set

Binary numbers can be multiplied or divided by shifting

 Left shift (LSL #n)
Bits are shifted to the left to multiply
E.g. to multiply by four, all digits shift two places to left
 Right shift (LSR #n)
Bits are shifted to the right to divide
E.g. to divide by four, all digits shift two places to right
Logical shift: zeros replace the vacated bit position

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Arithmetic shift: Used to carry out multiplication and division of signed

integers represented by bits in the accumulator by ensuring that the sign-
bit (usually the MSB) is the same after the shift.

Cyclic shift: the bit that is removed from one end by the shift is added to
the other end.

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Bit Masking:
 Each bit can represent an individual flag.
 by altering the bits, flags could be operated upon.
 Bit manipulation operations:
Masking: an operation that defines which bits you want to keep


and which bits you want to clear.

Masking to 1: The OR operation is used with a 1.


Masking to 0: The AND operation is used with a 0



Matching: an operation that allows the accumulator to compare



the value it contains to the given value in order to change the

state of the status register.
 Practical applications of Bit Masking:
Setting an individual bit position:


Mask the content of the register with a mask pattern



which has 0 in the ‘mask out’ positions and 1 in the

‘retain’ positions.
Set the result with the match pattern by using the AND


command with a direct address.

Testing one or more bits:


Mask the content of the register with a mask pattern



which has 0 in the ‘mask out’ positions and 1 in the

‘retain’ positions.
Compare the result with the match pattern by using the


CMP command or by “Checking the pattern”.

Checking the pattern


Use AND operation to mask bits and obtain resultant.



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 Now subtract matching bit pattern from resultant.

 The final ‘non-zero’ result confirms the patterns are not
the same else vice versa.

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5.1 Operating System

5.1.1 The need for an operating system

An operating system provides both the environment in which applications

can be run, and a useable interface between humans and computer
The human–computer interface (HCI) is usually achieved through a
graphical user interface (GUI), although it is possible to use a command line
interface (CLI) if the user wishes to directly communicate with the
computer.
 Command Line Interface (CLI)
A CLI requires a user to type instructions to choose options from menus,
open software, and so on. There are often a number of commands that
need to be typed; for example, to save or load a file

Advantages:
 direct communication with the computer
 not restricted to a number of pre-determined options.

 Graphical User Interface (GUI):

A GUI allows the user to interact with a computer (or MP3 player, gaming
device, mobile phone, and so on) using pictures or symbols (icons).

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5.1.2 Operating system tasks

Memory management


This can be broken down into three parts: memory optimisation, memory
organisation and memory protection.

 Memory optimisation
a. Memory optimisation is used to determine how computer memory
is allocated and deallocated when a number of applications are
running simultaneously.
b. It also determines where they are stored in memory.
c. It must, therefore, keep track of all allocated memory and free
memory available for use by applications.

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d. To maintain optimisation of memory, it will also swap data to

and from the HDD or SSD.

 Memory organisation
Memory organisation determines how much memory is allocated to an
application, and how the memory can be split up in the most
appropriate or efficient manner. This can be done with the use of
a. a single (contiguous) allocation, where all of the memory is made
available to a single application. This is used by MS-DOS and by
embedded systems
b. partitioned allocation, where the memory is split up into contiguous
partitions (or blocks) and memory management then allocates a
partition (which can vary in size) to an application
c. paged memory, which is similar to partitioned allocation, but each
partition is of a fixed size. This is used by virtual memory systems
d. segmented memory, which is different because memory blocks are
not contiguous – each segment of memory will be a logical
grouping of data

 Memory protection
Memory protection ensures that two competing applications cannot
use the same memory locations at the same time. If this was not
done, data could be lost, applications could produce incorrect results,
there could be security issues, or the computer may crash.

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 Security management:
Security management is another part of a typical operating system. The
function of security management is to ensure the integrity, confidentiality
and availability of data.
This can be achieved by
 carrying out operating system updates as and when they become
available
 ensuring that antivirus software (and other security software) is
always upto-date
 communicating with, for example, a firewall to check all traffic to and
from the computer
 making use of privileges to prevent users entering ‘private areas’ on a
computer which permits multi-user activity (this is done by setting up
user accounts and making use of passwords and user IDs). This helps
to ensure the privacy of data
 maintaining access rights for all users
 offering the ability for the recovery of data (and system restore)
when it has been lost or corrupted
 helping to prevent illegal intrusion to the computer system (also
ensuring the privacy of data)

 Process management
A process is a program which is being run on a computer. Process
management involves the allocation of resources and permits the sharing
and exchange of data, thus allowing all processes to be fully synchronised
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 Hardware management
Hardware management involves all input and output peripheral devices. The
functions of hardware management include
 communicating with all input and output devices using device drivers
 translating data from a file (defined by the operating system) into a
format that the input/output device can understand using device
drivers
 ensuring each hardware resource has a priority so that it can be used
and released as required. The management of input/output devices is
essentially the control and management of queues and buffers. For
example, when printing out a document, the printer management
 locates and loads the printer driver into memory
 sends data to a printer buffer ready for printing
 sends data to a printer queue (if the printer is busy or the print job
has a low priority) before sending to the printer buffer
 sends various control commands to the printer throughout the
printing process
 receives and handles error messages and interrupts from the printer

File management
The main tasks of file management include
defining the file naming conventions which can be used
(filename.docx, where the extension can be .bat, .htm, .dbf, .txt, .xls,
and so on)
performing specific tasks, such as create, open, close, delete, rename,
copy, move
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 maintaining the directory structures

 ensuring access control mechanisms are maintained, such as access
rights to files, password protection, making files available for editing,
locking files, and so on
 specifying the logical file storage format (such as FAT or NTFS if
Windows is being used), depending on which type of disk formatter is
used
 ensuring memory allocation for a file by reading it from the
HDD/SSD and loading it into memory

5.1.3 Utility software

 Hard disk formatter
 A disk formatter will organise storage space by assigning it to
data blocks (partitions).
 A disk surface may have a number of partitions
 partitions are contiguous blocks of data

When carrying out full formatting using NTFS, all disk sectors are filled
with zeros; these zeros are read back, thus testing the sector, but any
data already stored there will be lost. So, it is important to remember that
reformatting an HDD which has already been used will result in loss of data
during the formatting procedure.

Disk formatters also have checking tools, which are non-destructive tests
that can be carried out on each sector. If any bad sector errors are
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discovered, the sectors will be flagged as ‘bad’ and the file tracking records
will be reorganised – this is done by replacing the bad sectors with new
unused sectors, effectively repairing the faulty disk

Hard bad sectors (difficult to repair) Soft bad sectors

caused by manufacturing errors damage to disk surface caused by
allowing the read write head to touch
the disk surface (for example, by
moving HDD without first parking
the read-write head)
system crash which could lead to sudden loss of power leading to data
damage to the disk surface(s) corruption in some of the sectors
effect of static electricity leading to
corruption of data in some of the
sectors on the hard disk surfaces

 Virus checkers
Running antivirus software in the background on a computer will constantly
check for virus attacks

Features of anti virus software are:

 check software or files before they are run or loaded on a computer
 compare possible viruses against a database of known viruses
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 carry out heuristic checking – this is the checking of software for

types of behaviour that could indicate a possible virus, which is useful
if software is infected by a virus not yet on the database
 put files or programs which may be infected into quarantine, to –
automatically delete the virus, or – allow the user to decide whether
to delete the file

Defragmentation software:
 Rearranges blocks of individual files (on the HDD) so they are
contiguous // moves the free space together
 Accessing each file is faster because there is no need to search for
the next fragment / block of the file so less head movement is
needed
A disk defragmenter will rearrange the blocks of data to store files in
contiguous sectors wherever possible; however, if the disk drive is almost
full, defragmentation may not work.

Back-up software
 allow a schedule for backing up files to be made
 only carry out a back-up procedure if there have been any changes
made to a file.
Windows environment offers the following facilities using the back-up
utility:

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 The ability to restore data, files or the computer from the back-up
(useful if there has been a problem and files have been lost and need
to be recovered).
 The ability to create a restore point (this restores a computer to its
state at some point in the past; this can be very useful if a very
important file has been deleted and cannot be recovered by any of
the other utilities).
 Options of where to save back-up files; this can be set up from the
utility to ensure files are automatically backed up to a chosen device.

5.1.4 Program libraries

Program libraries are used
 when software is under development and the programmer can utilise
pre-written subroutines in their own programs, thus saving
considerable development time
 to help a software developer who wishes to use dynamic link library
(DLL) subroutines in their own program, so these subroutines must be
available at run time.
Dynamic Link Libraries:
 In dynamic libraries, software being developed is not linked to the
library routines until actual run time (these are known as dynamic
link library files or DLL).
 These library routines would be stand-alone files only being accessed
as required by the new program – the routines will be available to
several applications at the same time.
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Pros of using DLL files Cons of using DLL files

the executable code of the main the executable code is not self-
program is much smaller since DLL contained, therefore all DLL files need
files are only loaded into memory to be available at run time otherwise
at run time error messages (such as missing .dll
error) will be generated and the
software may even crash
it is possible to make changes to any DLL linking software in the main
DLL files independently of the program needs to be available at run
main program, consequently if any time to allow links with DLL files to
changes are made to the DLL files be made
it will not be necessary to
recompile the main program
DLL files can be made available to if any of the DLL files have been
a number of applications at the changed (either intentionally or
same time through corruption) this could lead to
the main program giving unexpected
results or even crashing
all of the above save memory and malicious changes to DLL files could
also save execution time be due to the result of malware, thus
presenting a risk to the main program
following the linking process

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5.2 Language Translators:

5.2.1 Translation and execution of programs

The systems software used to translate a source program written in any
language other than machine code are translators

 Assemblers
 Programs written in assembly language are translated into machine
code by an assembler program.
 Assemblers either store the program directly in main memory,
ready for execution, as it is translated, or they store the translated
program on a storage medium to be used later.
 If stored for later use, then a loader program is also needed to load
the stored translated program into main memory before it can be
executed
 Compilers and interpreters
Programs written in a high-level language can be either
translated into machine code by a compiler program, or directly
executed line-by-line using an interpreter program.
Compilers usually store the translated program (object program)
on a storage medium ready to be executed later.
A loader program is needed to load the stored translated program
into main memory before it can be executed.

