ST.

JOSEPH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING UNIT-1 TRANSFORMER

UNIT I
TRANSFORMER
Introduction - Ideal and Practical Transformer – Phasor diagram-– Per Unit System –
Equivalent circuit- Testing- Efficiency and Voltage Regulation– Three Phase Transformers –
Applications- Auto Transformers, Advantages- Harmonics.

INTRODUCTION
A transformer is a static device that transfers electric power from one circuit to another
circuit without change in frequency.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION :
The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. It states that, when two coils are
inductively coupled and if the current in one coil is changed uniformly then an emf is induced
in the other coil.
The following fig. shows the basic transformer diagram.

It consist of two coils, namely

 Primary Winding
 Secondary Winding

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 The primary winding is connected to the input power supply.

 The Secondary winding is connected to the load.
 The Primary winding has N1 number of turns.
 The Secondary winding has N2 number of turns.

 When the primary winding is excited by an A.C Supply, it circulates an AC Current.

 The current produces flux (φ) which completes it’s path through the magnetic core.
 This alternating flux links with the secondary winding.
 According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction the secondary winding
induces the emf.
 There is no electrical contact between the two windings.
Ideal Transformer:
In an ideal transformer
V 1 N1
= =K
V 2 N2

CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER
The main components of the transformer are:
(i) Magnetic core
(ii) Primary and secondary windings
(iii) Insulation of windings
(iv) Expansion tank or conservator
(v) Lead and tappings for coils with their supports, terminals and terminal insulations.
(vi) Tank oil
(vii) Cooling arrangements
(viii) Temperature Gauge
(ix) Oil Gauge
(x) Buchholz Relay
(xi) Silica Gel Breather
Magnetic Core:

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 The transformer core is made up of good magnetic material called silicon steel.
 The thickness of the laminations varies from 0.35 mm to 0.5 mm.
 The laminations are insulated from each other by coating them with thin coat of
varnish.

 The joints are staggered to avoid continuous gap. If continuous gap is allowed it leads
to the increase of magnetizing current.
The two types of transformer based on core are:
(a) Core Type
(b) Shell Type
Core Type Transformer:
 The windings surround considerable part of the core.
 It has only on magnetic path.
 It has two limbs for two windings.
 It I made up of two L type Stampings.
 The cois are of cylindrical type and are usually wound.

Shell Type Transformer:

 Core Surrounds considerable part of the winding.
 The two windings are carried by central limb.
 The core made up of E and I stampings and has three limbs.
 It has two parallel paths for magnetic flux.

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Windings:
 There are two windings in a transformer.
 They are
(i) Primary Winding
(ii) Secondary Winding
 The windings are usually made up of copper.
Insulation :
 Paper is used as a basic conductor insulation.
 Enamel is used as inter turn insulation for low voltage transformers.
 For Power transformers enameled copper with paper insulation is also used.
Insulating Oil :
 The oil used in transformer protects the paper from dust and moisture and
removes the heats produced in the core and coils.
 It also acts as insulating medium.
The oil must possess the following properties.
(i) High dielectric strength.
(ii) Free from inorganic acid, alkali and corrosive sulphur to prevent injury to the
conductor.
(iii) Low viscosity to provide good heat transfer.
(iv) Good resistance to emulsion so that the oil may throw down any moisture
entering the tank instead of holding it in suspense.
Expansion tank or Conservator:
 The main tank of the transformer is connected by a pipe to a small auxiliary tank
mounted above the main tank.
 The oil level of a transformer changes with change in temperature of oil which in
turn depends upon the load on the transformer.
 The oil expands with the increase in load and contracts when the load decreases.
 The function of the expansion tank is to keep the main tank of the transformer
completely filled with the changes in temperature.
Buchholz relay:
 When any fault occurs in the transformer bubbles occur in the oil.
 Buchholz relay is the gas operated relay mounted in the pipe to give an alarm in case
of minor fault and to disconnect the transformer from the supply mains in case of
severe faults.

