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DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 Qst. => What is the full meaning of S.I unit and state two importance of it.
 Ans. => S.I unit means international system of metric unit.
i) It helps numerical values to agree with each other in scientific measurements and
calculations carried out in different parts of the world
ii) It helps to ease communication among scientists when dealing with the amount
of measurements of physical quantities.
 There are two types of physical quantities, Derive quantities and Base quantities.
 Base quantities are also known as fundamental quantities and their S.I units are defined by convention; Base
quantities can be measured directly without the need of other quantities.
 There are seven base quantities; below are the quantities with their S.I units in bracket. we have
Mass (kilogram), Time (second), Temperature (kelvin), Length (meter), Current (ampere), Luminous intensity (candela),
Amount of substance (mole)
 Length, distance and displacement all have the same unit.

Physical quantity Symbol of the Instrument used for S.I unit Symbol of the
physical quantity measurement S.I unit
Mass 𝑚 Beam balance kilogram Kg
Time 𝑡 Watch or clock seconds s
Temperature 𝜃 thermometer kelvin k
Length 𝑙 Meter rule meter m
Current 𝐼 Ampere meter Ampere A
Luminous intensity 𝐿 Light meter candela cd

 An equation is said to be homogenous if the base units or the dimensions of all the terms in the equation are
the same.
 For example the dimension of velocity is written as [𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲]. When written in the box bracket, it implies the
dimension.
 Note that the dimension of the following physical quantities have their symbols in capital letters . Length L, Mass
M, Time T
 Don’t be confused between the symbol of the dimension and the symbol of the physical quantity. From the
table below you can picture the difference.
Physical quantity Symbol of physical Symbol of the S.I unit Symbol of the
quantity dimension
Mass m kg M
Time t s T
Length 𝒍 m L
 Note that when dealing with the dimension of physical quantities, we use the square brackets to denote it,
but we don’t place the symbol of the dimension inside the square bracket. For example, the dimension of
length is
[𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉] = [𝒍] = 𝑳
(the capital L cannot take the square bracket because it is already the symbol of the dimension. It will be wrong
to write it like this [𝐿])
 Also you have to take note on when the question is asking for the dimension and when the question is asking
for the base units. For example, let’s look for the dimension and the base unit of workdone.

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It is easier to get the base units from the dimension but the reverse is not easy because the products or ratios of
several base units can stand for different physical quantities. This is one of the weakness of dimensional analysis
which we will see it later.
Starting with the dimension
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
[𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆] = [𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆] × [𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆]
= [𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏] × [𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆]
= [𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔] × [𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏] × [𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆]
∆ 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
=𝑴×[ 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
]× 𝑳
𝒅/𝒕
= 𝑴×[ 𝒕 ]×𝑳
𝑳
= 𝑴 × 𝑻𝟐 × 𝑳
𝟐 −𝟐
The dimension of workdone is = 𝑴𝑳 𝑻
 In dimensional analysis, numerical constants are unitless and dimensionless. The dimension of a numerical
𝟏
constant is equal to one. For example, kinetic energy is calculated as 𝒎𝒗𝟐 the dimension can only be worked
𝟐
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
out for 𝒎𝒗 . This implies that [𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐 ] 𝟐
= [𝒎𝒗 ] because the dimension of the constant
𝟐
is equal to one.
 An equation may be homogenous but incorrect because of the presence of unitless or dimensionless constants.
𝟏 𝟏
For example [𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐 ] = [𝒎𝒗𝟐 ] but 𝟐
𝒎𝒗𝟐 ≠ 𝒎𝒗𝟐 . Also the equation
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝟐 is homogenous because [𝒔] = [𝒖𝒕] = [𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝟐 ] but 𝒔 ≠ 𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝟐 and 𝒖𝒕 ≠ 𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝟐
 Note the following when dealing with dimensional analysis if the equation is homogenous.
𝑨 [𝑨]
1) [ ] = [𝑩]
𝑩
2) [𝑨𝑩] = [𝑨][𝑩]
3) [𝑨𝒏 ] = [𝑨]𝒏 Also if 𝑨 = 𝒆𝒙 where 𝒆 is a constant, it implies that [𝑨] = [𝒙]
4) 𝐢𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 A = B + C is homogenous, it means the dimension of all the terms are the same [A] = [B]
= [C]
5) The dimension of a numerical constant is equal to one e.g [25] = 1 and if k is dimensionless constant, then
[k] = 1
6) Certain physical quantities can be defined directly in the question in the form of a statement, you just need
to able to recognize the physical quantity from the formulae of how it is calculated. For example energy is
also equal to workdone. Workdone per unit time is power, force applied by the machine per unit area
should stand for pressure, the length covered per unit time should be the velocity, change in momentum
per unit time stands for force, workdone per unit charge stands for voltage(emf), power per unit area is
likely to intensity depending on the question etc.
𝟏
7) Numerical constants are not included in base units for example the base unit of 𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝟐 is the meter 𝒎 and
𝟏
not 𝟐 𝒎
8) In calculations,
force = (mass) x (acceleraton)
Energy = workdone.
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆
Voltage = 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
Charge = (current) x (time)
Importance of dimensional analysis
1) It helps to show the relationship between two or more different physical quantities
2) A physical quantity can easily be identified just from the base units, for example kgms -2 stands for force.

