Engineering Physics Vol - I

Relativistic Mechanics
REFERENCE FRAME
Any moving platform or a moving coordinate system which is used by an observer to measure a physical
quantity or to observe an event is called reference frame.
The measured value of a physical quantity depends on the reference frame of the observer, e.g. the
measured value of the speed of a train would be different for the two observers, one on the ground and
other inside a moving car. Thus it is essential to quote the reference frame of the observer along with the
measured value of a physical quantity to make the measurement meaningful.
Out of the infinite number of available reference frames that frame is considered to be most suitable
from where the given motion appears to be simplest.
Reference frames are characterized in the following two categories
Inertial Reference Frames
The reference frames in which Newton’s law of inertia holds, are called as Inertial/Newtonian/Galilean
Reference Frames. These are the reference frames moving with constant velocity with respect to each other.
The observers in different inertial reference frames may obtain different numerical values for measured
physical quantities but laws of physics remain same for all observers in inertial reference frames.
Non-Inertial Reference Frames
Newton’s laws of motion do not hold well in each and every reference frame. For instances,
would not hold if mass is variable (as in case of falling raindrops, rockets and particles moving with
relativistic speeds).
The reference frames, in which Newton’s law of inertia does not hold, are known as Non-Inertial
Reference Frames. The reference frames moving with uniform acceleration with respect to each other are
non-inertial.

LUMINIFEROUS ETHER
In practice, motion is always described in a relative frame of reference. Newton insisted that there must be
a fundamental reference frame which is in absolute rest and with respect to which all the motions must be
measured.
Moreover, Maxwell proved light to be an electromagnetic wave. Since waves require a material medium
for their propagation, it was supposed that there must also be a suitable medium to carry these
electromagnetic waves which travelled even through empty space between stars and Earth. This medium
was called as LUMINIFEROUS ETHER. As light waves are transverse waves and transverse waves require
shearing forces which can occur in solids only, ETHER must be a rigid solid pervading all space, empty or
otherwise.

MICHELSON - MORLEY EXPERIMENT

Object
The objective of the Michelson-Morley experiment was to determine velocity of earth around sun with
respect to stationary ether.
Apparatus
The apparatus used in this experiment was Michelson’s Interferometer which works upon the principal of
interference by division of amplitude.

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Theory
A beam of light from a monochromatic source S falls on a half silvered plate P placed at an angle of 45 o
with respect to incident beam. The incident beam is partially reflected towards plane mirror M 1 and partially
transmitted towards mirror M 2 by glass plate P. After reflections at
plane mirror M1 and M2, the reflected and transmitted rays retrace
their path and enter into the telescope T. When seen through
telescope T, fringes are observed due to interference between rays
coming after reflections at mirrors M1 and M2.
In Michelson Morley experiment the interferometer is mounted on
earth such that its X - arm is parallel to the direction of motion of earth
around sun. Let the velocity of earth around sun with respect to
stationary ether is . Since apparatus is mounted on earth, it is also
moving with velocity with respect to ether.

In the experiment the distance of mirror M1 and

that of mirror M2 from plate P are kept equal i.e. in
figure
(say) (1)
With respect to the stationary ether, the relative
velocity of light travelling along PA will be ,
where is the velocity of light in free space. Similarly
the relative velocity of light travelling along AP will be
. Hence the time taken by light to travel from
P to A and back to P will be given by

( )

Since ,

therefore ( ) (2)

Further, when seen at absolute rest, the apparatus appears to be moving with velocity along X-direction. In
this case, the ray travelling along Y - direction will strike mirror M1 not at position B but at B’.
If light takes time in reaching B’ from P then
and .
Hence, from right angled triangle PBB’, we have
.

This gives ( )
√

i.e. ( ) (3)

Hence, the total time taken by the reflected ray in coming into the telescope after reflection at mirror M 1

( ) (4)

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From Eqs. (2) and (4), it is clear that .

The time difference

( ) ( )

(5)

The path difference corresponding to time difference

(6)

This gives us the path difference between the two rays moving along X and Y arms. Now, if the apparatus is
rotated by about a vertical axis then X and Y arms interchange their positions and the path difference
becomes – . Hence after a rotation of , the total path difference introduced between the two
beams is . Further, if corresponding to this path difference fringes shift in the field of view then
(7)

From the observed fringe shift , one can calculate velocity of earth with respect to stationary ether.
Result:
When the apparatus was rotated, practically no fringe shift was observed. The experiment was repeated at
difference places on earth and in different seasons but fringe shift could never be detected. Hence
Michelson - Morley experiment has a negative result.

Explanation of the result:

For negative result of the Michelson - Morley experiment there may be either of the following possibilities
1. There is nothing like ether. i.e. it is not possible for anything to come to absolute rest.
2. Earth drags with it the ether in its immediate neighborhood so that there is no relative motion
between earth and ether.
3. The arm of the interferometer parallel to direction of motion suffers a contraction, so that the path
difference between the interfering beams is always zero (length contraction: suggested by Lorentz
and Fitzgerald).
4. Einstein suggested that the velocity of light is absolute and it is independent of relative motion
between source and observer.

EINSTEIN’S POSTULATES
The two basic postulates of theory of relativity are
1. Principle of Equivalence
‘All inertial reference frames are equivalent’ or ‘the laws of physics remain same in all inertial
reference frames’.
Explanation: This postulate expresses the absence of a universal frame of reference. If the laws of
physics had different forms for two observers in relative motion then from these differences it
would have been possible to determine that which of them is actually moving. But this distinction
does not exist in nature.

2. Absoluteness of velocity of light

The velocity of light is absolute and it is independent of the direction of motion as well as the relative
motion between source and observer.

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According to this postulate (where is velocity of light

and is the velocity of observer)
Explanation: Suppose a flash of light is emitted from the origin
when origin of the two reference frames S and S’ just cross each
other. If it is possible to see the wavefront spreading out in space
then, in view of the first postulate, each of the observers in the
two reference frames will claim to be at the center of the
wavefront noticing that the other one is shifting from the center,
i.e. for both the observers the velocity of light will be .

GALILEAN TRANSFORMATIONS
Let a reference frame S’ is moving along -
axis with constant velocity with respect to
another reference frame S. Suppose two
observers, one in frame S and other in S’
observe an event. The observer in frame S
notes that the event occurs at position
and at time , while the observer in
S’ observes that the event occurs at position
and at time .
If time is measured from the instant when
origins of the two frames coincide, the
distance moved by frame S’ in time along -axis is and hence

Since there is no relative motion along y and z directions, therefore

Further, from our everyday experience we can assume that

Hence the transformation equations from reference frame to frame are

(8a)
(8b)
(8c)
(8d)
These are known as Galilean transformations.