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Breather:
 The breather is filled with drying agent such as Calcium Chloride or Silica Gel.
 Silica Gel or Calcium chloride absorbs moisture and allows dry air to enter the tank.

Cooling arrangements in transformer:

The various methods of cooling arrangements provided in the transformer are:
 Oil immersed natural cooled transformers.
 Oil immersed forced air cooled transformers.
 Oil immersed water cooled transformers.
 Oil immersed forced oil cooled transformers
 Air blast transformers.

EMF EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER

 The Primary winding of the transformer is supplied by an alternating voltage V1.
 It produces an alternating flux φ.
 The Primary winding has N1 number of turns.
 The flux links the secondary winding through the common magnetic core.
 It produces induced emf in the secondary.

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Let
N1 = Number of turns in Primary.
N2 = Number of turns in Secondary
Φm = maximum flux of the core in Webers =Bm * A
f = frequency of AC input in Hz.
φm
Average rate of Change of flux = 1 = 4fφm Wb/s
4f
Average emf/turn = 4fφm Wb/s

If flux φ varies sinusoidally, the rms value of induced emf is obtained by multiplying the
average value with form factor.

RMS Value
Form Factor= =1.11
Average Value
RMS Value=1.11∗Average Value
= 1.11 * 4fφm Volts

= 4,44 fφm Volts ---------------------(1)

RMS Value of induced emf in the whole of Primary winding E1 = 4.44 f φm N1 volts
RMS Value of induced emf in the whole of Primary winding E2= 4.44 f φm N2 volts
E1 4.44 f φm N 1
=
E2 4.44 f φm N 2
Therefore
E1 N 1 E2 N 2
= (¿ ) =
E2 N 2 E1 N 1
In the transformer at no load V1=E1 and V2=E2

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Voltage Transformation Ratio:

We know
E2 N 2
= =K
E1 N 1
The Constant K is called as Voltage Transformation ratio.
If N2 > N1, the transformer is called Step Up transformer
If N2 < N1 , the transformer is called Step Down transformer
For an ideal transformer
V1I1=V2I2
V 1 I2 1
= =
V 2 I1 K

IDEAL TRANSFORMER
The ideal transformer has the following properties.
(i) No winding resistance. i.e. purely inductive.

No 𝐼2𝑅 loss i.e., no copper loss.

(ii) No magnetic leakage flux.
(iii)
(iv) No core loss (hysteresis and eddy current losses).
From the below diagram
 The secondary is kept open.
 The AC supply is connected to the primary winding.

denoted as 𝐼μ.
 A current flows through the winding. This current is called magnetizing current. It is

 This current is mainly used to magnetize the core.

 It is lagging 𝑉1 by 90°.The current 𝐼μ produces an alternating flux Ф.

 The value of magnetizing current is small.

 𝐼μ and Ф are in phase. This changing flux is linking with primary and secondary
Ideal Transformer

windings.
 Due to the alternating flux, a self-induced e.m.f is produced in the primary winding.

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 It is denoted as 𝐸1 and equal to and in opposition to 𝑉1. It is known as counter e.m.f

 Similarly an induced e.m.f 𝐸2 is produced in the secondary winding because the

or back e.m.f of the primary winding.

alternating flux is linking with secondary winding. This e.m.f is known as mutually

 This e.m.f 𝐸2 is in opposition to 𝑉1 and its magnitude is proportional to the rate of

induced e.m.f.

Figure shows input voltage 𝑉1, induced e.m.f (𝐸1, 𝐸2), flux Ф and magnetizing
change of flux and number of secondary turns.

current 𝐼μ waveforms.

Vector Diagram on No – Load:

Step 2: Draw the flux line Ф (OB). The angle between 𝑉1 and Ф is 90°.
Step 1: First draw the input voltage line V1(OA).

Step 3: Draw the magnetizing current 𝐼μ (OC). It is in phase with flux.

Step 4: Draw the induced e.m.fs 𝐸1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸2. The angle between 𝐸1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉1 is 180° i.e.,
𝐸1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉1 are in opposite directions (OD and OA).
Step 5: Then draw E2 line. It is in phase with 𝐸1 (OE).