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The weaknesses of dimensional analysis

1) You can not distinguish between two physical quantities with the same base units. For example, workdone
by a force which is measured in Joules (J) and the moment of a force which is measured in Newton meter
(Nm) have the same base units
2) It cannot be used to test for the correctness of an equation when dealing with homogeneity because the
homogeneity of an equation doesn’t consider the differences in the values of the dimensionless constants,
 when you are asked to test if an equation is homogenous, you don’t make their dimensions equal before
showing the working, you solve for the dimension of each part separately and conclude from the answers.
 but if the question says prove that it is homogenous, you equate their dimensions and start proving

PROJECTILE MOTION
 This is the motion of an object which the only force acting on it is the force of gravity and the path of the object
is a parabola.
 two things should be noted about projectile motion,
- air resistance is negligible
- the only force acting is the force of gravity, or the acceleration is constant all through which is the
acceleration due to gravity.
 for equations of uniformly accelerated motions we have five variables 𝒂, 𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒕 and 𝒔 are given below.
𝒗−𝒖 𝟏 𝒖+𝒗
𝒂= 𝒕
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝟐 𝒔=( 𝟐
)𝒕 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔
 for motions under gravity (falling objects) the equations of uniformly accelerated motions remains the same
but the acceleration 𝒂 now becomes the acceleration due to gravity 𝒈 and the displacement s now becomes
the height 𝒉. the initial velocity 𝒖 is often zero when considering the fact that the object was at rest from the
point where fell.
𝒗−𝒖 𝟏 𝒖+𝒗
𝒈= 𝒕
𝒉 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐 𝒉=( 𝟐
)𝒕 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒉
 note that when an object is thrown upward, as the object is moves up, the acceleration due to gravity acting
on the object is negative because the object is moving against gravity. the acceleration due to gravity is only
positive when an object is falling.
 Also, since velocity is a vector, all falling objects have negative velocities. understand the difference here. An
object moving upward has a positive velocity but a negative acceleration due to gravity. A falling object has a
negative velocity but a positive acceleration due to gravity

 when an object is thrown up the speed of the object reduces because of gravity which opposes the motion.
when the speed is finally equal to zero, that is when the object starts falling. the point where the speed
becomes zero is the point of the maximum height reached by the object. hence at maximum height, 𝒗 = 𝟎 and
the kinetic energy which it started with, is equal to the gravitational potential energy at that height.
 object don’t fall with a constant speed, they accelerate while falling, falling objects have constant acceleration
but increasing speed or velocity due to gravity
 consider an object projected at an angle 𝜽 to the horizontal with an initial speed 𝒖.
i) the horizontal distance from the point where the object is projected to the point where it reaches the
ground is known as the 𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆

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ii) the maximum horizontal range is gotten only when the object is projected at an angle of 450
iii) the time of flight is the time taken from when the object was projected to when the object reaches the
ground, it is also the time taken to cover the horizontal range
iv) twice the time taken to reach the maximum height is equal to the time of flight.
v) the acceleration due to gravity 𝒈 is always negative because the initial velocity is upward while acceleration
due to gravity always act downward. 𝒈 = −𝟗. 𝟖𝟏𝒎/s2

 the vertical component of the velocity is 𝒖𝒚 = 𝐮𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 and the horizontal component
is 𝒖𝒙 = 𝐯𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
 making use of the equations of motion, the same thing holds but make sure g is always negative when the
initial velocity is upward.
 analyzing the vertical part of the motion,
i) initial velocity 𝒖 = 𝐮𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
ii) 𝒈 = −𝟗. 𝟖𝟏m/s2
iii) 𝒔=𝒉
the equations of motion become the normal equations of motion in the y-direction are
𝒗−𝒖 𝟏 𝒖+𝒗
𝒈= 𝒕
𝒉 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐 𝒉=( 𝟐
)𝒕 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒉
substituting in these equations, it becomes
𝒗−𝒖 𝐯 − 𝐮𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
 𝒈= will give −𝒈 = where v is the final velocity at any time 𝑡
𝒕 𝒕
𝟏 𝟏
 𝒉 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝟐
𝒈𝒕𝟐 will give 𝒉 = (𝐮𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽)𝒕 + 𝟐 (−𝒈)𝒕𝟐 where h is the vertical height covered at any time t
 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒉 will give 𝒗𝟐 = (𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽)𝟐 + 𝟐(−𝒈)𝒉 this equation is simple to use in calculating the maximum height
𝒉𝒎𝒂𝒙 this is because, with a given initial velocity u, at maximum height 𝑣 = 0, ℎ will now be the only term to be
made the subject in the formular and that value of h when v is zero, is ℎ = ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝒖+𝒗 𝐮𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 + 𝟎
 𝒉=( 𝟐
)𝒕 will give 𝒉 = ( 𝟐
)𝒕 after calculating the maximum height ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 with the given initial velocity
𝐮𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
u, the time taken to reach the maximum height can be calculated using the formular 𝒉=( 𝟐
)𝒕 knowing fully
well that at ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑣 = 0m/s.
𝐯 − 𝐮𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝐮𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
we can still use the formulae -g = 𝒕
where v = 0. -g = 𝒕𝒎𝒂𝒙
 In analyzing the horizontal part of the motion
i) there is no acceleration due to gravity in the horizontal direction
ii) the time taken to cover the horizontal range is known as the time of flight. it is equal to twice the time
taken to reach the maximum height.
iii) at the maximum horizontal range occurs when 𝜽 = 𝟒𝟓𝟎
iv) 𝒔 = 𝒙 and initial velocity u = 𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
v) the equations of motion remain the same but where ever we have acceleration a which is the
acceleration due to gravity, we make it equal to zero.
𝒗−𝒖 𝟏 𝒖+𝒗
𝒂= 𝒕
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝟐 𝒔=( 𝟐
)𝒕 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔

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substituting into the equations will give

𝒗 − 𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
 𝟎= 𝒕
this means at any time t, 𝒗 − 𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝟎 which implies that 𝒗 = 𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 therefore the final
velocity at any time t in the horizontal direction will always be equal to the initial velocity all through the motion.
𝟏
 𝒙 = (𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒂(𝟎)𝒕𝟐 since as the acceleration is equal to zero in the horizontal direction, it means the
horizontal displacement 𝒙 made at any time t will be equal to 𝒙 = (𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)𝒕
𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽+𝒗
 𝒙=( )𝒕 since v at any time t is equal to 𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 it means 𝒙 = (𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)𝒕
𝟐
 𝒗𝟐 = (𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽) + 𝟐(𝟎)𝒙
𝟐

𝒖𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽 𝒖𝟐
 maximum horizontal range 𝑹 = 𝒈
it occurs at 𝜃 = 45 𝑹 = 𝒈
𝒈𝒙𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽
 equation of the path is 𝒚 = 𝒙𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 − this helps you calculate if a projectile will hit a target, you substitute
𝟐𝒖𝟐
in the formular, the vertical height of the target is 𝒚 and the horizontal distance from the target is 𝒙
 if the object is projected horizontally at the top of a height