Galilean transformations for velocity and acceleration

Differentiating Eq. (8a), (8b) and (8c) with respect to time, we have

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and

i.e. (9a)
(9b)
and (9c)
where and are components of velocity in reference frames S’ and S respectively.
Equations (9) give Galilean transformations for velocity.
Further, differentiating Eq. (9) with respect to time, the components and of
acceleration in reference frames S and S’ are related as
(10a)
(10b)
and (10c)

Galilean transformations violate the postulates of special relativity

When fundamental equations of electricity and magnetism are transformed from reference frame S to S’
using Galilean transformations, the equations take very different form and they do not remain identical in
the two reference frames. This is contrary to first postulate of special relativity. Moreover, if we measure the
speed of light along -axis as in reference frame S then according to Eq. (9a) the speed of light in system
S’ will be given by

which violates Einstein’s second postulate. Hence Galilean transformations violate both the postulates of
special theory of relativity.

LORENTZ TRANSFORMATIONS
Lorentz transformations are relativistic
analog of Galilean transformations. These
are fundamental equations of special
relativity and are derived on the basis of
its two postulates.
Suppose a reference frame S’ is moving
along -axis with a constant velocity
with respect to another reference frame
S. Let a light flash is emitted from origin
when the origin O and O’ of systems S
and S’ just coincide and the time is measured from this instant. Further, an observer at origin O in reference
frame S notes that light reaches a point P with coordinates at distance from origin O in time with
velocity , then

or (11)
Since from 2nd postulate of special relativity, the velocity of light is for both the observers, therefore
another observer at O’ records that the light reaches same point P with coordinates at distance
in time . This gives

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or (12)
Further, from 1st postulate of theory of relativity the two reference frames are equivalent, hence from Eqs.
(11) and (12) we have

Since there is no relative motion along and directions, we have and , therefore above
equation gives
(13)
Further, let the transformation equations for and are of the form
(14)
and (15)
where and are constants.
Substituting for and from Eq. (14) and (15) in Eq. (13) and equating coefficients of , and on
both sides we get three equations in constants and . Solving these equations one obtains

√
and
Hence from Eq. (14) and (15) the transformation equations for and are given by

√
and
√
Thus, Lorentz transformation equations are given by
(16a)
√
(16b)
(16c)
and (16d)
√
The inverse Lorentz transformations can be obtained by interchanging coordinates and
and replacing by – as below
(17a)
√
(17b)
(17c)
(17d)
√

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For non-relativistic speeds and , therefore Lorentz transformations as given by Eq. (16)
reduce to

and
which are Galilean transformations.

LENGTH CONTRACTION
According to theory of relativity, space is not absolute. The observed length of an object maybe different
when measured from different reference frames. The length of a moving rod is smaller than that of same rod
at rest.
Let us consider two systems S and S’
moving with respect to each other with a
constant relative velocity in the positive -
direction. Suppose a rod AB of length is
placed parallel to -axis in reference frame S’.
The observers in system S and S’ respectively
observe the -coordinate of the ends of the
rod as and , then

(18)
and (19)
where L is the length of rod as measured in system S. For the observer in system S’, the rod is at rest while
the observer in system S observes that the rod is moving along x-axis with velocity v . From Lorentz
transformations we have

and
√
substituting these values in Eq. (18) we get

√ √
This gives length of a moving rod as
√ (20)

Discussion
1. From Eq. (20) it is clear that . Thus length of a rod contracts during motion parallel to its
length.
2. At low velocities when Eq. (20) gives , which is consistent with our daily experience.
3. For , Eq. (20) gives , i.e. whatever be the length of the rod it will reduce to a point when it
moves with velocity of light.

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4. The contraction occurs only in that dimension which is parallel to the

velocity of object. Thus a square becomes rectangle when moving and
sphere becomes ellipsoid.
5. The contraction is reciprocal i.e. if two identical rods are at rest one in S
and other in S’ then each of the observers finds that the other rod is
shorter than the rod of his own system.

TIME DILATION
According to theory of relativity, time is not absolute. The time interval between two events as measured
from different reference frames may be different.
Let us consider two systems S and S’ moving
with respect to each other with a constant
relative velocity along -axis. Suppose a gun is
fixed at position P having coordinates in
system S’ and it fires two shots at time and
and as measured in S’. Hence the time
interval between the two shots in system S’
(21)
Since the gun is fixed in S’ it has a velocity
along -axis with respect to system S. let the
time interval between the shots as measured by
an observer in system S is
(22)
From inverse Lorentz transformation we have

and
√
Substituting these values in Eq. (22) we have

i.e. (23)
√

Discussion
1. From Eq. (23) it is clear that . Thus the time interval between two events taking place at a
given point in a moving frame S’ appears to be longer to an observer in the stationary frame S. This is
called time dilation.
2. At low velocities , hence , showing Galilean absoluteness of time.
3. At , .
4. Twin Paradox: if one of the two identical twin brothers goes on a long space journey in a rocket
moving with a velocity comparable to velocity of light leaving his brother on earth then the clock in
the moving rocket will appear to go slow according to time dilation formula. As a result when he
returns to earth he will find himself younger than his brother who stayed on earth.

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MESON DECAY: Experimental evidence of Time Dilation and Length Contraction

µ-Mesons are unstable subatomic particles which are also found in cosmic ray showers. They have an
average life time of seconds and travel with a velocity of ( being velocity of light). µ-
Mesons are produced at high altitudes at a height of about 10 km due to interaction with cosmic photons
and they are projected towards the ground. If length contraction and time dilation phenomena are not real
then the distance covered by µ-Mesons in their life time will be

However, µ-Mesons can be observed at sea level even though classically they can travel only 600 m distance
in their life time. Further, if length contraction and time dilation phenomena are real then 10 km distance as
seen by µ-Mesons will be given by √ √
Similarly with respect to mesons the lifetime of µ-Mesons will be given by

√ √
and distance travelled by µ-Mesons in this time interval

LAW OF ADDITION OF VELOCITIES

The law of addition of velocities as used in Galilean physics is , where is the relative velocity
between two objects moving with velocity and respectively. However, This law holds good only at low
velocities. According to theory of relativity the general formula for velocity addition is

where is velocity of light.