No Load Vector Diagram

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PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER
OPERATION OF PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER ON NO LOAD
 If the primary winding is connected to alternating voltage and secondary winding is
left open, then the transformer is said to be on no-load.

Practical transformer on no- load

 Let V1 be the input voltage which is supplied to the primary.
 This causes an alternating current to flow through the primary.
 Since secondary winding is open, this current is called no-load primary current I0.
 This I0 establishes a flux ‘ɸ’ in the core.
 I0 lags behind V1 by an angle ɸ0 < 90
 No Load Input Power P0 = V1 I0 Cos φ0
 I0 has two components.
(i) Active or Working or Iron Loss or wattful Component IW.
(ii) Reactive (or) Magnetizing (or) wattless Component (Iμ).
 IW is in phase with V1 and supplies the iron loss and negligible amount of primary
copper loss.
Iw = I0 Cos φ0

𝐼μ is in quadrature with V1 and it sustains the flux in the core.

Where Cos φ0 = No Load Power Factor

Iµ = I0 Sin φ0
From the above equations
I 0=√ I 2w + I 2µ
From the above discussion:
 The no-load primary current (Io) is very small as compared to the full primary
current.
 As I0 is very small, no-load primary copper loss is negligibly small which
means that no load primary input is practically equal to the iron – loss in a
transformer.

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 Core loss is responsible for shift in the current vector.

OPERATION OF PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER ON LOAD
 The Primary of the transformer is supplied with the supply Voltage V1.

When the secondary is loaded, the secondary current 𝐼2 is set-up.

 The secondary of the transformer is connected to the load.

The magnitude and phase of 𝐼2 with respect to 𝑉2 is determined by the load



characteristics.
 For a resistive load I2 is in Phase with V2.
 For an inductive load I2 lags behind V2.
 For a capacitive load I2 leads V2.

Transformer under No Load and Loaded Condition

 In the Practical transformer, the primary winding has resistance R 1 and the secondary
winding has resistance R2.

Transformer winding leakage reactance:

 In practice, all the flux generated by the primary winding does not link the secondary
winding.
 Some part of the flux passes through air rather than around the core.
 This flux is called the primary leakage flux. It is denoted as ФL1.
 This flux does not link with secondary winding. This flux induces an e.m.f eL1 in
primary winding.
 The flux ФL1 is in phase with I1. Similarly a leakage flux is set up in the secondary
winding. This flux is known as secondary leakage flux. It is denoted as ФL2.
 This flux induces an e.m.f eL2 in secondary winding. The flux ФL2 does not link
 with primary. It is in phase with I2.

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 The primary leakage reactance is X1 and secondary leakage reactance X2 are

Indicated.

Vector diagram of transformer on load:

The following steps are followed to draw the vector diagram.
Step 1: Draw the flux line Ф. It is the reference vector.
Step 2: Draw the V1 vector. The angle between the V1 and Ф is 90◦
Step 3: Draw the induced e.m.f E1 and E2 vector. They opposes V1 i.e., 180◦ out of
phase.
Step 4: Draw the no-load primary current Io. The current Io is lagging with respect to V1
by an angle Фo.
Step 5: Draw the secondary current I2.
Unity power factor : V2 and I2 are in phase.
Lagging power factor : Secondary current is lagging with respect to V2 by an angle Ф2.
Leading power factor : Secondary current I2 is leading with respect to V2 by an angle
Ф2.
Step 6: Draw the load component of primary current I '2. It is opposite and equal in
magnitude to I2.
Step 7: Draw the primary current I1. This current is lagging with respect to V1 by an
angle of Ф1. I1 is the vector sum of I '2 and Io.

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Unity Power Factor

Lagging Power Factor

Leading Power Factor

PER UNIT SYSTEM

Per unit system of a transformer.
It is usual to express voltage, current, VA and impedance in per unit of the base or reference
values of these quantities.
The per unit (pu) value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of actual value to base value.
Actual Value
Per Unit Value=
Base Value

The rated value of the device is chosen as the base value.