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 With an interpreter, no translated program is generated in main

memory or stored for later use.
 Every line in a program is interpreted then executed each time
the program is run.

Assembler Compiler Interpreter

Source program assembly high-level high-level language
written in language language
Machine yes no no
dependent
Object program yes, stored on yes, stored on no, instructions are
generated disk or in main disk or in main executed under the
memory memory control of the
interpreter
Each line of one machine code many machine many machine code
the source instruction, one code instructions, instructions,
program to one translation instruction instruction
generates explosion explosion

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5.2.2 Pros and cons of compiling or interpreting a program

Compiler Interpreter
The end user only needs the The end user will need to purchase a
executable code, therefore, the end compiler or an interpreter to translate
user benefits as there is no need to the source code before it is used.
purchase a compiler to translate
the program before it is used.
The developer keeps hold of the The developer relinquishes control of
source code, so it cannot be altered the source code, making it more
or extended by the end user, difficult to charge for upgrades and
therefore, the developer benefits as alterations. Since end users can view
they can charge for upgrades and the source code, they could
alterations. potentially use the developer’s
intellectual property.
Compiled programs take a shorter An interpreted program can take
time to execute as translation has longer to execute than the same
already been completed and the program when compiled, since each
machine code generated may have line of the source code needs to be
been optimised by the compiler. translated before it is executed every
time the program is run.
Compiled programs have no syntax Interpreted programs may still contain
or semantic errors. syntax or semantic errors if any part
of the program has not been fully
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tested, these errors will need to be

debugged.
The source program can be Interpreted programs cannot be
translated on one type of computer interpreted on one type of computer
then executed on another type of and run on another type of
computer. computer.
A compiler finds all errors in a It is easier to develop and debug a
program. One error detected can program using an interpreter as errors
mean that the compiler finds other can be corrected on each line and
dependent errors later on in the the program restarted from that
program that will not be errors place, enabling the programmer to
when the first error is corrected. easily learn from any errors.
Therefore, the number of errors
found may be more than the actual
number of errors.
Untested programs with errors may Untested programs should not be able
cause the computer to crash. to cause the computer to crash.
The developer needs to write special Partial results can be viewed during
routines in order to view partial development, enabling the developer
results during development, making to make informed decisions about a
it more difficult to assess the section of code, for example whether
quality of particular sections of to continue, modify, or scrap and
code. start again.

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End users do not have access to If an interpreted program is

the source code and the run-time purchased, end users have all the
libraries, meaning they are unable source code and the run-time
to make modifications and are libraries, enabling the program to be
reliant on the developer for updates modified as required without further
and alterations. purchase.

5.2.4 Integrated development environment (IDE)

IDEs usually have
 a source code editor
 a compiler, an interpreter, or both
 a run-time environment with a debugger
 an auto-documenter.

 Source code editor

A source code editor allows a program to be written and edited
without the need to use a separate text editor.
Most source code editors colour code the words in the program
and layout the program in a meaningful way (prettyprinting)
Dynamic syntax checking finds possible syntax errors as the
program code is being typed in to the source code editor and
alerts the programmer at the time, before the source code is
interpreted.
Logic errors can only be found when the program is run.
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 Compilers and interpreters

Most IDEs usually provide a compiler and/or an interpreter to run the
program. The interpreter is often used for developing the program and the
compiler to produce the final version of the object code.

 A run-time environment with a debugger

A debugger is a program that runs the program under
development and aids the process of debugging.
It allows the programmer to single step through the program a
line at a time (single stepping) or to set a breakpoint to stop
the execution of the program at a certain point in the source
code.
A report window then shows the contents of the variables and
expressions evaluated at that point in the program

 Auto-documenter
Most IDEs usually provide an auto-documenter to explain the function and
purpose of programming code.

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6.1 Data Security:

6.1.1 Data Privacy:

Data privacy is achieved by the following data protection laws:

 Data must be fairly and lawfully processed.
 Data can only be processed for the stated purpose.
 Data must be adequate, relevant and not excessive.
 Data must be accurate.
 Data must not be kept longer than necessary.
 Data must be processed in accordance with the data subject’s
rights.
 Data must be kept secure.
 Data must not be transferred to another country unless that
country also has adequate protection

6.1.2 Preventing data loss and restricting data access

Data security refers to the methods used to prevent unauthorised access

to data, as well as to the data recovery methods if it is lost.

 Create user accounts to control access rights

 Use of strong passwords
 Use of firewall
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 Digital signatures
 Anti Virus Software
 Anti Spyware software
 Encryption
 Biometrics (Fingerprint scan, Retina Scan)

6.1.3 Risks to the security of stored data

 Hacking:
Malicious Hacking: illegal access to a computer system without


the user’s permission or knowledge.

Ethical Hacking: authorised by companies to check their


security measures and how robust their computer systems are

to resist hacking attacks.

 Malware:
Viruses: Programs or program code that can replicate and/or
copy themselves with the intention of deleting or corrupting
files or causing the computer to malfunction.
Worms: A type of stand-alone virus that can replicate
themselves with the intention of spreading to other
computers; they often use networks to search out computers
with weak security.
Trojan Horses: Malicious programs often disguised as legitimate
software. They replace all or part of the legitimate software
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with the intent of carrying out some harm to the user’s

computer system.
 Spyware: Software that gathers information by monitoring, for
example, key presses on the user’s keyboard. The information
is then sent back to the person who sent the software –
sometimes referred to as key logging software.
 Bots: Not always harmful and can be used, for example, to
search automatically for an item on the internet. However,
they can cause harm by taking control over a computer
system and launching attacks.
 Logic Bombs: Code embedded in a program on a computer.
When certain conditions are met (such as a specific date) they
are activated to carry out tasks such as deleting files or
sending data to a hacker.

 Phishing: Phishing is when someone sends legitimate-looking emails

to users. They may contain links or attachments which, when
clicked, take the user to a fake website, or they may trick the
user into responding with personal data such as bank account
details or credit card numbers.

 Pharming: Pharming is malicious code installed on a user’s computer

or on a web server. The code re-directs the user to a fake website
without their knowledge (the user does not have to take any

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action, unlike phishing). The creator of the malicious code can gain
personal data such as bank details from users
 Protection against pharming: It is possible to mitigate the risk
of pharming by
using antivirus software, which can detect unauthorised


alterations to a website address and warn the user

using modern web browsers that alert users to pharming


and phishing attacks

checking the spelling of websites


checking for https and/or the green padlock symbol in



the address bar.

6.1.4 Data Recovery:

accidental loss of data use back-ups in case the data is lost or

(for example, accidentalcorrupted through an accidental operation
deletion of a file) save data on a regular basis
use passwords and user IDs to restrict
access to authorised users only
hardware fault (such as use back-ups in case data is lost or
head crash on the HDD) corrupted through the hardware fault
use uninterruptable power supply (USP) in
case power loss causes hardware malfunction
save data on a regular basis
use parallel systems as back-up hardware
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software fault (for use back-ups in case the data is lost or

example, incompatible corrupted through the software fault
software installed on the save data on a regular basis in case the
system) software suddenly ‘freezes’ or ‘crashes’ while
the user is working on it
incorrect computer use back-ups in case data is lost or
operation (for example, corrupted through wrong operation
incorrect shutdown or correct training procedures so users are
procedure for removing aware of the correct operation of hardware
memory stick)
6.2 Data Integrity:
Data stored on a computer should always be accurate, consistent and up to
date. Two of the methods used to ensure data integrity are validation and
verification.
The accuracy (integrity) of data can be compromised
 during the data entry and data transmission stages

 by malicious attacks on the data, for example caused by malware and

hacking
 by accidental data loss caused through hardware issues.

6.2.1 Validation:
Validation is a method of checking if entered data is reasonable , but it cannot
check if data is correct or accurate. For example, if somebody accidentally
enters their age as 62 instead of 26, it is reasonable but not accurate or

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correct. Validation is carried out by computer software; the most common types
are shown in the table below:

Validation Description Example of data Example of

test failing validation test data passing
validation test
type checks whether typing sk.34 in a field typing 34.50 in
non-numeric data which should contain a field which
has been input the price of an item should contain
into a numeric- the price of an
only field item
range checks whether typing in somebody’s typing in
data entered is age as −120 somebody’s age
between a lower as 48
and an upper limit
format checks whether typing in the date as typing in the
data has been 12-12-20 where the date as
entered in the format is dd/mm/yyyy 12/12/2020
agreed format where the
format is
dd/mm/yyyy
length checks whether typing in a telephone typing in a
data has the number as 012 345 telephone
required number of 678 when it should number as 012
contain 11 digits 345 678 90
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characters or when it should

numbers contain 11 digits
presence checks to make please enter passport please enter
sure a field is not number:………… passport
left empty when it …… number: AB
should contain 1234567 CD
data
existence checks if data in data look up for car data look up
a file or a file registration plate A123 for a file called
name actually BCD which does not books_in_stock
exists exist which exists in
a database
limit Checks only one typing in age as −25 typing in
check of the limits (such where the data entered somebody’s age
as the upper limit should not be negative as 72 where
OR the lower limit) the upper limit
is 140
consistency checks whether typing in Mr in the typing in Ms in
check data in two or title field and then the title field
more fields match choosing female in the and then
up correctly gender field choosing female
in the gender
field

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uniqueness checks that each choosing the user name choosing the
check entered value is MAXIMUS222 in a website name
unique social networking site Aristooo.com
but the user name which is not
already exists already used

6.2.2 Verification:
Verification is a way of preventing errors when data is entered manually (using
a keyboard, for example) or when data is transferred from one computer to
another.
Verification during data entry When data is manually entered into a
computer it needs to undergo verification to ensure there are no errors.
There are three ways of doing this:
 double entry

 Data is entered twice, using two different people, and then

compared
 visual check
 Entered data is compared with the original document
 check digits
 The check digit is an additional digit added to a number
 They are often used in barcodes, ISBNs and VINs
 The check digit can be used to ensure the barcode, for
example, has been correctly inputted.

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Verification during data transfer When data is transferred electronically

from one device to another, there is always the possibility of data
corruption or even data loss. A number of ways exist to minimise this risk.
 Checksums

A checksum is a method to check if data has been changed

or corrupted following data transmission. Data is sent in
blocks and an additional value, the checksum, is sent at the
end of the block of data.

