Battery

Primary Batteries
An electric battery consists of a number of electrochemical cells, connected
either in series or parallel. A cell, which is the basic unit of a battery, may be
defined as a power generating device, which is capable of converting stored
chemical energy into electrical energy. If the stored energy is inherently present
in the chemical substances, it is called a primary cell or a non-rechargeable cell.
Accordingly,the battery made of these cells is called primary battery. The
examples of primary cells are Leclanche cell, zinc-chlorine cell, alkaline-
manganese cell and metal air cells etc

Secondary Batteries

If, on the other hand, energy is induced in the chemical substances by applying
an external source, it is called a secondary cell or rechargeable cell. A battery
made out of these cells is called a secondary battery or storage battery or
rechargeable battery. Examples of secondary cells are leadacid cell, nickel-
cadmium cell, nickel-iron cell, nickel-zinc cell, nickel-hydrogen cell, silver-zinc
cell and high temperature cells like lithium-chlorine cell, lithium-sulphur cell,
sodium-sulphur cell etc.

Lead-acid Battery
A battery consists of a number of cells and each cell of the battery-consists of

(a) positive and negative plants

(b) separators
 (c) electrolyte, all contained in one of the many compartments of the battery
container.* Different parts of a lead-acid battery are as under :
(i) Plates. A plate consists of a lattice type of grid of cast antimonial lead alloy
which is covered with active material . The grid not only serves as a support for
the fragile active material but also conducts electric current. Grid for the
positive and negative plates are often of the same design although negative plate
grids are made somewhat lighter. positive plates are usually Plante plates
whereas negative plates are generally of Faure or pasted type.
(ii) Separators. These are thin sheets of a porous material placed between the
positive and negative plates for preventing contact between them and thus
avoiding internal short-circuiting of the battery. A separator must, however, be
sufficiently porous to allow diffusion or circulation of electrolyte between the
plates. These are made of especially-treated cedar wood, glass wool mat,
microporous rubber (mipor), microporous plastics (plastipore, miplast) and
perforated p.v.c.. In addition to good porosity, a separator must possess high
electrical resistance and mechanical strength.
(iii) Electrolyte. It is dilute sulphuric acid which fills the cell compartment to
immerse the plates completely.
Active materials of a Lead-acid Cell
Those substances of the cell which take active part in chemical combination and
hence absorb or porduce electricity during charging or discharging, are known
as active materials of the cell.
The active materials of a lead-acid cell are :
1. Lead peroxide (PbO2) for + ve plate
2. Sponge Lead (Pb) for -ve plate
3. Dilute Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4) as electrolyte.

1. Lead Peroxide
It is a combination of lead and oxygen, is dark chocolate brown in colour and is
quite hard but brittle substance. It is made up of one atom of lead (Pb) and two
atoms of oxygen (O2) and its chemical formula is PbO2. As said earlier, it forms
the positive active material.
2. Sponge Lead
It is pure lead in soft sponge or porous condition. Its chemical formula is Pb and
forms the negative active material.
3. Dilute Sulphuric Acid
It is approximately 3 parts water and one part sulphuric acid. The chemical
formula of the acid is H2SO4. The positive and negative plates are immersed in
this solution which is known as electrolyte.It is this medium through which the
current produces chemical changes.
Hence, the lead-acid cell depends for its action on the presence of two plates
covered with PbO2 and Pb in a solution of dilute H2SO4 of specific gravity
1.21 or nearabout.
Lead in the form of PbO2 or sponge Pb has very little mechanical strength,
hence it is supported by plates of pure lead. Those plates covered with or
otherwise supporting PbO2 are known as + ve plates and those supporting
sponge lead are called −ve plates. The + ve and −ve plates are arranged
alternately and are connected to two common +ve and −ve terminals. These
plates are assembled in a suitable jar or container to make a complete cell

Chemical changes
(i) DISCHARGING

When the cell is fully charge, its positive plate or anode is PbO2 (dark chocolate
brown) and the negative plate or cathode is Pb (slate grey). When the cell
discharges i.e. it sends current through the external load, then H2SO4 is
dissociated into positive H2 and negative SO4 ions. As the current within
the cell is flowing from cathode to anode, H2 ions move to anode and SO4 ions
move to the cathode.
At anode (PbO2), H2 combines with the oxygen of PbO2 and H2SO4 attacks
lead to form PbSO4.
PbO2 + H2 + H2SO4 ⎯→ PbSO4 + 2H2O

At the cathode (Pb), SO4 combines with it to form PbSO4

Pb + SO4 ⎯→ PbSO4

(ii) CHARGING
When the cell is recharged, the H2 ions move to cathode and SO4 ions go to
anode and the following changes take place :
At Cathode
PbSO4 + H2 ⎯⎯→ Pb + H2SO4
At Anode
PbSO4 + 2H2O ⎯⎯→ PbO2 + 2H2SO4
Hence, the anode and cathode again become PbO2 and Pb respectively.