The per unit value is same on either side of the transformer.
For a single phase system, the base volt ampere is

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(VA)base = Vbase Ibase ---------------------------(1)

V base
Z base= -----------------------------------(2)
I base

V base
Z base= ----------------------------------(3)
I base

[ ][ ]
2
V base V base V base
Z base= =
I base V base VA base

Always, (VA)base and Vbase are first selected and their choice automatically fixes the other
base values as per Equations (1)-(3).

It immediately follows from these equations that

V 2B
Z B=
(VA ) B
Z ( Ω ) x (VA )B
Z ( pu)= ------------------------------(4)
V 2B

The large devices and systems it is more practical to express the bases in kVA/MVA and kV.
Then equation (4) is written as
Z ( Ω ) x (kVA)B
Z( pu)= ----------------------------(5)
1000 x (kV )2B

Z ( Ω ) x (MVA)B
Z( pu)= ----------------------------(6)
(kV )2B

When (MVA)B and (kV)B are modified, the new pu impedance is given by

Z (pu)new =Z ( pu)old x
(
( MVA ) B ,new
( MVA )B , old )(
x
)
( kV )B , old 2
( kV ) B ,new
--------------(7)

In the 3-phase system, the bases are chosen as

(MVA)B = 3-Phase MVA

(kV)B = Line-to-line kV

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( )
2
(kV )B
√3 ( kV )2B
Z B= =
1 ( MVA )B
(MVA )B
3
z (Ω ) x (MVA) B
Z ( pu )= --------------------------------(8)
( kV )2B

Assuming delta connection,

2
( ( kV )B ) 3 ( kV )B
2
Z B ( △ )=
1 X ( MVA )B =
( MVA ) B
3

Z ( pu )=
( )
Z
3
x ( MVA )B

( kV )2B

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER

The objectives for obtaining the equivalent circuit of the transformer are
 To predetermine the behavior of the transformer under various conditions of
operations.
 For complete analysis and investigation of a static transformer.

Equivalent Circuit of the transformer

The resistance in the secondary winding can be replaced by the addition of the
resistance R'2 in the Primary Circuit.
' 2
I 2 R2=R 2 ( I 2 )
2 '

()
2
' I2
R 2= '
R2
I2

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( )
2
N1
'
R= 2 R2
N2

' R2
∴ R 2= 2
=Secondary resistance referred ¿ primary
K

Similarly, the equivalent secondary leakage reactance X '2 referred to primary side is

( )
2
' N1 X2 N1
X 2 =X 2 = 2 ∵ K=
N2 (K) N2

The simplified equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary is:

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Where R p =R 1+ R '2=Equivalent Resistance referred ¿ primary

'
X p =X 1 + X 2 =Equivalent reactancereferred ¿ primary

When referred to secondary side

The approximate equivalent circuit is

TESTING OF TRANSFORMERS
The following tests are used for the determination of circuit model of transformers
(i) Open Circuit test
(ii) Short Circuit Test
(iii) Sumpner’s (back to back) test.

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Open Circuit Test:

Open circuit test is useful to determine:
(i) No Load Loss (or) Core Loss
(ii) No Load Current I0, which is useful in finding R0 and X0

The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram:

 The high voltage winding is left open.
 The low voltage winding is connected to the normal supply voltage and frequency.
 The applied voltage is measured by the voltmeter.
 The no load current I0 is measured by the ammeter.
 The no load input power W0 is measured by the wattmeter.
 As the normal rated voltage is applied to the primary normal iron loss will occur in
the transformer core.
 Hence wattmeter will read the iron losses and small coper losses in the primary.
 As the no load current I0 is small, wattmetr reading gives the iron losses in the
transformer and it is same at all loads.