Proof:
Let us consider two systems S and S’ and an object O
moving in space along -axis. Suppose velocity of
system S’ with respect to S is . The velocity of object O
as measured from system S and S’ are respectively
and . Let at an instant the position of the object O as measured from two systems are and then

(24)
and (25)
where and represent proper time in system S and S’ respectively.
Further, from Lorentz transformations

and
√
Differentiating above equations we have

(26)
√

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and (27)
√
Dividing Eq. (26) by Eq. (27)

or

i.e. (28)

This is required formula for addition of velocities. If system S’ is moving in opposite direction then should
be replaced by – and so we get

i.e. (29)

Eq. (28) gives us relative velocity between two bodies moving with speeds and in same direction and Eq.
(29) gives the same for opposite direction.
Discussion:
1. At low velocities and hence

and from Eqs. (28) and (29) we have which is old classical formula.
2. When one of the velocities is , say then

Thus the relative velocity between two objects one of which is moving with velocity of light is equal
to velocity of light itself. This is in agreement with 2nd postulate of special relativity.
3. From Eq. (29), the relative velocity between two photons moving towards each other may be
obtained by substituting as

RELATIVITY OF SIMULTANEITY
Two events occurring at same time are called simultaneous events and this phenomenon is called
simultaneity. It can be shown by theory of relativity that two events occurring at same time in a physical
system may appear to be occurring at different times from other systems.
Proof
Consider two reference frames S and S’ moving with a relative velocity along -axis. Suppose an observer
in system S observes two events E1 and E2 occurring at positions and and at time and respectively.
For another observer in system S’, these events appear to be occurring at positions and and at time
and respectively.
From time transformation equation of Lorentz

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(30)
√

and (31)
√
Subtracting Eq. (30) from Eq. (31) we get the time interval between the two events as observed from system
S’ as

and (32)
√ √
Discussion:
1. If these two events are simultaneous in system S i.e. then

(33)
√
It is clear that i.e. the two events are not simultaneous in system S’ until . Further, for
we have from Eq. (33). Thus, from system S’, the event occurring at a farther position
will appear to be occurring first.
2. Space time equivalence
From Eq. (33) we have

√
This equation gives a relation between time interval and space interval . It shows relativity of
simultaneity as well as the equivalence of time and space. It indicates that space and time are inter-
convertible and hence they are equivalent.
3. From Eq. (33), one has when . Hence two simultaneous events in system S are
simultaneous in system S’ also if they are
occurring at same place.

RELATIVITY OF MASS
According to theory of relativity mass of a
body increases with its velocity i.e. mass of a
moving body is greater than its mass when it
is at rest.
Proof:
Consider two systems S and S’ moving
with respect to each other with a constant
relative velocity in the positive -direction.
Suppose there are two identical balls A and B of mass in system S’ approaching each other at equal speeds
and – . Let the balls collide and after collision they coalesce (Vdjkdj tqM+ tkuk) to form a combined mass. In
this case, applying law of conservation of momentum in system S’, we have

Momentum of body A + Momentum of body B = Momentum of combined mass.

Hence momentum of combined mass in system S’

Therefore, after collision the combined mass must be at rest in system S’.
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Further, let us consider the same collision from system S. Let the velocities of the balls A and B as observed
from system S are and and there masses are and , then from law of addition of velocities

(34)

and (35)

Since after collision the combined mass comes to rest in system S’, the velocity of combined mass as
observed from system S will be .
Now, applying law of conservation of momentum in system S, we have
(36)
Substituting for and from Eq. (34) and (35), we get

which gives
( ) ( )

Simplifying we get ( ) ( )

i.e. (37)

Further, using Eq. (34) we can evaluate

( )

( )

( ) ( )
i.e.
( ) ( )

( )( )
or (38)
( ) ( )

Similarly we can obtain

( )( )
(39)
( )

Dividing Eq. (39) by Eq. (38) we get

(40)

From Eq. (37) and Eq. (40), we have

√
√

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or √ √ (41)

Since both sides of above equation are independent of each other, therefore above result can be true only if
each side of the above equation is a constant (say ). Hence,

√ √

or, in general, for a body of mass moving with velocity we have

√
From above equation, if then . Hence represents mass of the body when the body is at
rest. Thus mass of a moving body is given by

(42)
√
Discussion:
1. When , we have . This shows Galilean absoluteness of mass at low velocities.
2. At , Eq. (42) gives i.e. an object having a finite rest mass and moving with velocity of light
will have infinite mass.
3. From Eq. (42)
√
which indicates that if then i.e. the particles having zero rest mass (like photons, neutrino
etc) always move with velocity of light.

MASS – ENERGY RELATION

According to theory of relativity, mass and energy are equivalent. A large amount of energy concentrated
in a small finite volume gives the effect as if it is a mass. The Einstein’s mass - energy equivalence relation is
given by

where is the energy equivalent to mass and is velocity of light.

Proof:
We know that the force acting on a particle is defined as the rate of change of linear momentum i.e.

Since according to theory of relativity mass varies with velocity of the particle therefore
(43)

Let the force displaces the body of mass through a distance then increase in kinetic energy of
the body

Substituting for from Eq. (43)

( )

i.e. (44)
Further, from mass transformation formula

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√
Squaring both sides and simplifying we get

or
Differentiating above equation we get

or (45)
from Eq. (44) and Eq. (45)
(46)
which shows that a change in kinetic energy of the particle is directly related to a change in mass. Moreover,
when body is at rest we have , and kinetic energy and when body is moving its mass
is and kinetic energy is . Integrating Eq. (46) within these limits we get

∫ ∫

or (47)
This is relativistic formula for kinetic energy. When the body is at rest the energy stored in the body is
which is called rest mass energy. The total energy of the body is the sum of rest mass energy and kinetic
energy. Hence

or (48)

Discussion:
1. Eq. (48) indicates that mass and energy are equivalent and they are inter-convertible.
2. The formula for kinetic energy reduces to the classical formula for as follows

( )
√

or {( ) }

Expanding right hand side by binomial theorem and neglecting higher terms as , we get

( )

3. Eq. (48) forms the basis of all nuclear reactions like fission and fusion.

RELATIVISTIC MOMENTUM
From Einstein’s mass energy relation, the energy equivalent to mass is given by

where √ .

Therefore (49)
√

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The linear momentum and from Eq. (49) we have

i.e. ( )

or

Substituting in the second term on left hand side

i.e.
or
or (50)

Above equation gives relation between total energy, rest mass energy and linear momentum. It shows that
for a mass at rest when then . Further a particle with no rest mass i.e. can still have
linear momentum given by

Since therefore From Eq. (50)

or
i.e.

or √

This gives relativistic formula for linear momentum in terms of kinetic energy of the particle. The first term in
right hand side is identical with the classical formula for momentum ( √ ). The second term may
be called relativistic correction term which reduces to zero at low velocities.