 Parity checks
A parity check is another method to check whether data
has been changed or corrupted following transmission from
one device or medium to another.

 Automatic Repeat ReQuest(ARQ)

ARQ uses acknowledgement (a message sent to the receiver


indicating that data has been received correctly) and timeout

(the time interval allowed to elapse before an
acknowledgement is received).
When the receiving device detects an error following data


transmission, it asks for the data packet to be re-sent.

If no error is detected, a positive acknowledgement is sent to


the sender.

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 The sending device will re-send the data package if – it

receives a request to re-send the data, or – a timeout has
occurred.
 The whole process is continuous until the data packet received
is correct or until the ARQ time limit (timeout) is reached.

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7.1 - Legal, Moral, Ethical and Cultural Implications

The following definitions are important when considering ethical behaviour:

 Legal covers the law, whether or not an action is punishable by law.
 Morality concerns questions of right and wrong, and is more often
thought of in relation to personal or individual choices.
 Ethics also concerns questions of right and wrong, but is more often
used in a professional context.
 Culture refers to the attitudes, values and practices shared by a society
or group of people.

7.1.1 Computer ethics:

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Computer ethics is a set of principles set out to regulate the use of

computers. Three factors are considered:
Intellectual property rights, for example, copying of software without the
permission of the owner.
Privacy issues, for example, hacking or any illegal access to another
person’s personal data.
Effect of computers on society, for example, job losses, social impacts,
and so on.
Plagiarism Internet use has led to an increase in plagiarism – this is
when a person takes another person’s idea or work and claims it was
their own.

7.1.2: Professional Ethical Bodies:

The British Computer Society (BCS)
The BCS Code of Conduct covers four main areas:
 The Public Interest
 Professional Competence and Integrity
 Duty to Relevant Authority
 Duty to the Profession

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

 raising awareness of ethical issues
 promoting ethical behaviour among professionals working in the
electronics industry
 ensuring engineers and scientists respect the need for ethical behaviour.
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IEEE Code of Ethics: (Imp: Memorize at least 3 points)

1. to hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public, to
strive to comply with ethical design and sustainable development
practices, and to disclose promptly factors that might endanger the
public or the environment;
2. to avoid real or perceived conflicts of interest whenever possible, and to
disclose them to affected parties when they do exist;
3. to be honest and realistic in stating claims or estimates based on
available data;
4. to reject bribery in all its forms;
5. to improve the understanding by individuals and society of the
capabilities and societal implications of conventional and emerging
technologies, including intelligent systems;
6. to maintain and improve our technical competence and to undertake
technological tasks for others only if qualified by training or experience,
or after full disclosure of pertinent limitations;
7. to seek, accept, and offer honest criticism of technical work, to
acknowledge and correct errors, and to credit properly the contributions
of others;
8. to treat fairly all persons and to not engage in acts of discrimination
based on race, religion, gender, disability, age, national origin, sexual
orientation, gender identity, or gender expression;
9. to avoid injuring others, their property, reputation, or employment by
false or malicious action;
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10. to assist colleagues and co-workers in their professional development

and to support them in following this code of ethics

Software Engineering Code of Ethics:(Imp: Memorize at least 3 points)

1. PUBLIC – Software engineers shall act consistently with the public
interest
2. CLIENT AND EMPLOYER – Software engineers shall act in a manner
that is in the best interests of their client and employer consistent with
the public interest
3. PRODUCT – Software engineers shall ensure that their products and
related modifications meet the highest professional standards possible.
4. JUDGEMENT – Software engineers shall maintain integrity and
independence in their professional judgement.
5. MANAGEMENT – Software engineering managers and leaders shall
subscribe to and promote an ethical approach to the management of
software development and maintenance.
6. PROFESSION – Software engineers shall advance the integrity and
reputation of the profession consistent with the public interest.
7. COLLEAGUES – Software engineers shall be fair to and supportive of
their colleagues.
8. SELF – Software engineers shall participate in life-long learning
regarding the practice of their profession and shall promote an ethical
approach to the practice of the profession.

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7.2 Copyright Issues:

7.2.1 Software copyright and privacy:

Software is protected by copyright laws in much the same way as music CDs,
videos and articles from magazines and books are protected. When software is
purchased, there are certain rules that must be obeyed:
 It is illegal to make a software copy and sell it or give it away.
 Software cannot be used on a network or used on multiple computers
without a multi-use licence.
 It is illegal to use coding from copyrighted software in your own software
– and then pass this software on or sell it as your own – without the
permission of the copyright holder.
 It is illegal to rent out a software package without permission to do so.
 It is illegal to use the name of copyrighted software on other software
without agreement to do so.

7.2.2 Software Licensing:

Commercial software
 Commercial software is available to customers for a fee, providing a
licence for one genuine copy to be used on a single device, or a multi-
use licence for multiple users.
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Free software and the Open Source Initiative

The Free Software Foundation and the Open Source Initiative are non-
profit organisations that promote the benefits of giving users the
freedom to run, copy, change and adapt software.

Users are allowed to follow the four freedoms:

 Run the software for any legal purpose they wish.
 Study the program source code and modify it where necessary to meet
their needs.
 Redistribute copies of the software to friends and family.
 Distribute code modified by the user to friends and family.

Users cannot
 add source code from another piece of software unless this is also
described as free software or open source software
 use the source code to produce software which copies existing software
which is subject to copyright laws
 adapt the source code in such a way that it infringes copyright laws
protecting other software
 use the source code to produce software which is deemed offensive by
third parties.

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Open Source Initiative focuses on the practical consequences offered by

the four freedoms; the aims are to provide effective collaboration on
software development by the users
a. Free Redistribution
b. Source Code
c. Derived Works
d. No Discrimination Against Fields of Endeavor
e. Distribution of License
f. License Must Not Be Specific to a Product
g. License Must Be Technology-Neutral

Freeware:
 Freeware is software a user can download from the internet free of
charge. Once it has been downloaded, there are no fees associated with
using the software (examples include: Adobe Reader, Skype and some
media players). Unlike free software, freeware is subject to copyright
laws and users are often requested to tick a box to say they understand
and agree to the terms and conditions governing the software. This
means that a user is not allowed to study or modify the source code in
any way.

Shareware:
 Shareware allows users to try out some software free of charge for a
trial period. At the end of the trial period, the author of the software
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will request that you pay a fee if you wish to continue using it. Once
the fee is paid, a user is registered with the originator of the software
and free updates and help are then provided. Often, the trial version of
the software is missing some of the features found in the full version,
and these do not become available until the fee is paid. This type of
software is protected by copyright laws and users must not use the
source code in any of their own software without permission.

7.3 Artificial Intelligence

7.3.1 What is AI?

Artificial intelligence (AI) is a machine or application which carries out a
task that requires some degree of intelligence when carried out by a
human being. These tasks could include
 the use of a language
 carrying out a mathematical calculation or function
 recognising a person’s face
 the ability to operate machinery, such as a car, an aeroplane or a train
 analysing data to predict the outcome of a future event, such as
weather forecasting
Three laws of robotics:
 A robot may not injure a human through action or inaction.
 A robot must obey orders given by humans without question.
 A robot must protect itself unless it conflicts with the two laws above.
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7.3.2 The impacts of AI on society, the economy and the environment

Transport:
Some taxi companies are already looking at the introduction of
autonomous (driverless) cars. A customer can call up the taxi using
an app on their mobile phone, which also automatically handles the
payment. Information about the taxi (such as its location and
estimated arrival time) would be sent to the mobile phone until the
driverless taxi arrives at the exact pick-up point. There would not be
any people anywhere in the chain, with AI systems taking total
control. Some car manufacturers are on the brink of actually
supplying autonomous vehicles (cars, buses and trucks). This would be
much more efficient but would put many drivers out of a job.

Criminal justice system:

Advances in facial recognition systems is making fingerprinting in
forensic science almost obsolete. AI is also being used to automate
legal work

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8.1 Database Concepts:

8.1.1 Limitations of File Based Approach

A file-based approach is limited because
 storage space is wasted when data items are duplicated by the
separate applications and some data is redundant
 data can be altered by one application and not by another; it then
becomes inconsistent
 enquiries available can depend on the structure of the data and the
software used so the data is not independent.

8.1.2 The advantages of a relational database over a file-based approach

A database approach is beneficial because
 storage space is not wasted as data items are only stored once,
meaning little or no redundant data
 data altered in one application is available in another application, so
the data is consistent
 enquiries available are not dependent on the structure of the data
and the software used, so the data is independent.

8.1.3 Relational database model terminology

A table is a group of similar data, in a database, with rows for each

instance of an entity and columns for each attribute.
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A record is a row in a table in a database.

A field is a column in a table in a database.
Tuple – one instance of an entity, which is represented by a row in a
table
Entity – anything that can have data stored about it, for example, a
person, place, event, thing.
Indexing: creating a secondary key on an attribute to provide fast access
when searching on that attribute; indexing data must be updated when
table data changes

There are different types of keys.

 A candidate key is an attribute or smallest set of attributes in a
table where no tuple has the same value.
 A primary key is a unique identifier for a table, it is a special case
of a candidate key.
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 A secondary key is a candidate key that is an alternative to the

primary key.
 A foreign key is a set of attributes in one table that refer to the
primary key in another table.

Relationships: A relationship is formed when one table in a database has a

foreign key that refers to a primary key in another table in the database.

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Relationships can take several forms

 one-to-one, 1:1
 one-to-many, 1:m
 many-to-one, m:1
 many-to-many, m:m

8.1.4 The normalisation process:

First normal form (1NF) – entities do not contain repeated groups of
attributes.
Second normal form (2NF) – entities are in 1NF and any non-key
attributes depend upon the primary key. There are no partial
dependencies.
Third normal form (3NF) – entities are in 2NF and all non-key attributes
are independent. The table contains no non-key dependencies.

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First Normal Form (1NF)

Second Normal Form (2NF)

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Third Normal Form (3NF):

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8.2 Database Management System (DBMS)

8.2.1 How a DBMS addresses the limitations of a file-based approach

Data redundancy issue:

This is solved by storing data in separate linked tables, which reduces the
duplication of data as most items of data are only stored once.