Iron Losses, P1 =Wattmeter reading = W0

No Load Current =Ammeter reading =I0
Applied Voltage =Voltmeter reading = V1
Input Power W0 = V1 I0 Cos φ0
No Load Power factor
W0
cos φ0=
V 1 I0
−1
φ 0=cos
( )
W0
V 1 I0
No Load Wattful component I w =I 0 cos φ0
W0
¿
V1
No Load Magnetizing component I ❑ =I 0 sin φ 0=√ I 20−I 2w
2
V1 V1
No Load resistance R0 = =
Iw W0
V1 V1
No Load reactance X 0= I = 2 2
❑ √ I 0 −I w
The open circuit test gives the no load loss P1 , Iw, R0, X0

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Short Circuit Test:

The short circuit test is useful to find:
1. Full-load copper loss.
2. Equivalent resistance and reactance referred to metering side.
 In this test, the secondary winding (usually low voltage winding) is short circuited by
a thick conductor and variable low voltage is applied to the primary winding.
 The input voltage is gradually raised with the help of a variac till Isc full load current
flows in the primary winding.
 There is no output from the transformer under short circuit conditions. Since applied
voltage is very low, flux linking with the core is very small and therefore iron losses
are so small that these can be neglected and so the reading of the wattmeter gives total
copper loss at full load.

2
W sc=Ful Load Copper Loss=I sc R sc
W sc
Equivalent Resistance R sc = 2
I sc
V sc
Equivalent Impedance Z sc = 2
I sc
Equivalent Reactance X sc =√ Z 2sc−R 2sc
Sumpner’s Back to Back Test:

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P1 , S1  Primary and Secondary Windings of transformer 1

P2 , S2  Primary and Secondary Windings of transformer 2

 Two identical transformers are needed for conducting this test.

 Here, the Primary windings of both the transformers are connected in parallel and the
secondary windings of both the transformers are connected in phase opposition.
 The power taken from the supply Is necessary for supplying the losses of both the
transformers.
 The auto transformer is varied, the voltmeter V1 is set to rated voltage.
 At this point switch S is opened.
 Since S1 and S2 are in phase opposition V2 will read zero.
 So, W1 will read the total iron losses of the transformer.
 Now the switch S is closed. By varying the auto transformer the ammeter A 2 is set to
rated full load current.
 The Wattmeter W2, will read the total full load copper losses of both the transformer.

TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of a transformer at a particular load and power factor is defined as
the output power divided by the input power.
Output Power
Transformer Efficiency =
Input Power
Output Power
¿
Output Power+ Losses
Output Power
¿
Output Power+ Iron Losses+Copper Losses
Output Power=V 2 I 2 cos φ
Where
V2 = Secondary terminal voltage on load

Cos φ = Power factor of the load

I2 = Secondary Current on Load

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n V 2 I 2 cos φ
Transformer Efficiency = 2
n V 2 I 2 cosφ+ Pi+ n P cu

At full load n =1
At half load n = ½

Condition for Maximum Efficiency:

Output Power=V 2 I 2 cos φ
If R02 is the total resistance of the transformer referred to secondary ,
then
2
Total Copper Loss Pcu =I 2 R02
Total losses=Pi + Pcu
Output Power
Transformer Efficiency =
Input Power
Output Power
¿
Output Power+ Losses
V 2 I 2 cos φ 2
¿ 2
V 2 I 2 cos φ2 + Pi + I 2 R02
Dividing both the numerator and Denominator by I2
V 2 cos φ2
¿
Pi
V 2 cos φ2 + + I 2 R02
I2
For maximum value of efficiency for the given cos φ 2(pf) the denominator
must be least value

d
( denominator )=0
d I2

V 2 cos φ2 + + I 2 R 02 =0
d
d I2( Pi
i2 )
Pi
0− 2
+ R02=0
i2
2
Pi=I 2 R 02=P cu
Iron Loss = Copper Loss
Hence efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when copper losses
are equal to iron
losses.

VOLTAGE REGULATION
Voltage Regulation is defined as the change in secondary terminal voltage from no load to
full load at any load.
The voltage regulation is the figure of merit of the transformer.