EXERCISE
Short Answer Questions
1. Is earth inertial frame of reference? Explain.
2. What do you understand by inertial and non-inertial frames? (UPTU 14 CO).
3. What are inertial and non-inertial reference frames? (UPTU 14)
4. What do you understand by time dilation? (UPTU 13)
5. What are mass-less particles? (UPTU 13, 12)
6. What is length contraction? (UPTU: 12 II)
7. What do you understand by variant and invariant under Galilean transformations? (UPTU 11)
8. Show that Galilean transformations violate the postulates of special relativity.
9. Show that a mass-less particle has energy and momentum and moves with the speed of light.
10. State Einstein’s postulates of special theory of relativity.
11. What was the objective and outcome of Michelson-Morley experiment?
12. How the negative result of MM Expt interpreted? (UPTU 15)
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13. Establish the relation , where symbols have their usual meaning.
14. Find relativistic relation between energy and momentum. (UPTU 15)

Long Answer Questions

1. Show that the relativistic invariance of the law of conservation of momentum leads to the concept of
variation of mass with velocity. (UPTU 15, 10)
2. Derive the Galilean transformation equations and show that its acceleration components are invariant.
(UPTU 15)
3. What do you mean by proper length? Derive the expression for relativistic length. (UPTU 15)
4. State Einstein’s postulates of special theory of relativity. Explain why Galilean relativity failed to explain
actual results of Michelson-Morley experiment. [(UPTU 13, 12, 10)]
5. State the fundamental postulates of the special theory of relativity. Deduce the Lorentz transformation
equations. (UPTU 09)
6. Deduce Lorentz transformations from Einstein’s postulates. Also show that at low velocities the Lorentz
transformations reduce to Galilean transformations. (UPTU 14)
7. Show that the relativistic invariance of the law of conservation of momentum leads to the concept of
variation of mass with velocity. (UPTU 10)
8. Show that the relativistic invariance of the law of conservation of momentum leads to the concept of
variation of mass with velocity and equivalence of mass and energy. (UPTU 13, 12)
9. Explain Michelson Morley Experiment and its outcome. (UPTU 12 II)
10. Discuss the objective and outcome of Michelson Morley experiment. (UPTU 12)
11. What was the objective of Michelson Morley experiment? Describe the experiment. How is the
negative result of the experiment interpreted? (UPTU 14 CO, 08)
12. What do you understand by time dilation? How the time dilation is experimentally verified? (UPTU 12)
13. Explain why a moving clock appears to go slow to a stationary observer. (UPTU 07)
14. What is Time dilation effect? Show that time dilation is a real effect.
15. Show that no signal can travel faster than the velocity of light. (UPTU 10)
16. Deduce the relativistic velocity addition theorem. Show that it is consistent with Einstein’s second
postulate. (UPTU 14, 14 CO 09)
17. Show from Lorentz transformation that two simultaneous events ( ) at different positions
( ) in a reference frame S are not in general simultaneous in another reference frame S’. (UPTU
08)
18. Show that for small velocities the relativistic kinetic energy of a body reduces to the classical kinetic
energy, which is less than the rest energy. (UPTU 07)
19. Show that the mass-less particles can exist only if they move with the speed of light and their energy E
and momentum p must have the relation E = pc. (UPTU 07)
20. Prove that Einstein mass energy relation is special consequence of Newton’s second law of motion.
Give experimental evidence which verifies Einstein mass energy equivalence relation.
21. Derive Einstein’s mass energy relation and give its experimental evidence.

Numerical Problems
1. Calculate the length of one meter rod moving parallel to its length when its mass is 1.5 times its rest
mass. (UPTU 13)
2. What is the length of a meter stick moving parallel to its length when its mass is 3/2 times its rest
mass?

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3. Calculate the length and orientation of a rod of length 5 m in a frame of reference moving with a
velocity of 0.6c in the direction making an angle 30 degrees with the rod. (UPTU 15, 10) Hint:
√ [4.272 m, 35.8o]
4. Calculate percentage contraction of a rod moving with a velocity of 0.8c in a direction inclined at 60
deg to its own length. (UPTU 14 CO, 08) Hint: √ [8.3%]
5. How fast would a rocket have to go relative to an observer for its length to be contracted to 99% of
its length? (UPTU 07-08) Hint: √ [0.141 c]
6. A rod 1 m long is moving along its length with a velocity 0.6c. Calculate its length as it appears to an
observer (a) on the earth (b) moving with the rod itself.
7. A train, whose length is 150 meter when at rest, has to pass through a tunnel of length 125 m. The
train is moving with uniform speed of 2.4 ×10 8 m/s towards the tunnel. Find the length of the train
and that of the tunnel as observed by an observer (i) at the tunnel (ii) at the train.
8. A clock in a spaceship emits signals at intervals of 1 second as observed by an astronaut in the space
ship. If the spaceship travels with a speed of m/s. What is the interval between successive
signals as seen by an observer at the control center on the ground?
9. A particle with a proper lifetime of 1 µs moves through the laboratory at m/s, (a) what is
its lifetime as measured by the observer in the laboratory? (b) What will be the distance traversed by
it before disintegrating?
10. A man leaves the earth in a rocket that makes a round trip to the nearest star which is 4 light years
away at a velocity of 0.8c. How much younger will he be on his return than his twin brother who
preferred to stay behind?
11. Compute the lifetime of π + mesons traveling with velocity 0.8c if their proper mean life time is
s. What will be the distance traveled in one mean lifetime with a velocity 0.8c? What will
be this distance if the relativistic effect is not considerable?
12. A clock measures the proper time. With what velocity it should move relative to an observer so that
it appears to go slow by 30 s in 24 hrs.Hint: √ ,[ ]
13. A wrist watch keeping correct time on the earth is worn by the pilot of a spaceship. How much will it
appear to go slow per day with respect to an observer on the earth when spaceship leaves the earth
with velocity of 107 m/sec.
14. At what speed should a clock be moved so that it may appear to lose 1 minute in each hour? (UPTU
09) Hint: √ , [ ]
15. The proper life of mesons is sec. If a beam of these mesons of velocity 0.8c is
produced, calculate the distance the beam can travel before the flux of the meson beam is reduced
to 1/e2 times the initial flux.
16. An experimenter observes a radioactive atom moving with a velocity of . The atom then emits
a particle which has a velocity of relative to the atom in the direction of its motion. What is
the velocity of the particle as observed by the experimenter? Hint: ( ),
[ ]
17. An electron is moving with a speed of in a direction opposite to that of a moving photon.
Calculate the relative velocity of the photon with respect to the electron. Hint:
( ), [ ]
18. A particle has a velocity ̂ ̂ ̂ m/s in a coordinate system moving with velocity 0.8c
relative to laboratory along +ve direction of x-axis. Find in laboratory frame.