Data inconsistency issue:

This is also solved by storing most items of data only once, allowing
updated items to be seen by all applications. As data is not inconsistent,
the integrity of the data stored is improved.

Data dependency issue:

Data is independent of the applications using the database, so changes
made to the structure of the data will be managed by the DBMS and
have little or no effect on the applications using the database. Any fields
or tables added to or removed from the database will not affect the
applications that do not use those fields/tables, as each application only
has access to the fields/tables it requires.

The DBMS approach:

Security measures taken by a DBMS can include
 using usernames and passwords to prevent unauthorised access to the
database
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 using access rights to manage the actions authorised users can take,
for example, users could read/write/delete, or read only, or append
only
 using access rights to manage the parts of the database they have
access to, for example, the provisions of different views of the data
for different users to allow only certain users access to some tables
 automatic creation and scheduling of regular back-ups
 encryption of the data stored » automatic creation of an audit trail
or activity log to record the actions taken by users of the database.

8.2.2 The use and purpose of DBMS software tools

 Developer interface
The developer interface allows a developer to write queries in
structured query language (SQL) rather than using query-by-
example. These queries are then processed and executed by
the query processor. This allows the construction of more
complex queries to interrogate the database.
 Query processor
The query processor takes a query written in SQL and
processes it. The query processor includes a DDL interpreter, a
DML compiler and a query evaluation engine. Any DDL
statements are interpreted and recorded in the database’s
data dictionary. DML statements are compiled into low level
instructions that are executed by the query evaluation engine.
The DML compiler will also optimise the query.
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8.3 Data Definition Language (DDL) and Data Manipulation Language (DML)

8.3.1 SQL (DDL) commands and scripts

SQL (DDL) command Description

CREATE DATABASE Creates a database
CREATE TABLE Creates a table definition
ALTER TABLE Changes the definition of a table
PRIMARY KEY Adds a primary key to a table
FOREIGN KEY … REFERENCES Adds a foreign key to a table
…
Data types for attributes Description
CHARACTER Fixed length text
VARCHAR(n) Variable length text
BOOLEAN True or False; SQL uses the integers 1 and
0
INTEGER Whole number
REAL Number with decimal places
DATE A date usually formatted as YYYY-MM-
DD
TIME A time usually formatted as HH:MM:SS
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8.3.2 SQL (DML) commands and scripts

SQL (DML) Description

query
command
SELECT Fetches data from a database. Queries always begin with
FROM SELECT.
WHERE Includes only rows in a query that match a given
condition
ORDER BY Sorts the results from a query by a given column either
alphabetically or numerically
GROUP BY Arranges data into groups
INNER JOIN Combines rows from different tables if the join condition
is true
SUM Returns the sum of all the values in the column
COUNT Counts the number of rows where the column is not NUL
AVG Returns the average value for a column with a numeric
data type
SQL (DML) maintenance commands Description
INSERT INTO Adds new row(s) to a table
DELETE FROM Removes row(s) from a table
UPDATE Edits row(s) in a table
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 This query will show, in alphabetical order of second name, the first
and second names of all students in class 7A:

SELECT FirstName, SecondName

FROM Student
WHERE ClassID = '7A'
ORDER BY SecondName

 This query will show the teacher’s name and the subject taught:

SELECT Teacher.TeacherName AND Subject.SubjectName

FROM Teacher INNER JOIN Subject ON Teacher. LicenceNumber =
Subject.LicenceNumber

 This statement will insert a row into the Student table:

INSERT INTO Student VALUES(S1301, Peter, Probert, 06/06/2011, 7A)

 If the values for all the columns are not known, then the table
columns need to be specified before the values are inserted:

INSERT INTO Student(StudentID, FirstName, SecondName)

VALUES(S1301, Peter, Probert)

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 These statements will delete the specified row(s) from the Student
table
DELETE FROM Student WHERE StudentID = 'S1301'

 The values for any column can be counted, totalled or averaged

SELECT SUM (ExamMark)

FROM STUDENTSUBJECT

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P2 Theory with step by step

pseudocode guide

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9.1 Computational Thinking Skills:

9.1.1 Abstraction – the process of extracting information that is

essential, while ignoring what is not relevant, for the provision of a
solution.
The benefits of eliminating any unnecessary characteristics from the
model include
 the time required to develop the program is reduced so the program
can be delivered to the customer more quickly
 the program is smaller in size so takes up less space in memory and
download times are shortened
 customer satisfaction is greater as their requirements are met
without any extraneous features.

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9.1.2 Decomposition – the process of breaking a complex problem into

smaller parts.

9.1.3 Pattern recognition – the identification of parts of a problem that

are similar and could use the same solution

9.2 Methods of finding the solution to a problem:

 Structured English is a method of showing the logical steps in an
algorithm, using an agreed subset of straightforward English words for

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commands and mathematical operations to represent the solution.

These steps can be numbered.

 A flowchart shows diagrammatically, using a set of symbols linked

together with flow lines, the steps required for a task and the order
in which they are to be performed. These steps, together with the
order, are called an algorithm. Flowcharts are an effective way to show
the structure of an algorithm.

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 Pseudocode is a method of showing the detailed logical steps in an

algorithm, using keywords, identifiers with meaningful names and
mathematical operators to represent a solution.
Total ← 0
OUTPUT "Enter the number of values to average"
INPUT Number
FOR Counter ← 1 TO Number
OUTPUT "Enter value"
INPUT Value
Total ← Total + Value
NEXT Counter
Average ← Total / Number
OUTPUT "The average of ", Number, " values is ", Average

Operators used in Pseudocode:

+ addition
- subtraction
* multiplication
/ divide
& concatenation
<--- assignment
= Equal to
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<> Not equal to

> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal to
<= Less than or equal to
== To check if two values are equal
OR either
AND both
NOT not

Integer 4
Real 4.3
Character "a"
String "Hamza"
Boolean True OR False

Pseudocode Statements:

 To Input a value
INPUT StudentName

 To Output a statement or result:

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OUTPUT "You have made an error"

OUTPUT StudentName
OUTPUT "Student name is ", StudentName

 To Assign a value to a variable:

Counter ← 1
Counter ← Counter + 1
MyChar ← "A"
LetterValue ← ASC(MyChar)
StudentMark ← 40
Percentage ← (StudentMark / 80) * 100
Oldstring ← "Your mark is"
NewString ← OldString & " ninety-seven"

Selection Statements:
 IF/ELSE
 CASE/ENDCASE

IF MyValue > YourValue

THEN
OUTPUT "I win"
ELSE OUTPUT "You win"
ENDIF
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CASE OF Direction
"N": Y ← Y + 1
"S": Y ← Y – 1
"E": X ← X + 1
"W": X ← X – 1
OTHERWISE : OUTPUT "Error"
ENDCASE

Iteration:
 FOR LOOP (Count Controlled Loop)
 WHILE LOOP (Pre Conditioned Loop)
 REPEAT LOOP (Post Conditioned loop)

Total ← 0
FOR Counter ← 1 TO 10
OUTPUT "Enter a number "
INPUT Number
Total ← Total + Number
NEXT Counter
OUTPUT "The total is ", Total

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REPEAT
OUTPUT "Please enter a positive number "
INPUT Number
UNTIL Number > 0

Number ← 0
WHILE Number >= 0
DO
OUTPUT "Please enter a negative number "
INPUT Number
ENDWHILE

Writing Pseudocode from a flowchart:

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Stepwise refinement:
When an algorithm is written to solve a more complex problem,
decomposition is used to break the problem down into smaller and more
manageable parts. These parts then need to be written as a series of steps
where each step can be written as a statement in a high-level
programming language, this process is called stepwise refinement.

Identifier Table:
 keep track of any identifiers used during the program along with its
description and data type
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Practice Questions with marking scheme

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AS Computer Science - 9618 Chapter 10 & 11 : Data types & Structures Instructor: Nadia Arif

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10.1 Data types & Records

10.1.1 - Data Types:

Data Type Description Declaration

Boolean Logical values, True (1) and False (2) BOOLEAN
char Single alphanumerical character CHAR
date Value to represent a date DATE
integer Whole number, positive or negative INTEGER
real Positive or negative number with a REAL
decimal point
string Sequence of alphanumerical characters STRING

10.1.2 Variable Declaration in Pseudocode:

DECLARE Num : INTEGER
DECLARE myBirthday : DATE
DECLARE Name : STRING
DECLARE Flag : BOOLEAN
DECLARE ThisChar : CHAR
10.1.3 Records:
Records are composite data types formed by the inclusion of several
related items that may be of different data types.
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TYPE TbookRecord
DECLARE title : STRING
DECLARE author : STRING
DECLARE publisher : STRING
DECLARE noPages : INTEGER
DECLARE fiction : BOOLEAN
ENDTYPE

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10.2 ARRAYS
An array is a data structure containing several elements of the same data
type

10.2.1 1D Arrays

DECLARE myList : ARRAY[0:8] OF INTEGER

10.2.2 2D arrays

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DECLARE myArray : ARRAY[0:8,0:2] OF INTEGER

10.2.3 Using a linear search

DECLARE myList : ARRAY[0:8] OF INTEGER

DECLARE upperBound : INTEGER
DECLARE lowerBound : INTEGER
DECLARE index : INTEGER
DECLARE item : INTEGER
DECLARE found : BOOLEAN
upperBound ← 8
lowerBound ← 0

OUTPUT "Please enter item to be found"

INPUT item

found ← FALSE
index ← lowerBound
REPEAT
IF item = myList[index]
THEN
found ← TRUE
ENDIF
index ← index + 1
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UNTIL (found = TRUE) OR (index > upperBound)

IF found
THEN
OUTPUT "Item found"
ELSE
OUTPUT "Item not found"
ENDIF

10.2.4 Using a bubble sort:

This is a method of sorting data in an array into alphabetical or numerical
order by comparing adjacent items and swapping them if they are in the
wrong order.