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% Voltage Regulation=
( V NL−V FL
V NL )x 100

Where
VNL = No Load Terminal Voltage of transformer (Volts)
VFL = Full Load Terminal Voltage of transformer (Volts)
I 2 Zs
% Voltage Reguation= x 100
V2
Where
Z s=R s+ j X s =Equivalent Impedance of Transformer referred ¿ Secondary(ohms)
I 2=Current through Secondary Winding ( A)
V 2=Rated Secondary Terminal Voltage(Volts)

The following fig. shows the vector diagram of transformer.

Lagging power factor:

'
V 2= secondary terminal voltage referred to primary.
I1 = primary current.

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I 1 R01 cos φ+ I 1 X 01 sin φ

% Regulation= x 100
V1
Leading Power Factor:

I 1 R01 cos φ−I 1 X 01 sin φ

% Regulation= x 100
V1
Unity Power Factor :

I 1 R01
% Regulation= x 100
V1

THREE PHASE TRASFORMERS

The transformer used to transfer large amounts of power to three-phase connections, to meet
the required demand economically, is called a three-phase transformer.
Construction:
The three-phase transformer can be constructed using a common magnetic core for both
primary and secondary windings.
Based on the type of construction of primary and secondary windings, three-phase
transformers are classified as:
(i) Core-type three-phase transformer
(ii) Shell-type three-phase transformer
Core type Single Phase Transformer:
 Three Phase transformers has three limbs and only one core.
 Around each limb the primary and secondary windings are placed.

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Shell type Single Phase Transformer:

 In Shell Type, Each phase has a individual magnetic circuit.

Three Phase Transformer Connections:

The following are the most useful and commonly used transformer connections.
 Star - Star connection
 Delta – Delta connection
 Star – Delta connection
 Delta – Star connection
Star – Star (Υ- Υ )Connection:

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 The primary and secondary windings are connected in star

 In this type, the transformation ratio is given by the ratio of primary to secondary line
voltages.
Delta-Delta (△-△) Transformer:

 The primary and secondary windings are connected in delta

 The number of turns required per phase and the required insulation is more when
compared to star-star connection.
 The transformation ratio is given by the ratio of primary to secondary line voltages.
Star Delta (Υ-△) Connection:

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 Here, the primary windings are connected in star with the neutral grounded and the
secondary windings are connected in delta.
 In this type, the ratio of primary to secondary line voltages is √ 3 times the
transformation ratio.

Delta – Star (△-Υ) Connection:

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ST.JOSEPH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING UNIT-1 TRANSFORMER

 In this connection, the primary windings are connected in delta and the secondary
windings are connected in star with the neutral grounded.
1
 The ratio of primary to secondary line voltages is times the transformation ratio.
√3
Applications of Three Phase Transformers:
Three-phase transformers are used in many electrical systems, including power generation,
transmission, and distribution, as well as in industrial and commercial settings.
Power generation
 Step up transmission voltages from generators to transmission lines
Transmission and distribution
 Match voltages between substations, distribution, and consumer levels
Correct voltage drops in distribution lines
Industrial applications
 Support large three-phase motors, variable speed drives, and welding systems
Maintain balance and avoid overloading any one phase
Commercial facilities
 Provide three-phase supplies to malls, apartments, and offices

AUTO TRANSFORMERS

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 A transformer in which a part of the winding is connected to both primary and

secondary is called Auto Transformer.
 In an Auto transformer the primary is electrically connected to the secondary.
 Whereas in a conventional transformer, the primary and secondary are completely
insulated from each other but are magnetically coupled to the common core.