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19. A spaceship moving away from the earth with velocity 0.5 c fires a rocket whose velocity relative to
the space is 0.5 c. Calculate the velocity of the rocket as observed from the earth in following two
cases: (i) away from the earth (ii) towards the earth.
20. In an inertial frame S, a red light and blue light are separated by a distance = 2.45 km. The red light is
flashed after 5.35 second when the blue light flashes. Another system S’ is moving along X axis with
velocity u=0.855 c. What is the distance between the two flashes and the time between them as
measured in S’.
21. At what speed is a particle moving if the mass is equal to three times its rest mass? Hint:
√ ,[ ]
22. Find the speed that a proton must be given if its mass is to be twice its rest mass of kg.
What energy must be given to the proton to achieve this speed?
23. How fast must an electron move in order to have its mass equal to the rest mass of the proton?
24. What is the length of a meter stick moving parallel to its length when its mass is 3/2 times its rest
mass?
25. At what velocity will the mass of a body be 2.25 times its rest mass?
26. Calculate the velocity of a particle if the kinetic energy of particle is three times the rest mass
energy. (UPTU 12-II) Hint: , mass transformation formula, [ ]
27. The total energy of a moving meson is exactly twice its rest energy. Find the speed of the meson.
(UPTU 12) Hint: √ ,[ √ ]
28. The mass of a moving electron is 11 times its rest mass. Find its kinetic energy and momentum.
(UPTU 11, 09) Hint: , ,[ √ ]
29. How much does a proton gain in mass when accelerated to a kinetic energy of 500 MeV. (UPTU: 07)
Hint: ,[ kg]
30. If 4 kg of a substance is fully converted into energy, how much energy is produced?
31. Calculate the rest energy of an electron in joules and in electron volts.
32. Calculate the kinetic energy of an electron moving with a velocity in the laboratory system.
33. If the Kinetic energy of a body is double its rest mass energy, calculate its velocity. (UPTU 15)
34. Calculate the amount of work to be done to increase the speed of electron from 0.6 c to 0.8c, given
rest energy of electron = 0.5 Mev?
(UPTU 14)
35. Find the speed of 0.1 MeV electrons according to classical and relativistic mechanics.
36. What will be the fringe shift according to the ether theory in the Michelson Morley experiment, if
the effective path length of each path is 7 m and light has 7000 Å wavelength? The velocity of earth
is 3x104 m/s. [0.2] Hint:
37. In Michelson Morley experiment the length of the paths of the two beams is 11 m each. The
wavelength of the light used is 6000 Å. If the expected fringe shift is 0.4 fringes, calculate the
velocity of the earth relative to ether. Hint: , [31.3 km/s]

38. Calculate the expected fringe shift in a Michelson Morley experiment if the distance of each path is
11 m and the wavelength of light is 5.6x10 -7 m. The experimental set up was now rotated through
90o. The linear velocity of earth may be taken as 30 km/s. (0.196) Hint:
39. The position of a point in the frame S’ moving relative to S with a constant velocity of 10 cm/s along
the X-axis is given by (11, 9, 8). Calculate its position with respect to the frame S, if the two frames
were in coincidence only 0.5 second before. (16,9,8) Hint:

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40. If at the time , the origin of systems S and S’ just coincide and a spherical pulse of light is
produced at the common origin, show that the speed of propagation of spherical wavefront is the
same in both systems, where system S’ is moving relative to stationary system S.
41. Show that the circle in frame S appears to be an ellipse in frame S’ which is moving
with velocity relative to S.
42. A circular lamina moves with its plane parallel to the -plane of a reference frame S at rest.
Assuming its motion to be along the axis of , calculate the velocity at which its surface area
would appear to be reduced to half to an observer in frame S. (UPTU 13)
43. Obtain the volume of a cube, the proper length of each edge of which is , when it is moving with a
velocity along one of its edge?
44. Show that space time interval is invariant under Lorentz transformation.
45. Prove that magnitude of momentum of a particle of rest mass and the kinetic energy T is given
by

( )

46. Establish the relation , where is the linear momentum, is the total energy of
the particle.
47. If frame S' is moving with velocity with respect to frame S, and the components of velocity in
frame S' are and then prove that for the frame S, .
48. Show that the relativistic form of Newton’s second law, when F is parallel to u is

( )

49. As seen by an inertial observer S an event takes place at at time . Another

event takes place at at time so that for S the two events are simultaneous.
Show that for another inertial observer S’ moving along -axis at velocity with respect to the
events are not simultaneous and where .

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Wave Mechanics
WAVE PARICLE DUALITY; DE-BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS
Radiation sometimes behaves as particle and some other times it behaves as wave. The phenomena such
as Photoelectric effect, Compton effect, Zeeman effect etc are explained by particle nature of radiation while
Interference, Diffraction, Polarization are explained by its wave nature.
If and are moving mass and frequency of radiation respectively, then from Einstein’s mass energy
relation and Plank’s hypothesis

which gives the momentum of photon

where is Plank’s constant, is velocity of light, and is wavelength of radiation. Hence the wavelength
associated with a photon is given by

(1)
de-Broglie proposed that like radiation, matter should also have wave - particle dual nature and the
wavelength associated with a material particle of mass moving with velocity should be given by
(2)

THE DE-BROGLIE WAVE PACKET

De-Broglie proposed that each material particle can be
expressed by a stationary wave packet called de-Broglie
wave or matter wave. This stationary wave packet is
made up of a succession of harmonic waves of various
wavelengths.
Matter waves are expressed in terms of wave function
, the square of the modulus of which (i.e. | | )
represents the probability of finding the particle at a
point in the given region. Hence matter waves are
probability waves. The particle is most probably present
at the center of the wave packet where probability of its finding is highest. It may also be found at some
other point within the wave group with lesser probability but it cannot be found beyond the wave group.

WAVE VELOCITY & PARTICLE VELOCITY

The velocity with which the wave packet representing the particle moves is called as group velocity or
particle velocity. It is same as the velocity of the particle. However, the velocity of the component waves
forming the wave group is called wave velocity or phase velocity.
From Einstein’s mass energy relation and Plank’s hypothesis we have

i.e.
The de-Broglie wavelength

where is velocity of the wave group or particle velocity. Further

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phase velocity
This gives
This indicates that wave velocity is always greater than velocity of light because particle velocity is always
lesser than .