Applications of Lead-acid Batteries

Storage batteries are these days used for a great variety and range of purposes,
some of which are summarised below :
1. In Central Stations for supplying the whole load during light load periods,
also to assist the generating plant during peak load periods, for providing
reserve emergency supply during periods of plant breakdown and finally, to
store energy at times when load is light for use at time when load is at its peak
value.
2. In private generating plants both for industrial and domestic use, for much the
same purpose as in Central Stations.
3. In sub-stations, they assist in maintaining the declared voltage by meeting a
part of the demand and so reducing the load on and the voltage drop in, the
feeder during peak-load periods.
4. As a power source for industrial and mining battery locomotives and for road
vehicles like cars and trucks.
5. As a power source for submarines when submerged.
6. Marine applications include emergency or stand-by duties in case of failure
of ship’s electric supply, normal operations where batteries are subjected to
regular cycles of charge and discharge and for supplying low-voltage current to
bells, telephones, indicators and warning systems etc.
7. For petrol motor-car starting and ignition etc.
8. As a low voltage supply for operating purposes in many different ways such
as high-tension switchgear, automatic telephone exchange and repeater stations,
broadcasting stations and for wireless receiving sets.

Maintenance of Lead-acid Cells

The following important points should be kept in mind for keeping the battery
in good condition:
1. Discharging should not be prolonged after the minimum value of the voltage
for the particular rate of discharge is reached.
2. It should not be left in discharged condition for long.
3. The level of the electrolyte should always be 10 to 15 mm above the top of
the plates which must not be left exposed to air. Evaporation of electrolyte
should be made up by adding distilled water occasionally.
4. Since acid does not vaporise, none should be added.
5. Vent openings in the filling plug should be kept open to prevent gases formed
within from building a high pressure.
6. The acid and corrosion on the battery top should be washed off with a cloth
moistened with baking soda or ammonia and water.
7. The battery terminals and metal supports should be cleaned down to bare
metal and covered with vaseline or petroleum jelly.

Maintenance-free batteries
•They are also called VRLA, or “Valve Regulated Lead Acid” batteries.
•Maintenance-free batteries should never be topped up, therefore there are no
filler caps on top.
•The filler cap is replaced by an over-pressure valve that is normally closed.
•Any gas that forms ends up being recombined in the cell as water.
•Maintenance-free batteries have to be charged up with a charger that is suitable
for this type of battery.
Types of maintenance-free batteries AGM batteries(Absorbent Glass Mat) use
separators consisting of a sponge-like glass fibre mat that is squeezed between
the flat battery plates. The electrolyte is incorporated in the glass fibre mat. The
first AGM batteries were developed during the 1980’s in Japan and were used
mainly in the UPS market. In the meantime development has continued and
there are now AGM batteries for the cyclical battery market. GEL batteries use
traditional separators, except that a silicate is added to the acid whereby the acid
becomes a gel after initial filling. Gel batteries have been in existence since the
1950’s and have in the meantime created a good reputation for maintenance-
free batteries.

Solar cell

•A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the

energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect
 •It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical
characteristics, such as current, voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to
light.
• The common single junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum
opencircuit voltage of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts Symbol of a Photovoltaic
cell Solar Panels
• A solar panel is actually a collection of solar (or photovoltaic) cells, which
can be used to generate electricity through photovoltaic effect. These cells are
arranged in a grid-like pattern on the surface of solar panels.
• It may also be described as a set of photovoltaic modules, mounted on a
structure supporting it. A photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged and
connected assembly of 6×10 solar cells.
• Most solar panels are made up using crystalline silicon solar cells.
• Installation of solar panels in homes helps in combating the harmful emissions
of greenhouse gases and thus helps reduce global warming
•only major drawback of solar panels is that they are quite costly
• Solar panels are installed outdoors as they need sunlight to get charged

Applications of solar panel

• Solar Water Heating
• Solar Heating of Buildings
•Solar-pumping
•Solar Drying of Agricultural and Animal Products
•Solar Furnaces
•Solar Cooking
•Solar Electric Power Generation
•Solar Thermal Power Production
•Solar Green Houses