Schematic Diagram of an Auto Transformer

In the fig. above , AB is the Primary Winding having N1 number of turns and BC is the
secondary winding having N2 number of turns.
V 2 N2 I1
= = =K
V 1 N1 I2
The voltage ratio of the Auto transformer is given by:
V 1−V 2 N 1
K= =
V2 N2
Copper Saving in Auto transformer :
 The weight of the copper is proportional to the length and area of a cross section of
the conductor.
 The length of the conductor is proportional to the number of turns, and the cross
Sectional area is proportional to the product of current and number of turns.
From the above figure, the weight of copper required in an auto transformer is
Wa = weight of copper in section AC + weight of copper in section CB
W a I 1 ( N 1 −N 2 ) +(I 2−I 1) N 2

W a ∝ I 1 N 1+ I 2 N 2−2 I 1 N 2
The total weight of the copper required in the ordinary transformer
W0 = weight of copper on its primary winding + weight of copper on its secondary
winding.
W 0 I 1 N1+ I 2 N2

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ST.JOSEPH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING UNIT-1 TRANSFORMER

Now, the ratio of the weight of the copper in an auto transformer to the weight of
copper in an ordinary transformer is given as

W a I 1 N 1+ I 2 N 2−2 I 1 N 2
=
W0 I 1 N1+ I 2 N2

(or0
W a I 1 N 1+ I 2 N 2 2I1 N 2
= −
W 0 I 1 N 1+ I 2 N 2 I 1 N 1 + I 2 N 2

2I1 N 2
Wa 2I1 N 1
=1−
W0 I 1 N 1 I2 N 2
+
I 1 N 1 I1 N 1
Wa
=1−K
W0

W a=(1−K )W 0

Saving of copper = W 0 −W a =W o− (1−K ) W o=K W o

Therefore,
Saving of copper = K x weight of copper required for two windings of the
Transformer.

HARMONICS
Harmonics are distortions in the voltage and current waveforms.. They can cause problems
like overheating, noise, and reduced lifespan in a transformer.
 The transformer does not generate harmonics.
 The transformer has primary and secondary winding which are inductive in nature.
 The inductive load draws current linearly with the applied voltage.
However, the transformer generates harmonics in two conditions.
Condition: 1
 When transformer is energized the magnetizing current drawn by it is non linear and it
generates harmonics.
 This is because, when transformer is energized the back emf is zero and transformer
draws huge magnetizing current which is not sinusoidal.
 The magnetizing current is rich in the 2nd order harmonic current.
Condition: 2
 The over excitation of the transformer. The over excitation means the transformer is
operated at increased flux density than its rated flux density.
 Under over excitation of transformer the 5th order harmonic current is produced.

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ST.JOSEPH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING UNIT-1 TRANSFORMER

 The above two conditions happen for a short period of time and thus the 2nd and 5th
order harmonics is not a serious problem.
 The transformer primary function is to feed power to the load. The nature of load
decides whether the load current waveform has harmonics or not.
 If the load is linear, no harmonics is produced and if the load is non linear the
harmonics are produced in the electrical network.
Effect of Harmonics on Iron Loss
 The core or iron loss of the transformer is the loss occurs due to eddy current loss and
hysteresis loss.
 The hysteresis loss is directly proportional to the frequency and, eddy current loss is
directly proportional to the square of the frequency.
 Thus, it is clear that the iron loss gets increased with increase in frequency.
 The harmonic current is the integral multiples of the fundamental frequency and
harmonic current may have frequency of 100 Hz, 150Hz, 200Hz, 250 Hz and so on.
 Thus the iron loss of the transformer gets increased if harmonic rich current flow
through the transformer.
Effect of Harmonics on Copper Loss
 The tendency of flowing of current at the outer surface of the conductor is known as
skin effect.
 The higher frequency current tends to flow at the outer surface of the conductor.
 When the current flows at the outer surface of the conductor, the effective cross
section area of the conductor gets reduced.
 The reduction in effective cross section area leads to increase in the conductor
resistance. The higher resistance of the conductor cause the more copper loss(I2R) in
the transformer.
 Thus, the copper loss of the transformer gets increased with increase in the harmonic
current.
Effect of Harmonics on Efficiency of Transformer
 The efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to input
power.
Output Power
Effiiency=
Input Power

Input Power−Losses
¿
Input Power
Losses
¿ 1−
Input Power
 With increase of losses in the transformer due to harmonics, the efficiency of the
transformer gets decreased.

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