 In the vertical direction:

 initial velocity is zero
 the velocity at any time t is 𝒗 = 𝒈𝒕 or you can still use 𝒗𝟐 = 𝟐𝒈𝒚
where y is the height it falls from the point where it was released
 the vertical height of fall at any time t is given by
𝟏
𝒚 = 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐
 g is positive all through.
 For the horizontal motion
 the initial velocity u is constant all through the motion, hence there is no acceleration in the 𝑥-direction
 the horizontal displacement at any time t is 𝒙 = 𝒖𝒕
 combining the horizontal displacement and vertical displacement at any time t will result to
𝒈𝒙𝟐
𝒚 = 𝟐𝒖𝟐 hence at any given horizontal displacement, the vertical displacement can be gotten

 If the object is projected at an angle at the top of a height

 g is negative all through

 the height h is negative
 analyzing the vertical part of the motion,
 initial velocity 𝒖 = 𝐮𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
 𝒈 = −𝟗. 𝟖𝟏m/s2
 𝒔=𝒉

 In analyzing the horizontal part of the motion

 there is no acceleration due to gravity in the horizontal direction
 the time taken to cover the horizontal range is known as the time of flight. it is equal to
twice the time taken to reach the maximum height.
 at the maximum horizontal range occurs when 𝜽 = 𝟒𝟓𝟎
 𝒔 = 𝒙 and initial velocity u = 𝒖𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽

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FORCES
 they are grouped under two main types which are; contact forces and non-contact forces.
non-contact forces are also known as action at a distance force.
 contact forces are forces acting between objects which are touching each other while action at a distance
forces are forces acting between objects which must not necessarily be touching each other.
 some examples of contact forces;
- friction
- tension
- upthrust etc
 some examples of non-contact forces
- magnetic force
- electrostatic force
- gravitational force etc
a) Centripetal force: the force that keeps an object moving in a circle and its directed towards the center of the circle.
for example,
𝒎𝒗𝟐
centripetal force is calculated as 𝑭 = where m is the mass of the object, v is the velocity and r is the radius of
𝒓
𝒗𝟐
the circles it follows. the term is the centripetal acceleration a. from Newton’s second law 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂. that is,
𝒓
centripetal force is the product of centripetal acceleration and the mass.
as the object moves round in a circle, the direction of the moving object at any point is the tangent to the circle at
that point. this means the direction changes at each point, hence an object
moving in a circle can never have a constant velocity because of the constant
change in the direction from one point to another, but it can have a uniform
or constant speed because speed is a scalar and it has nothing to do with the
direction.

An inclined force can be resolved in the vertical and horizontal component so of the
force is seen below

 if two coplanar forces act on a point, the third force needed for the system of forces to be in equilibrium can
be gotten using the Lami’s theorem. this method makes used of the sine rule in trigonometry. For example,
given three coplanar forces acting on a point as seen on the diagram below.

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- The force Z is opposite to the angle n

- the for Y is opposite to the angle q
- the force X is opposite to the angle p

By the Lami’s theorem,

𝒁 𝒀 𝑿
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒒 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒑
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏

- you can equate any given two and solve for the unknown.

example

A stone is attached to a string and pulled horizontally on one side by a force of 12N such that it makes an angle of 30 0 to the
vertical. fine the mass of the stone.

you can use the lami’s theorem

when you resolve all the forces

12N = Tsin30 ………. (1)

mg = Tcos30 ……….. (2)

OR
𝑻 𝟏𝟐 𝒎𝒈
By the Lami’s theorem = =
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟗𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝟎

PRINCIPLE OF MOMENT
- “if a body which is subject to several forces is in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moment about any
point must be equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moment about that same point”
 The principle of moment is also the principle of rotational equilibrium.
 the principle of linear or translational equilibrium states that “if a body is in translational equilibrium, it
means the sum of the vertical forces is zero and the sum of the horizontal forces is zero” or “sum of upward
forces is equal sum of downward forces and sum of forces to the right equal to sum of forces to the left”

The law of conservation of linear momentum

“If no energy is lose in a system of colliding bodies, the sum of the initial momentum is equal to the sum of the final
momentum”

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By the law of conservation of linear momentum =>

(sum of initial momentum) = (sum of finalmomentum)
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 ………………………………………….(1)

if the two objects collide and stick together, their final momentum (momentum after collision)
will be the product of their combine mass and the common velocity v which they moved with.
m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2)v

 an elastic collision is a collision which there is no loss in kinetic energy.