Derive an expression for de-Broglie wavelength.

The wavelength of matter waves

From , we have and since therefore , hence

Show that the de-Broglie wave group associated with a particle moves with velocity of the particle itself.
Moving mass of a body is related with its rest mass by the equation

√
where is velocity of the particle.
Further, the group velocity of the wave packet is given by , where is angular frequency and
is the propagation constant.
Moreover, from Einstein’s mass energy relation and Plank’s formula we have or ,
hence angular frequency

Therefore, (9)

The propagation constant

Hence, (10)

Dividing Eq. (9) by Eq. (10), we get

i.e. group velocity is equal to particle velocity.

RELATION BETWEEN PHASE VELOCITY & GROUP VELOCITY

Group velocity and phase velocity are given by
(11)

and (12)

Substituting in Eq. (11) we get

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( ) (13)

Further , therefore , hence substituting these values in above equation we get

i.e. (14)

For non dispersive medium and .

DE-BROGLIE WAVELENGTH IN TERMS OF KINETIC ENERGY

The de-Broglie wavelength associated with a material particle is given by

The kinetic energy of the particle

This gives √
i.e. de-Broglie Wavelength

(15a)
√

Suppose a particle having charge is accelerated by an electric potential then kinetic energy gained by
the charged particle is equal to the work done by the electric field. i.e.

This gives (15b)

√ √

De-Broglie wavelength of electrons

For electron we can substitute , and . Hence
de-Broglie wavelength of an electron accelerated by potential V will be given by
(16)
√
where is in volts.

DAVISSON AND GERMER EXPERIMENT

This experiment demonstrates wave behavior of electrons and approves the theory of matter waves as
proposed by de-Broglie.
Experimental arrangement
The experimental set up is shown in figure. A fine beam of electrons is obtained from an electron gun and
it is allowed to fall upon a single large nickel crystal which can be rotated about the electron beam. The faces
of nickel crystal are cut parallel to (111) planes with inter-planer separation .

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When current is flown through

filament F using a low tension battery
(LT), electrons are emitted from it due to
heating. These electrons are
transformed to a fine beam by using
aluminum diaphragms D1 and D2 and by
applying a high accelerating potential on
aluminum cylinder A.
The electrons scattered by nickel (Ni)
crystal are collected on faraday cylinder
C which is earthed through a sensitive
galvanometer G. The cylinder C can
move on a circular graduated scale so
that the intensity of electron beam
scattered at different angle can be
recorded through the galvanometer.
Observation and Result
Faraday cylinder is moved along the circular scale from 20 o to 90o and intensity of scattered electron beam
is recorded at different angles of colatitudes (angle between incident and scattered beam) and for various
accelerating voltages. The observations are plotted as polar curves as shown in figure.

The curves show that with increase in accelerating potential the electrons are scattered nearly
homogeneously up to 40 volts, but with further increase in accelerating voltage a bump appears on the
curve. The size of the bump goes on increasing with increase in voltage up to 54 volts and after that it starts
reducing and it disappears at 68 volt accelerating voltage. The size of the bump is greatest at 54 volt for 50 o
angle of colatitudes.
Interpretation of the result
The existence of the bump on polar curves indicates that electrons are being scattered along a particular
direction more than any other direction. This cannot be explained by considering electrons as particles.
However, if electrons are considered as waves then bump on polar curves can be explained as a
consequence of diffraction of electron waves by the crystal just like X-ray diffraction. The crystal may be
supposed to act as grating whose grating element is equal to the inter-planer spacing d . Hence successive
positions of maxima will be given by

Substituting d  2.15 Å,   50o and n  1, we can calculate wavelength of electron waves from above
equation as

However, using de-Broglie concept the wavelength of electrons will be given by

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√
Substituting V  54 volt, one can obtain .
Since de-Broglie wavelength of electrons is same as the wavelength of electrons determined experimentally,
this verifies de-Broglie concept of matter waves.

HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

The principle of indeterminacy is significant only on microscopic level. It states that,
For particles of atomic size, it is impossible to determine simultaneously and precisely the values of both the
variables of a canonically conjugate pair of parameters such as position - momentum, energy - time and
angular position - angular momentum.
The product of uncertainties in the measurement of both the members of a pair of canonically conjugate
parameters is at least equal to , where is Plank’s constant.
i.e. ,
,
and

where p, x , E , t ,  and j are respectively the uncertainties in measuring momentum, position,
energy, time, angular position and angular momentum.
However, from wave mechanics, the uncertainty principle can be proved to be
,
or ,
where .

Illustration
1. According to de-Broglie a particle may be represented as a wave packet of finite length . As the
particle can be found at any point within the wave packet, there is an uncertainty in measuring
position of the particle. The uncertainty in measuring position can be minimized by considering a
smaller wave packet, but then uncertainty in measuring wavelength associated with the particle will
increase and this will, in turn, increase the uncertainty in measuring momentum of the particle.
2. Suppose we wish to measure the position and momentum of an electron at a given instant. For this we
will have to illuminate the electron with light or we will have to do some other similar act. When light
falls on the electron, both position and momentum of electron will change and we will always be
measuring changed position and changed momentum of the electron.

Thought Experiment: -ray Microscope

The experimental proof of Heisenberg’s principle is a thought
experiment which verifies Heisenberg’s principle regarding position and
momentum of particle.
Suppose an electron at position O is being observed with -rays using a
high power microscope M. The electron will be observed only when at
least one  photon enters into the microscope objective after being
scattered by the electron. The photon can enter into the microscope only
if it comes between extreme directions OA and OB making a solid angle 2θ
as shown in figure.

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The limit of resolution which is the reciprocal of the resolving power of microscope is given by .
Since microscope cannot distinguish between two objects placed at a separation less than limit of resolution
therefore uncertainty in measuring position of electron
(17)

Further, the momentum of electron scattered along directions OB and OA will be respectively
and , where is the momentum of incident photon and is Plank’s constant. Since photon
should enter into the microscope between directions OA and OB therefore uncertainty in measuring
momentum

( ) (18)

Hence the product of uncertainties

which is greater than . However a more rigorous treatment can establish

,
or .