Pseudocode:

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DECLARE myList : ARRAY[0:8] OF

INTEGER
DECLARE upperBound : INTEGER
DECLARE lowerBound : INTEGER
DECLARE index : INTEGER
DECLARE swap : BOOLEAN
DECLARE temp : INTEGER
DECLARE top : INTEGER

upperBound ← 8
lowerBound ← 0
top ← upperBound

REPEAT FOR index = lowerBound TO top - 1

Swap ← FALSE

IF myList[index] > myList[index + 1]

THEN
temp ← myList[index]
myList[index] ← myList[index + 1]
myList[index + 1] ← temp
swap ← TRUE
ENDIF
NEXT

top ← top -1
UNTIL (NOT swap) OR (top = 0)

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Bubble sort in a 2D Array:

PROCEDURE Sort()
DECLARE Temp : INTEGER
DECLARE NoSwaps : BOOLEAN
DECLARE Boundary, Row, Col : INTEGER

Boundary ← 999

REPEAT
NoSwaps ← TRUE
FOR Row ← 1 TO Boundary
IF Result[Row, 2] > Result[Row + 1, 2]
THEN
FOR Col ← 1 TO 2
Temp ← Result [Row, Col]
Result [Row, Col] ← Result [Row + 1, Col]
Result [Row + 1, Col] ← Temp
NEXT Col
NoSwaps ← FALSE
ENDIF
NEXT Row
Boundary ← Boundary - 1
UNTIL NoSwaps = TRUE
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ENDPROCEDURE
10.3: Files

To open a file before reading from it or writing to it:

OPEN <file identifier> FOR <file mode>

Files can be opened in one of the following modes:

 READ reads data from the file
 WRITE writes data to the file, any existing data stored in the file will
be overwritten
 APPEND adds data to the end of the file
 Once the file is opened in READ mode, it can be read from a line at
a time:
 READFILE <file Identifier> , <variable>

Once the file is opened in WRITE or APPEND mode, it can be written to

a line at a time:
WRITEFILE <file Identifier>, <variable>

In both cases, the variable must be of data type STRING.

The function EOF is used to test for the end of a file. It returns a value
TRUE if the end of a file has been reached and FALSE otherwise.

EOF(<file Identifier>)
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When a file is no longer being used it should be closed:

CLOSEFILE <file identifier>

This pseudocode shows how the file myText.txt could be written to and
read from:

DECLARE textLn : STRING

DECLARE myFile : STRING
myFile ← "myText.txt"

OPEN myFile FOR WRITE

REPEAT
OUTPUT "Please enter a line of text"
INPUT textLn

IF textLn <> ""

THEN
WRITEFILE, textLn
ELSE
CLOSEFILE(myFile)
ENDIF

UNTIL textLn = ""

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OUTPUT "The file contains these lines of text:"

OPEN myFile FOR READ

REPEAT
READFILE, textLn
OUTPUT textLn
UNTIL EOF(myFile)

CLOSEFILE(myFile)

10.4 String Manipulation:

 String manipulation is done through the following built-in functions:

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Question: Write an algorithm using pseudocode to check that the length

of a password and the first and last letter of a password input is correct.

CONSTANT storedPassword ← "Secret"

DECLARE inputPassword : STRING
DECLARE size : INTEGER

OUTPUT "Please enter your password "

INPUT inputPassword
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size ← LENGTH(inputPassword)

IF size = LENGTH(storedPassword)
THEN
IF (LEFT(inputPassword, 1) = LEFT(storedPassword, 1)) AND
(RIGHT(inputPassword, 1) = RIGHT(storedPassword, 1))
THEN
OUTPUT "Password entered has correct first and last
letters"
ELSE
OUTPUT "Password entered is incorrect"
ENDIF
ELSE
OUTPUT "Password entered is incorrect"
ENDIF
10.5 Abstract Data Types:

An abstract data type (ADT) is a collection of data and a set of

operations on that data.

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Stacks Queues Linked lists

Memory management Management of files Using arrays to
sent to a printer implement a stack
Expression evaluation Buffers used with Using arrays to
keyboards implement a queue
Backtracking in Scheduling Using arrays to
recursion implement a binary tree

Stack:
 a list containing several items operating on the last in, first out
(LIFO) principle.
 Items can be added to the stack (push) and removed from the
stack (pop).
 The first item added to a stack is the last item to be removed from
the stack.

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 Implementing a stack using arrays and variables:

A stack can be implemented using an array and a set of pointers.
As an array has a finite size, the stack may become full and this
condition must be allowed for

Queue:
a list containing several items operating on the first in, first out
(FIFO) principle.
Items can be added to the queue (enqueue) and removed from the
queue (dequeue).
The first item added to a queue is the first item to be removed from
the queue.

 The value of the frontPointer changes after dequeue but the value
of the rearPointer changes after enqueuer

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 Implementing a queue using arrays and variables:

A queue can be implemented using an array and a set of
pointers.
As an array has a finite size, the queue may become full and
this condition must be allowed for.
Also, as items are removed from the front and added to the
end of a queue, the position of the queue in the array changes.
Therefore, the queue should be managed as a circular queue to
avoid moving the position of the items in the array every time
an item is removed.
When a queue is implemented using an array with a finite
number of elements, it is managed as a circular queue.
Both pointers, frontPointer and rearPointer, are updated to
point to the first element in the array (lower bound) after an
operation where that pointer was originally pointing to the last
element of the array (upper bound), providing the length of the
queue does not exceed the size of the array.

Linked list :
 a list containing several items in which each item in the list points
to the next item in the list.
 In a linked list a new item is always added to the start of the list.

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Implementing a Linked List using arrays and variables:

 A linked list can be implemented using two 1D arrays, one for the
items in the linked list and another for the pointers to the next
item in the list, and a set of pointers.
 As an array has a finite size, the linked list may become full and
this condition must be allowed for.
 Also, as items can be removed from any position in the linked list,
the empty positions in the array must be managed as an empty
linked list, usually called the heap.

10.6 Structured Programming:

Important definitions:
 Parameter – a variable applied to a procedure or function that allows
one to pass in a value for the procedure to use.
 By value – a method of passing a parameter to a procedure in which
the value of the variable cannot be changed by the procedure.
 By reference – a method of passing a parameter to a procedure in
which the value of the variable can be changed by the procedure.
 Header (procedure or function) – the first statement in the
definition of a procedure or function, which contains its name, any
parameters passed to it, and, for a function, the type of the return
value.
 Argument – the value passed to a procedure or function.
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10.6.1 Procedure:

PROCEDURE stars (Number : INTEGER)

FOR Counter 1 TO Number
OUTPUT "*"
NEXT Counter
ENDPROCEDURE

10.6.2 Functions:

FUNCTION substring (myString : STRING, start : INTEGER, length :

INTEGER) RETURNS STRING
IF LENGTH (myString) >= length + start
THEN
RETURN MID (myString, start, length)
ELSE RETURN ""
ENDIF
ENDFUNCTION

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Practice Questions with marking scheme

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AS Computer Science - 9618 Chapter 12 : Software Development Instructor: Nadia Arif

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12.1 Program development Life Cycle:

 Purpose:
A program that has been developed may require alterations at any time in
order to deal with new circumstances or new errors that have been found,
so the stages are referred to as a lifecycle as this continues until the
program is no longer used.

Stages in the program development lifecycle

 Analysis:
a process of investigation, leading to the specification of what a
program is required to do

 Design:
it uses the program specification from the analysis stage to show
how the program should be developed.

 Coding
The program or set of programs is written using a suitable
programming language.

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 Testing
The program is run many times with different sets of test data,
to test that it does everything it is supposed to do in the way set
out in the program design.

 Maintenance
The program is maintained throughout its life, to ensure it
continues to work effectively. This involves dealing with any
problems that arise during use, including correcting any errors that
come to light, improving the functionality of the program, or
adapting the program to meet new requirements.

12.2 Different development lifecycles

 The waterfall model

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The arrows going down represent the fact that the results from one stage
are input into the next stage. The arrows leading back up to an earlier
stage reflect the fact that often more work is required at an earlier stage
to complete the current stage

Principles Benefits Drawbacks

linear, as each stage is easy to manage, difficult to change the
completed before the understand and use requirements at a later
next is begun stage
well documented as full stages do not overlap not suitable for
documentation is and are completed one programs where the
completed at every at a time requirements could be
stage subject to change
low customer each stage has specific working program is
involvement; only deliverables produced late in the
involved at the start lifecycle
and end of the process
works well for smaller not suitable for long,
programs where complex projects
requirements are known
and understood

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 The iterative model

An iterative life cycle model does not attempt to start with a full
specification of requirements. Instead, development starts with the
implementation of a small subset of the program requirements. Repeated
(iterative) reviews to identify further requirements eventually result in the
complete system

Principles Benefits Drawbacks

incremental some working whole system needs to
development as the programs developed be defined at start, so it
program development quickly at an early can be broken down into
lifecycle is repeated stage in the lifecycle pieces to be developed at
each iteration
working programs are easier to test and needs good planning
produced for part of the debug smaller overall and for every
system at every programs stage
iteration
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high customer more flexible as easier not suitable for short

involvement, as part of to alter requirements simple projects
the system can be
shown to the customer
after every iteration
customers involved at
each iteration
therefore no surprises
when final system
delivered

 Rapid application development (RAD):

RAD is a software development methodology that uses minimal planning.

Instead it uses prototyping. A prototype is a working model of part of the
solution

In the RAD model, the modules are developed in parallel as prototypes and
are integrated to make the complete product for faster product delivery.
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There is no detailed preplanning. Changes are made during the

development process. The analysis, design, code and test phases are
incorporated into a series of short, iterative development cycles.

Principles Benefits Drawbacks

minimal planning reduced overall development system under
time development
reuses previously written rapid frequent customer needs to be
code where possible, feedback informs the modular needs
makes use of automated development strong teams of
code generation where skilled developers
possible
high customer very flexible as not suitable for
involvement, as requirements evolve from short simple
customers can use the feedback during projects
prototypes during development
development
as parts of the system are
developed side by side,
modification is easier
because each part must
work independently

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12.3 Program Design:

 Structure charts:
A structure chart is a modelling tool used in program design to decompose
a problem into a set of sub-tasks. The structure chart shows the
hierarchy or structure of the different modules and how they connect and
interact with each other.

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12.4 state-transition diagrams:

A finite state machine (FSM) is a mathematical model of a machine
that can be in one of a fixed set of possible states. One state is changed
to another by an external input, this is called a transition. A diagram
showing the behaviour of an FSM is called a state-transition diagram.