APPLICATIONS OF HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

1. Zero point energy of harmonic oscillator
Wave mechanics shows that least energy of a simple harmonic oscillator is not zero but it is equal to .
This can also be shown by uncertainty principle
The total energy of simple harmonic oscillator is given by
(19)

where is uncertainty in momentum and is uncertainty in position.

From uncertainty principle,
,
i.e. least uncertainty in the momentum

,
With this substitution in Eq. (15)

(20)
For minimum energy

i.e. { }

or ( )

Substituting this value in Eq. (16) we get

( ) ( ) √

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i.e.

2. Non-existence of electrons in the nucleus

Nuclear radius is of the order of m. If electrons are present in the nucleus then uncertainty in
position of electron will be equal to nuclear diameter i.e. m. From uncertainty principle, the
minimum uncertainty in measuring momentum of electron

Hence momentum of nuclear electrons will be at least of the order . The energy of electrons
with such a large momentum will be given by

i.e.

Hence if electrons exist in the nucleus, they should have an energy of the order of while the
electrons emitted from nucleus as -particles have an energy only of the order of . This indicates that
electrons are not the constituent part of the nucleus.

3. Radius of Bohr’s first orbit

The uncertainty in kinetic energy of electron

Further, the uncertainty in potential energy

Hence, uncertainty in total energy of electron in a Bohr orbit

Since from uncertainty principle , therefore above equation may be written as

(21)

For uncertainty to be minimum

i.e. (22)

For above value of one can determine which comes out to be positive. Hence as
given by Eq. (22) corresponds to minimum energy of electron i.e. first Bohr orbit. Hence the radius of first
Bohr orbit
(23)

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THE WAVE FUNCTION ψ : PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE

The vibrations of matter waves are expressed in terms of wave function which may be real
or complex.
The wave function has no physical meaning in itself, however, the square of the magnitude of i.e. | |
gives the probability of finding the particle at the given point at an instant (probability density). Further,
| |
where is the complex conjugate of the function .
The probability of finding the particle in a small element of a volume is given by | | and the
probability of finding the particle in the given volume is

∫ | | ∫

where integral is evaluated over the whole volume . If particle is definitely present in the given volume
then

∫ | | ∫ (24)

This is known as normalization condition.

However, if particle is definitely not present in the given volume then probability of finding the particle in
the given volume is zero i.e.

∫ (25)

NORMALIZATION OF A WAVE FUNCTION

A wave function is said to be normalized if it satisfies the condition

If the wave function is not normalized, the value of the integral on the left hand side of the above
equation will not be unity and

∫ ( if is not normalized)

In such cases the wave function should be divided by √ to normalize it i.e. √ will be the normalized
wave function. Here is called as the norm of the wave function and √ is known as normalization
constant.

ORTHOGONALITY
We know that two vectors having their dot product zero are said to be orthogonal. In a similar manner two
wave functions and are said to be orthogonal in the interval if

where is complex conjugate of . For a set of wave functions above orthogonality condition may be
written as

where and . Further, for we have

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which is the normalization condition.

The wave functions which satisfy both conditions of orthogonality and normalization are called as
orthonormal wave functions. The condition for orthonormal wave functions may be written as

∫ (26)

where for and for .

Moreover, to obtain the results consistent with the physical observations the wave function  should
fulfill some requirements such as
1. must be single valued and continuous everywhere.
2. The partial derivatives , , must be continuous everywhere.

SCHRODINGER EQUATION
A plane wave propagating along positive x -axis is represented by the equation

where is instantaneous displacement of the vibrating particle, is amplitude, is angular frequency, is

time and is propagation constant.
In a similar manner the wave function representing matter waves associated with a particle may be
expressed as

where and , being de-Broglie wavelength associated with the particle. Further energy
and momentum , hence from above equation
(27)

Differentiating above equation with respect to t and x , one can obtain

or ( )

this gives (28)

Further,

or (29)

Kinetic energy of the particle is given by

Hence if is the potential energy of the particle then total energy

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or (30)

Substituting for from Eq. (28) we have

i.e.

or (31)

Eq. (31) gives the time independent form of Schrodinger wave equation in one dimension. In 3D it is given by
(32)

Further, substituting for and from Eqs. (28) and (29) in Eq. (30) we get
(33)

which is time dependent form of Schrodinger wave equation in one dimension. In three dimensions this may
be written as
(34)

Eigen value equation

From Eq. (32)

or [ ] (35)

In the above equation the operator inside the square bracket on the left hand side is total energy operator
(kinetic energy + potential energy). It is called as Hamiltonian operator ̂ i.e.
̂ (36)

Hence Eq. (35) may be written as

̂
which is an eigen value equation.

OPERATOR EQUIVALENCE
Eqs. (28) and (29) respectively indicate that the square of the momentum i.e. corresponds to operator
and energy corresponds to the operator . Hence the operators and
are respectively defined as energy and momentum operator in quantum mechanics. When an
operator corresponding to a physical variable is applied to wave function , one obtains the numerical value
of that physical variable times . Few examples of such operators in wave mechanics are
Energy Operator

Momentum operator ( )

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Momentum operator in 3-dimension

Angular momentum ⃗ ⃗ operator ⃗

Kinetic energy operator ( )

EXPECTATION VALUE
When measurement of a physical quantity is made for a particle, we may get different values in different
trials. This is according to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. Out of these measured values of physical
variable there will be one value which will be most expected. This is called as the expectation value of
dynamical variable and it is expressed as 〈 〉. The expectation value of the dynamical variable is given by
∫ ̂
〈 〉 (37)
∫
where ̂ is the operator associated with physical quantity , is the complex conjugate of the wave
function associated with the particle and integral is evaluated over the volume in which the particle is
present.
If the wave function is normalized then

and therefore 〈 〉 ∫ ̂ (38)

PRINCIPLES OF WAVE MECHANICS

Basic postulates of Quantum Mechanics
The fundamental postulates of quantum mechanics are
1. Each dynamical variable relating to the motion of a particle can be represented by a linear operator.
2. A linear eigen value equation can be always linked with each operator.
3. The most probable value of a dynamical quantity is given by
〈 〉 ∫ ̂

where ̂ is the operator associated with the dynamical quantity .

Bohr’s Complementarity Principle
It states that particle nature and wave nature of matter are complementary i.e. matter does not exhibit
wave and particle nature simultaneously.
Eigen Value & Eigen Function
When a differential operator associated with a dynamical quantity operates on a wave function , this
gives a constant times the function . The function is then called eigen function of the operator and
value is called eigen value. The eigen value equation is written as
̂

where ̂ is the differential operator associated with a dynamical variable.