State-transition diagrams can be constructed as follows:

 States are represented as nodes (circles).
 Transitions are represented as interconnecting arrows.
 Events are represented as labels on the arrows.
 Conditions can be specified in square brackets after the event label.
 The initial state is indicated by an arrow with a black dot.
 A stopped state is indicated by a double circle.

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12.5 Program testing:

Several types of test data need to be used during testing:

 Normal test data that is to be accepted by a program and is used to
show that the program is working as expected.
 Abnormal test data that should be rejected by a program as it is
unsuitable or could cause problems.
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 Extreme test data that is on the limit of that accepted by a

program; for example, when testing a validation rule such as number
>= 12 AND number <= 32 the extreme test data would be 12 at the
lower limit and 32 at the upper limit; both these values should be
accepted.
 Boundary test data that is on the limit of that accepted by a
program or data that is just outside the limit of that rejected by a
program; for example, when testing a validation rule such as number
>= 12 AND number <= 32 the boundary test data would be 12 and 11
at the lower limit and 32 and 33 at the upper limit; 12 and 32
should be accepted, 11 and 33 should be rejected

As the program is being developed the following types of testing are used:
 White-box testing is the detailed testing of how each procedure
works. This involves testing the structure and logic of every path
through a program module.
 Black-box testing tests a module’s inputs and outputs.
 Integration testing is the testing of any separately written modules
to ensure that they work together, during the testing phase of the
program development lifecycle. If any of the modules have not been
written yet, this can include stub testing, which makes use of
dummy modules for testing purposes.

When the program has been completed, it is tested as a whole:

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 Alpha testing is used first. The completed, or nearly completed,

program is tested in-house by the development team.
 Beta testing is then used. The completed program is tested by a
small group of users before it is generally released.
 Acceptance testing is then used for the completed program to prove
to the customer that it works as required in the environment in
which it will be used.

12.6 Program Maintenance:

Program maintenance can usually be divided into three categories:

 Corrective maintenance is used to correct any errors that appear
during use, for example trapping a run-time error that had been
missed during testing.
 Perfective maintenance is used to improve the performance of a
program during its use, for example improving the speed of response.
 Adaptive maintenance is used to alter a program so it can perform
any new tasks required by the customer, for example working with
voice commands as well as keyboard entry.

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Pseudocode Guide for Teachers Cambridge International AS & A Level Computer Science (9618)

1. Pseudocode in examined components

The following information sets out how pseudocode will appear within the examined components and is
provided to allow you to give learners familiarity before the exam.

1.1 Font style and size

Pseudocode is presented in a monospaced (fixed-width) font such as Courier New. The size of the font will
be consistent throughout.

1.2 Indentation
Lines are indented (usually by three spaces) to indicate that they are contained within a statement in a
previous line. In cases where line numbering is used, this indentation may be omitted. Every effort will be
made to make sure that code statements are not longer than a line of text unless this is absolutely
necessary. Where necessary, continuation lines will be aligned to maximise readability.

1.3 Case
Keywords are in upper-case, e.g. IF, REPEAT, PROCEDURE. (Different keywords are explained in
later sections of this guide.)

Identifiers are in mixed case (sometimes referred to as camelCase or Pascal case) with upper-case letters
indicating the beginning of new words, for example NumberOfPlayers.

Meta-variables – symbols in the pseudocode that should be substituted by other symbols are enclosed in
angled brackets < > (as in Backus-Naur Form). This is also used in this guide.

Example – meta-variables
REPEAT
<statement(s)>
UNTIL <condition>

1.4 Lines and line numbering

Where it is necessary to number the lines of pseudocode so that they can be referred to, line numbers are
presented to the left of the pseudocode with sufficient space to indicate clearly that they are not part of the
pseudocode statements.

Line numbers are consecutive, unless numbers are skipped to indicate that part of the code is missing. This
will also be clearly stated.

Each line representing a statement is numbered. However, when a statement runs over one line of text, the
continuation lines are not numbered.

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1.5 Comments
Comments are preceded by two forward slashes //. The comment continues until the end of the line. For
multi-line comments, each line is preceded by //.

Normally the comment is on a separate line before, and at the same level of indentation as, the code it refers
to. Occasionally, however, a short comment that refers to a single line may be at the end of the line to which
it refers.

Example – comments
// this procedure swaps
// values of X and Y
PROCEDURE SWAP(BYREF X : INTEGER, Y : INTEGER)
Temp ← X // temporarily store X
X ←Y
Y ← Temp
ENDPROCEDURE

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2. Variables, constants and data types

2.1. Data Types

The following keywords are used to designate some basic data types:

• INTEGER a whole number

• REAL a number capable of containing a fractional part
• CHAR a single character
• STRING a sequence of zero or more characters
• BOOLEAN the logical values TRUE and FALSE
• DATE a valid calendar date

2.2. Literals
Literals of the above data types are written as follows:

• Integer Written as normal in the denary system, e.g. 5, -3

Always written with at least one digit on either side of the decimal point, zeros being
• Real
added if necessary, e.g. 4.7, 0.3, -4.0, 0.0

• Char A single character delimited by single quotes e.g. ꞌxꞌ, ꞌCꞌ, ꞌ@ꞌ

Delimited by double quotes. A string may contain no characters (i.e. the empty string)
• String
e.g. "This is a string", ""

• Boolean TRUE, FALSE

This will normally be written in the format dd/mm/yyyy. However, it is good practice to
• Date state explicitly that this value is of data type DATE and to explain the format (as the
convention for representing dates varies across the world).

2.3. Identifiers
Identifiers (the names given to variables, constants, procedures and functions) are in mixed case. They can
only contain letters (A–Z, a–z), digits (0–9) and the underscore character ( _ ). They must start with a letter and
not a digit. Accented letters should not be used.

It is good practice to use identifier names that describe the variable, procedure or function they refer to. Single
letters may be used where these are conventional (such as i and j when dealing with array indices, or X and
Y when dealing with coordinates) as these are made clear by the convention.

Keywords identified elsewhere in this guide should never be used as variables.

Identifiers should be considered case insensitive, for example, Countdown and CountDown should not
be used as separate variables.

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2.4. Variable declarations

It is good practice to declare variables explicitly in pseudocode.

Declarations are made as follows:

DECLARE <identifier> : <data type>

Example – variable declarations

DECLARE Counter : INTEGER
DECLARE TotalToPay : REAL
DECLARE GameOver : BOOLEAN

2.5. Constants
It is good practice to use constants if this makes the pseudocode more readable, as an identifier is more
meaningful in many cases than a literal. It also makes the pseudocode easier to update if the value of the
constant changes.

Constants are normally declared at the beginning of a piece of pseudocode (unless it is desirable to restrict
the scope of the constant).

Constants are declared by stating the identifier and the literal value in the following format:

CONSTANT <identifier> = <value>

Example – CONSTANT declarations

CONSTANT HourlyRate = 6.50
CONSTANT DefaultText = "N/A"

Only literals can be used as the value of a constant. A variable, another constant or an expression must
never be used.

2.6. Assignments
The assignment operator is ← .

Assignments should be made in the following format:

<identifier> ← <value>

The identifier must refer to a variable (this can be an individual element in a data structure such as an array or
a user defined data type). The value may be any expression that evaluates to a value of the same data type
as the variable.

Example – assignments
Counter ← 0
Counter ← Counter + 1
TotalToPay ← NumberOfHours * HourlyRate

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3. Arrays

Syllabus requirements

The Cambridge International AS & A Level syllabus (9618) requires candidates to understand and
use both one-dimensional and two-dimensional arrays.

3.1. Declaring arrays

Arrays are considered to be fixed-length structures of elements of identical data type, accessible by
consecutive index (subscript) numbers. It is good practice to explicitly state what the lower bound of the
array (i.e. the index of the first element) is because this defaults to either 0 or 1 in different systems.
Generally, a lower bound of 1 will be used.

Square brackets are used to indicate the array indices.

A One-dimensional array is declared as follows:

DECLARE <identifier>:ARRAY[<lower>:<upper>] OF <data type>

A two-dimensional array is declared as follows:

DECLARE <identifier>:ARRAY[<lower1>:<upper1>,<lower2>:<upper2>] OF <data type>

Example – array declarations

DECLARE StudentNames : ARRAY[1:30] OF STRING
DECLARE NoughtsAndCrosses : ARRAY[1:3,1:3] OF CHAR

3.2. Using arrays

Array index values may be literal values or expressions that evaluate to a valid integer value.

Example – Accessing individual array elements

StudentNames[1] ← "Ali"
NoughtsAndCrosses[2,3] ← ꞌXꞌ
StudentNames[n+1] ← StudentNames[n]

Arrays can be used in assignment statements (provided they have same size and data type). The following is
therefore allowed:

Example – Accessing a complete array

SavedGame ← NoughtsAndCrosses

A statement should not refer to a group of array elements individually. For example, the following
construction should not be used.

StudentNames [1 TO 30] ← ""

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Instead, an appropriate loop structure is used to assign the elements individually. For example:

Example – assigning a group of array elements

FOR Index ← 1 TO 30
StudentNames[Index] ← ""
NEXT Index

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4. User-defined data types

Syllabus requirements

The AS & A Level (9618) syllabus requires candidates to understand that data structures that are not
available in a particular programming language need to be constructed from the data structures that
are built-in within the language. User-defined data types need to be defined. The syllabus requires
candidates to use and define non-composite data types such as enumerated and pointer and
composite data types such as record, set, class/object. Abstract Data Types (ADTs) stack, queue,
linked list, dictionary and binary tree are also defined as composite data types.

4.1. Defining user-defined data types

Non-composite data type – Enumerated

A user-defined non-composite data type with a list of possible values is called an enumerated data type.
The enumerated type should be declared as follows:

TYPE <identifier> = (value1, value2, value3, ...)

Example – declaration of enumerated type

This enumerated type holds data about seasons of the year.

TYPE Season = (Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter)

Non-composite data type – Pointer

A user-defined non-composite data type referencing a memory location is called a pointer.

The pointer should be declared as follows:

TYPE <identifier> = ^<data type>

The ^ shows that the variable is a pointer and the data type indicates the type of the data
stored in the memory location.

Example – declarations of pointer type

TYPE TIntPointer = ^INTEGER

TYPE TCharPointer = ^CHAR

Declaration of a variable of pointer type does not require the ^ (caret) symbol to be used.

Example – declaration of a pointer variable

DECLARE MyPointer : TIntPointer

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Composite data type

A composite data type is a collection of data that can consist of different data types, grouped under one
identifier. The composite type should be declared as follows:

TYPE <identifier1>
DECLARE <identifier2> : <data type>
TECLARE <identifier3> : <data type>
...
ENDTYPE

Example – declaration of composite type

This user-defined data type holds data about a student.

TYPE Student
DECLARE LastName : STRING
DECLARE FirstName : STRING
DECLARE DateOfBirth : DATE
DECLARE YearGroup : INTEGER
DECLARE FormGroup : CHAR
ENDTYPE

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4.2. Using user-defined data types

When a user-defined data type has been defined it can be used in the same way as any other data type in
declarations.

Variables of a user-defined data type can be assigned to each other. Individual data items are accessed
using dot notation.

Example – using user-defined data types

This pseudocode uses the user-defined types Student, Season and TIntPointer defined in
the previous section.

DECLARE Pupil1 : Student

DECLARE Pupil2 : Student
DECLARE Form : ARRAY[1:30] OF Student
DECLARE ThisSeason : Season
DECLARE NextSeason : Season
DECLARE MyPointer : TIntPointer

Pupil1.LastName ← "Johnson"
Pupil1.Firstname ← "Leroy"
Pupil1.DateOfBirth ← 02/01/2005
Pupil1.YearGroup ← 6
Pupil1.FormGroup ← ꞌAꞌ

Pupil2 ← Pupil1

FOR Index ← 1 TO 30
Form[Index].YearGroup ← Form[Index].YearGroup + 1
NEXT Index

ThisSeason ← Spring
MyPointer ← ^ThisSeason
NextSeason ← MyPointer^ + 1
// access the value stored at the memory address

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5. Common operations

5.1. Input and output

Values are input using the INPUT command as follows:

INPUT <identifier>

The identifier should be a variable (that may be an individual element of a data structure such as an array, or
a custom data type).

Values are output using the OUTPUT command as follows:

OUTPUT <value(s)>

Several values, separated by commas, can be output using the same command.

Example – INPUT and OUTPUT statements

INPUT Answer
OUTPUT Score
OUTPUT "You have ", Lives, " lives left"

5.2. Arithmetic operations

Standard arithmetic operator symbols are used:

+ Addition

- Subtraction

* Multiplication

/ Division (The resulting value should be of data type REAL, even if the operands are integers.)

DIV Integer division: Used to find the quotient (integer number before the decimal point) after division.

MOD or Modulus: The remainder that is left over when one number is divided by another.

Multiplication and division have higher precedence over addition and subtraction (this is the normal
mathematical convention). However, it is good practice to make the order of operations in complex
expressions explicit by using parentheses.

5.3. Relational operations

The following symbols are used for relational operators (also known as comparison operators):

> Greater than

< Less than
>= Greater than or equal to
<= Less than or equal to
= Equal to
<> Not equal to

The result of these operations is always of data type BOOLEAN.

In complex expressions it is advisable to use parentheses to make the order of operations explicit.
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5.4. Logic operators

The only logic operators (also called relational operators) used are AND, OR and NOT. The operands and
results of these operations are always of data type BOOLEAN.

In complex expressions it is advisable to use parentheses to make the order of operations explicit.

5.5. String functions and operations

Syllabus requirements

The AS & A Level (9618) syllabus specifically requires candidates to know string manipulation
functions in their chosen programming language. Pseudocode string manipulation functions will
always be provided in examinations. Some basic string manipulation functions are given here.

Each function returns an error if the function call is not properly formed.

RIGHT(ThisString : STRING, x : INTEGER) RETURNS STRING

returns rightmost x characters from ThisString

Example: RIGHT("ABCDEFGH", 3) returns "FGH"

LENGTH(ThisString : STRING) RETURNS INTEGER

returns the integer value representing the length of ThisString

Example: LENGTH("Happy Days") returns 10

MID(ThisString : STRING, x : INTEGER, y : INTEGER) RETURNS STRING

returns a string of length y starting at position x from ThisString

Example: MID("ABCDEFGH", 2, 3) returns "BCD"

LCASE(ThisChar : CHAR) RETURNS CHAR

returns the character value representing the lower-case equivalent of ThisChar
If ThisChar is not an upper-case alphabetic character, it is returned unchanged.

Example: LCASE('W') returns 'w'

UCASE(ThisChar : CHAR) RETURNS CHAR

returns the character value representing the upper-case equivalent of ThisChar
If ThisChar is not a lower-case alphabetic character, it is returned unchanged.

Example: UCASE('h') returns 'H'

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In pseudocode, the operator & is used to concatenate (join) two strings.

Example: "Summer" & " " & "Pudding" produces "Summer Pudding"

Where string operations (such as concatenation, searching and splitting) are used in a programming
language, these should be explained clearly, as they vary considerably between systems.

Where functions in programming languages are used to format numbers as strings for output, their use should
also be explained.

5.6. Numeric functions

INT(x : REAL) RETURNS INTEGER
returns the integer part of x

Example: INT(27.5415) returns 27

RAND(x : INTEGER) RETURNS REAL

returns a random real number in the range 0 to x (not inclusive of x)

Example: RAND(87) may return 35.43

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6. Selection

6.1. IF statements
IF statements may or may not have an ELSE clause.

IF statements without an ELSE clause are written as follows:

IF <condition> THEN
<statement(s)>
ENDIF

IF statements with an ELSE clause are written as follows:

IF <condition> THEN
<statement(s)>
ELSE
<statement(s)>
ENDIF

Note, due to space constraints, the THEN and ELSE clauses may only be indented by two spaces rather than
three. (They are, in a sense, a continuation of the IF statement rather than separate statements).

Example – nested IF statements

IF ChallengerScore > ChampionScore THEN
IF ChallengerScore > HighestScore THEN
OUTPUT ChallengerName, " is champion and highest scorer"
ELSE
OUTPUT ChallengerName, " is the new champion"
ENDIF
ELSE
OUTPUT ChampionName, " is still the champion"
IF ChampionScore > HighestScore THEN
OUTPUT ChampionName, " is also the highest scorer"
ENDIF
ENDIF

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6.2. CASE statements

CASE statements allow one out of several branches of code to be executed, depending on the value of a
variable.

CASE statements are written as follows:

CASE OF <identifier>
<value 1> : <statement1>
<statement2>
...
<value 2> : <statement1>
<statement2>
...
...
ENDCASE

An OTHERWISE clause can be the last case:

CASE OF <identifier>
<value 1> : <statement1>
<statement2>
...
<value 2> : <statement1>
<statement2>
...
OTHERWISE : <statement1>
<statement2>
...

ENDCASE

Each value may be represented by a range, for example:

<value1> TO <value2> : <statement1>

<statement2>
...

Note that the CASE clauses are tested in sequence. When a case that applies is found, its statement is
executed and the CASE statement is complete. Control is passed to the statement after the ENDCASE. Any
remaining cases are not tested.

If present, an OTHERWISE clause must be the last case. Its statement will be executed if none of the
preceding cases apply.

Example – formatted CASE statement

INPUT Move
CASE OF Move
ꞌWꞌ : Position ← Position − 10
ꞌSꞌ : Position ← Position + 10
ꞌAꞌ : Position ← Position − 1
ꞌDꞌ : Position ← Position + 1
OTHERWISE : CALL Beep
ENDCASE

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7. Iteration (repetition)

7.1. Count-controlled (FOR) loops

Count-controlled loops are written as follows:

FOR <identifier> ← <value1> TO <value2>

<statement(s)>
NEXT <identifier>

The identifier must be a variable of data type INTEGER, and the values should be expressions that evaluate
to integers.

The variable is assigned each of the integer values from value1 to value2 inclusive, running the statements
inside the FOR loop after each assignment. If value1 = value2 the statements will be executed once, and if
value1 > value2 the statements will not be executed.

It is good practice to repeat the identifier after NEXT, particularly with nested FOR loops.

An increment can be specified as follows:

FOR <identifier> ← <value1> TO <value2> STEP <increment>

<statement(s)>
NEXT <identifier>

The increment must be an expression that evaluates to an integer. In this case the identifier will be
assigned the values from value1 in successive increments of increment until it reaches value2. If it goes
past value2, the loop terminates. The increment can be negative.

Example – nested FOR loops

Total ← 0
FOR Row ← 1 TO MaxRow
RowTotal ← 0
FOR Column ← 1 TO 10
RowTotal ← RowTotal + Amount[Row, Column]
NEXT Column
OUTPUT "Total for Row ", Row, " is ", RowTotal
Total ← Total + RowTotal
NEXT Row
OUTPUT "The grand total is ", Total

7.2. Post-condition (REPEAT) loops

Post-condition loops are written as follows:

REPEAT
<statement(s)>
UNTIL <condition>

The condition must be an expression that evaluates to a Boolean.

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The statements in the loop will be executed at least once. The condition is tested after the statements are
executed and if it evaluates to TRUE the loop terminates, otherwise the statements are executed again.

Example – REPEAT UNTIL loop

REPEAT
OUTPUT "Please enter the password"
INPUT Password
UNTIL Password = "Secret"

7.3. Pre-condition (WHILE) loops

Pre-condition loops are written as follows:

WHILE <condition>
<statement(s)>
ENDWHILE

The condition must be an expression that evaluates to a Boolean.

The condition is tested before the statements, and the statements will only be executed if the condition
evaluates to TRUE. After the statements have been executed the condition is tested again. The loop
terminates when the condition evaluates to FALSE.

The statements will not be executed if, on the first test, the condition evaluates to FALSE.

Example – WHILE loop

WHILE Number > 9
Number ← Number – 9
ENDWHILE

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8. Procedures and functions

Syllabus requirements

The definition and use of procedures and functions is explicitly required in the AS & A Level (9618)
syllabus. Any pseudocode functions used in an examination will be defined.

8.1. Defining and calling procedures

A procedure with no parameters is defined as follows:

PROCEDURE <identifier>
<statement(s)>
ENDPROCEDURE

A procedure with parameters is defined as follows:

PROCEDURE <identifier>(<param1> : <data type>, <param2> : <data type>...)