Superposition Principle
According to this principle if and are two wave functions which represent two possible states of a
particle then the combination represents another possible state. Here and are
arbitrary complex numbers.

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APPLICATIONS OF SCHRODINGER EQATION: PARTICLE IN ONE DIMENSIONAL BOX

Suppose a particle inside a cubical box of edge is free to move only along -axis.
Since particle is definitely present inside the box and it is not present outside the
box, the wave function
representing matter waves
associated with the particle is
defined only inside the box
and outside the box .
Further, the box may be
considered as a rectangular potential well of width
and infinite height. The potential function in this case is
defined as
For (Region I)
For (Region II)
For (Region III)

The time independent Schrödinger wave equation in one dimension is

Inside the box , therefore in region II above equation takes the form

or (39)

where (40)

Eq. (39) is a second order differential equation with general solution of the form
(41)
where and are arbitrary constants.
At and at we have , hence Eq. (41) gives following two conditions for constants and
i.e.

and
This gives
or (42)
where is a positive integer.

Eigen Values
Substituting for from Eq. (42) in Eq. (40) we obtain

( )

This gives the energy of the particle as

(43)

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As can take only integral values, the above equation suggests that inside the box particle can move with
only certain permitted energies while the energy corresponding to state is given by the above equation.
st nd rd
Further, energies corresponding to 1 , 2 , 3 etc energy levels are

and so on.

Eigen functions
Substituting for from Eq. (42) and in Eq. (41) we get wave functions corresponding to energy
state of the particle
(44)

The value of constant can be determined by applying normalization condition. As the particle is definitely
present inside the box

i.e. ∫| |

or | | ∫ ( )

which on solving gives

| |

i.e. | | √
Hence from Eq. (44)
√

It is clear that, two wave functions corresponding to positive and negative sign are associated with each
energy state . Figure shows some lower energy Eigen functions.

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EXERCISE
Short Answer Questions
1. Write the characteristics of wave function. (UPTU 15)
2. Why wave nature of matter is not observed in our daily life? (UPTU 14 CO)
3. What is meant by wave particle duality?
4. Compare the wavelength of a photon and an electron if the two have same momentum. (UPTU: 12, 11)
5. Can a photon and an electron of the same momentum have the same wave length?
6. Define group velocity and phase velocity.

Long Answer Questions

1. State Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. Prove that electron cannot exist inside the nucleus and proton
can exist. (UPTU 15)
2. Explain the physical significance of wave function. Derive Schrodinger’s time independent wave
equation. (UPTU 15)
3. Explain de-Broglie’s hypothesis. Discuss the outcome of Davisson-Germer’s experiment in detail.
4. Prove that , where group velocity and phase velocity
5. What are matter waves? Derive an expression for de-Broglie wavelength of helium atom having energy
at temperature K. (UPTU: 12, 11)
6. Derive de-Broglie wavelength of a particle as function of temperature. (UPTU: 10)
7. What do you understand by Wave particle duality? Give experimental evidence which verifies de-
Broglie Matter wave.
8. Deduce a relation between phase velocity and group velocity in a medium where wave velocity is
frequency dependent. What happens if the phase velocity is frequency independent? (UPTU: 14 CO, 13,
12, 11)
9. Explain group velocity. Establish a relation between group velocity and phase velocity and show that
these velocities are equal in non dispersive medium. (UPTU 14, 08 II)
10. Distinguish between group velocity and phase velocity of a wave packet and show that .
(UPTU 08)
11. What is Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle? Give its physical significance.
12. Explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. Describe Heisenberg’s gamma ray microscope. (UPTU 14)
13. What is uncertainty principle? Apply this to calculate the radius of the Bohr’s first orbit. (UPTU: 09)
14. Derive time independent Schrödinger wave equation for a particle wave. What would happen to
equation if particle is free? (UPTU: 14 CO, 12, 11, 10)
15. What is physical significance of the wave function? Derive time independent Schrodinger wave
equation. (UPTU: 09)
16. Derive time dependent Schrodinger wave equation. (UPTU: 08)
17. A particle of mass is confined to a one dimensional box of length . Derive an expression for wave
function and energy. (UPTU: 13)
18. Obtain an expression for the energy states of a particle in one dimensional box. (UPTU: 08 II)
19. A particle is confined inside one dimensional potential box described by
0 for 0  x  L 
V ( x)   
 for x  0 and x  L 
20. Solve Schrodinger wave equation and obtained eigen value and eigen function.

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Numerical Problems
1. Calculate de-Broglie wavelength of an alpha particle accelerated through a potential difference of 200
V. (UPTU 14 CO)
2. A proton is moving with a speed of . Find the wavelength of the matter wave associated
with it. (UPTU 12)
3. Calculate the wavelength of an electron that has been accelerated in a particle accelerator through a
potential difference of 100 V. (UPTU 10)
4. Calculate de-Broglie wavelength of neutron of energy 12.8 MeV. (UPTU 09)
5. Calculate the kinetic energy of an electron if its de-Broglie wavelength equals the wavelength of the
yellow line of sodium (5796 Å). (UPTU 08-SCO)
6. The kinetic energy of an electron is J. Calculate velocity, momentum and wavelength of
electron. (UPTU 08)
7. If uncertainty in the position of a particle is equal to de Broglie wavelength, what will be uncertainty in
the measurement of velocity? (UPTU 15)
8. The speed of an electron is measured to be to an accuracy of . Find the
uncertainty in determining the position of this electron (mass of electron is and Plank’s
constant is ). (UPTU 13)
9. Calculate the kinetic energy needed by an electron to be confined in hydrogen atom of radius 0.5 Å.
(UPTU 11)
10. A nucleon is confined to a nucleus of diameter m. Calculate minimum uncertainty in the
momentum of the nucleon. Also calculate the minimum kinetic energy of the nucleon. (UPTU 09)
11. An electron is confined to a box of length 1.1 Å. Calculate the minimum uncertainty in its velocity.
[1.06X106 m/s] (UPTU 08)
12. Calculate the uncertainty in the position of a dust particle with mass equal to 1 mg if uncertainty in its
velocity is m/s. (UPTU 08)
13. A particle is in motion along a line between and with zero potential energy. At points for
which and , the potential energy is infinite. The wave function for the particle in state is
given by

Find the expression for the normalized wave functions. (UPTU: 09)
14. An electron is bound in one dimensional potential box which has width . Assuming the
height of the box to be infinite, calculate the lowest two permitted energy values of the electron. (UPTU
14)
15. Calculate the energy difference between the ground state and the first excited state for an electron in a
one dimensional potential rigid box of length .

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