<statement(s)>
ENDPROCEDURE

The <identifier> is the identifier used to call the procedure. Where used, param1, param2 etc. are
identifiers for the parameters of the procedure. These will be used as variables in the statements of the
procedure.

Procedures defined as above should be called as follows, respectively:

CALL <identifier>

CALL <identifier>(Value1, Value2, ...)

These calls are complete program s tatem e nts .

When parameters are used, Value1, Value2... must be of the correct data type and in the same
sequence as in the definition of the procedure.
Unless otherwise stated, it should be assumed that parameters are passed by value. (See section 8.3).

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Example – definition and use of procedures with and without parameters

PROCEDURE DefaultSquare
CALL Square(100)
ENDPROCEDURE

PROCEDURE Square(Size : INTEGER)

FOR Side ← 1 TO 4
CALL MoveForward(Size)
CALL Turn(90)
NEXT Side
ENDPROCEDURE

IF Size = Default THEN

CALL DefaultSquare
ELSE
CALL Square(Size)
ENDIF

8.2. Defining and calling functions

Functions operate in a similar way to procedures, except that in addition they return a single value to the point
at which they are called. Their definition includes the data type of the value returned.

A function with no parameters is defined as follows:

FUNCTION <identifier> RETURNS <data type>

<statement(s)>
ENDFUNCTION

A function with parameters is defined as follows:

FUNCTION <identifier>(<param1> : <data type>,

<param2> : <data type>…) RETURNS <data type>
<statement(s)>
ENDFUNCTION

The keyword RETURN is used as one of the statements within the body of the function to specify the value to
be returned. Normally, this will be the last statement in the function definition, however, if the RETURN
statement is in the body of the function its execution is immediate and any subsequent lines of code are
omitted.

Because a function returns a value that is used when the function is called, function calls are not complete
program statements. The keyword CALL should not be used when calling a function. Functions should only
be called as part of an expression. When the RETURN statement is executed, the value returned replaces the
function call in the expression and the expression is then evaluated.

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Example – definition and use of a function

FUNCTION Max(Number1 : INTEGER, Number2 : INTEGER) RETURNS INTEGER
IF Number1 > Number2 THEN
RETURN Number1
ELSE
RETURN Number2
ENDIF
ENDFUNCTION

OUTPUT "Penalty Fine = ", Max(10, Distance*2)

8.3. Passing parameters by value or by reference

To specify whether a parameter is passed by value or by reference, the keywords BYVAL and BYREF precede
the parameter in the definition of the procedure. If there are several parameters passed by the same method,
the BYVAL or BYREF keyword need not be repeated.

Example – passing parameters by reference

PROCEDURE SWAP(BYREF X : INTEGER, Y : INTEGER)
Temp ← X
X ←Y
Y ← Temp
ENDPROCEDURE

If the method for passing parameters is not specified, passing by value is assumed. How this should
be called and how it operates has already been explained in Section 8.1.

Parameters should not be passed by reference to a function.

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9. File handling

9.1. Handling text files

Text files consist of lines of text that are read or written consecutively as strings.

A file must be opened in a specified mode before any file operations are attempted. This is written
as follows:

OPENFILE <file identifier> FOR <file mode>

The file identifier may be a literal string containing the file names, or a variable of type STRING that has been
assigned the file name.

The following file modes are used:

• READ for data to be read from the file

• WRITE for data to be written to the file. A new file will be created and any existing data in the
file will be lost.
• APPEND for data to be added to the file, after any existing data.

A file should be opened in only one mode at a time.

Data is read from the file (after the file has been opened in READ mode) using the READFILE command as
follows:

READFILE <file identifier>, <variable>

The variable should be of data type STRING. When the command is executed, the next line of
text in the file is read and assigned to the variable.

The function EOF is used to test whether there are any more lines to be read from a given file. It is called as
follows:

EOF(<file identifier>)

This function returns TRUE if there are no more lines to read (or if an empty file has been opened in READ
mode) and FALSE otherwise.

Data is written into the file (after the file has been opened in WRITE or APPEND mode) using the
WRITEFILE command as follows:

WRITEFILE <file identifier> , <data>

Files should be closed when they are no longer needed using the CLOSEFILE command as follows:

CLOSEFILE <file identifier>

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Example – handling text files

This example uses the operations together, to copy all the lines from FileA.txt to FileB.txt,
replacing any blank lines by a line of dashes.

DECLARE LineOfText : STRING

OPENFILE "FileA.txt" FOR READ
OPENFILE "FileB.txt" FOR WRITE
WHILE NOT EOF("FileA.txt")
READFILE "FileA.txt", LineOfText
IF LineOfText = "" THEN
WRITEFILE "FileB.txt", " ---------------------------- "
ELSE
WRITEFILE "FileB.txt", LineOfText
ENDIF
ENDWHILE
CLOSEFILE "FileA.txt"
CLOSEFILE "FileB.txt"

9.2. Handling random files

Random files contain a collection of data, normally as records of fixed length. They can be thought of as
having a file pointer which can be moved to any location or address in the file. The record at that location
can then be read or written.

Random files are opened using the RANDOM file mode as follows:

OPENFILE <file identifier> FOR RANDOM

As with text files, the file identifier will normally be the name of the file.

The SEEK command moves the file pointer to a given location:

SEEK <file identifier>, <address>

The address should be an expression that evaluates to an integer which indicates the location of a record to
be read or written. This is usually the number of records from the beginning of the file. It is good practice to
explain how the addresses are computed.

The command GETRECORD should be used to read the record at the file pointer:

GETRECORD <file identifier>, <variable>

When this command is executed, the record that is read is assigned to the variable which must be of
the appropriate data type for that record (usually a user-defined type).

The command PUTRECORD is used to write a record into the file at the file pointer:

PUTRECORD <file identifier>, <variable>

When this command is executed, the data in the variable is inserted into the record at the file pointer. Any
data that was previously at this location will be replaced.

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Example – handling random files

The records from positions 10 to 20 of a file StudentFile.Dat are moved to the next position and
a new record is inserted into position 10. The example uses the user-defined type Student defined
in Section 4.1.

DECLARE Pupil : Student

DECLARE NewPupil : Student
DECLARE Position : INTEGER

NewPupil.LastName ← "Johnson"
NewPupil.Firstname ← "Leroy"
NewPupil.DateOfBirth ← 02/01/2005
NewPupil.YearGroup ← 6
NewPupil.FormGroup ← ꞌAꞌ

OPENFILE "StudentFile.Dat" FOR RANDOM

FOR Position ← 20 TO 10 STEP -1
SEEK "StudentFile.Dat", Position
GETRECORD "StudentFile.Dat", Pupil
SEEK "StudentFile.Dat", Position + 1
PUTRECORD "StudentFile.Dat", Pupil
NEXT Position

SEEK "StudentFile.Dat", 10
PUTRECORD "StudentFile.Dat", NewPupil

CLOSEFILE "StudentFile.dat"

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10. Object-oriented Programming

10.1. Methods and Properties

Methods and properties can be assumed to be public unless otherwise stated. Where the access level is
relevant to the question, it will be explicit in the code using the keywords PUBLIC or PRIVATE.

Example code:

PRIVATE Attempts : INTEGER

Attempts ← 3

PUBLIC PROCEDURE SetAttempts(Number : INTEGER)

Attempts ← Number
ENDPROCEDURE

PRIVATE FUNCTION GetAttempts() RETURNS INTEGER

RETURN Attempts
ENDFUNCTION

Methods will be called using object methods, for example:

Player.SetAttempts(5)
OUTPUT Player.GetAttempts()

10.2. Constructors and Inheritance

Constructors will be procedures with the name NEW.

CLASS Pet
PRIVATE Name : STRING
PUBLIC PROCEDURE NEW(GivenName : STRING)
Name ← GivenName
ENDPROCEDURE
ENDCLASS

Inheritance is denoted by the INHERITS keyword; superclass/parent class methods will be called using the
keyword SUPER, for example:

CLASS Cat INHERITS Pet

PRIVATE Breed: INTEGER
PUBLIC PROCEDURE NEW(GivenName : STRING, GivenBreed : STRING)
SUPER.NEW(GivenName)
Breed ← GivenBreed
ENDPROCEDURE
ENDCLASS

To create an object, the following format is used:

<object name> ← NEW <class name>(<param1>, <param2> ...)

For example:

MyCat ← NEW Cat("Kitty", "Persian")

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Index of symbols and keywords

-, 11 GETRECORD, 22
←, 5 IF, 14
*, 11 INHERITS, 24
/, 11 INPUT, 11
//, 3 INT, 13
+, 11 INTEGER, 4
<, 11 LCASE, 12
<=, 11 LENGTH, 12
<>, 11 MID, 12
=, 11 MOD, 11
>, 11 NEXT, 16
>=, 11 NEW, 23
^ (caret), 8 NOT, 12
&, 13 OPENFILE, 21
AND, 12 OR, 12
APPEND, 21 OTHERWISE, 15
ARRAY, 6 OUTPUT, 11
BOOLEAN, 4 PROCEDURE, 18
BYREF, 20 PRIVATE, 24
BYVAL, 20 PUBLIC, 24
CALL, 18 PUTRECORD, 22
CASE OF, 14 RAND, 13
CHAR, 4 RANDOM (files), 22
CLASS, 24 READ, 21
CLOSEFILE, 21 READFILE, 21
CONSTANT, 5 REAL, 4
DATE, 4 REPEAT, 16
DECLARE, 5 RETURN, 19
DIV, 11 RETURNS, 19
ELSE, 14 RIGHT, 12
ENDCASE, 15 SEEK, 22
ENDCLASS, 24 STEP, 16
ENDFUNCTION, 19 STRING, 4
ENDIF, 14 SUPER, 24
ENDPROCEDURE, 18 THEN, 14
ENDTYPE, 9 TRUE, 4
ENDWHILE, 17 TYPE, 8
EOF, 21 UCASE, 12
FALSE, 4 UNTIL, 16
FOR ... TO, 16 WHILE, 17
FOR (file handling), 21 WRITE, 21
FUNCTION, 19 WRITEFILE, 21

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