1
- Kinetic energy is normally calculated as K.E = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
(𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚)2 (𝑚𝑣)2
you should be smart enough to know that K.E = 2𝑚
= 2𝑚
for two colliding objects with masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 the sum of their initial and final K.E
1
m1u12 + 1 m2u22 = 1 m1v12 + 1 m2v22
2 2 2 2
dividing all through by half gives
m1u12 + m2u22 = m1v12 + m2v22……………………………………………..(2)
equation (1) and (2) can form a pair of simultaneous equations used in solving problems involving
elastic collisions.
Newton’s laws of motion
 Isaac Newton postulated three laws of motion which are;
A) first law (law of inertia):
“An object at rest will remain at rest, if in motion, it will remain in motion in a straight line unless an
external force acts on it”
- this law is commonly known as the law of inertia. inertia is the tendency for an object to resist a change in
its velocity. it is proportional to the mass, the more massive an object, the more significant the effect of
inertia.
B) Second law (F = ma):
“The time rate of change of linear momentum is directly proportional to the resultant force and the
momentum change takes place in the direction of the force”
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎
(𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆) 𝜶 ( )
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
the constant of proportionality is equal to one
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎
Force =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒖
𝑭=
𝒕
𝒎(𝒗 − 𝒖) (𝒗 − 𝒖)
𝑭= 𝒕
but 𝒂 = 𝒕
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
𝒎(𝒗 − 𝒖)
- you should also be smart enough to know that from 𝑭 = 𝒕
it can be arranged as
𝒎
𝑭= 𝒕
(𝒗 − 𝒖) since change of velocity is still the same as velocity v. It implies that
𝒎 𝒎
𝑭= 𝒕
(𝒗) where the term 𝒕 mass per second. So a question can give you a varying mass per unit time and
the speed then ask you to calculate the force.
C) Third law (action-reaction pair):
“If a body X exerts a force on another body Y, then Y will exert an equal but opposite force on X”
- the force exerted by X is called the action, the force exerted by Y is called the reaction. The two forces are
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
- The summary of this law can be stated as; “in every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction”

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Circular Motion
 The motion of an object which moves in a round path.
 some key terms we need to know under circular motion are
i) period (T): The time taken to make one complete turn. measured in seconds(s)
𝟏
ii) frequency (f): the number of complete turns made in one second. measured in Hertz(Hz). 𝒇 = 𝑻
𝒔
iii) Angular displacement (𝜽): the fraction of the circle turned, express in radians. 𝜽 = 𝒓
𝜽
iv) Angular velocity (𝝎): This is the angular displacement per unit time. it is measured in rad/s. 𝝎 = 𝒕
𝟐𝝅
for one complete cycle, t = T and 𝜽 = 𝟐𝝅. Therefore 𝝎 = 𝑻
= 𝟐𝝅𝒇
v) Linear velocity (v): This is velocity in a straight line, it varies from one point to another on the path of
the circle. the direction of the linear velocity at any point is the tangent to that point. that is why linear
𝟐𝝅𝒓
velocity here is also known as tangential velocity denoted as v. 𝒗 = = 𝝎𝒓
𝑻
vi) Centripetal acceleration (a)
𝒗𝟐
𝒂= = 𝝎𝟐 𝒓
𝒓
vii) Centripetal force:
𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝑭= = 𝒎𝝎𝟐 𝒓
𝒓

A) Motion in a horizontal circle:

Consider an object of mass 𝒎 attached to a string and whirled round in a horizontal circle of radius 𝒓. The tension
on the string is 𝑻 and the string is inclined at angle 𝜽 to the vertical.

- the centripetal force is the component of the tension towards

the center of the circle
𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝒓
= 𝑻𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 …………………(1)
- there is no motion in the vertical direction, that is, the weight
W balances the vertical component of the tension
- 𝒎𝒈 = 𝑻𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 ……………………(2)
𝒗𝟐
- (1) ÷ (2) => 𝑻𝒂𝒏 𝜽 = 𝒓𝒈 …………………………(3)
B) Motion in a vertical circle:
Consider the same string held and whirled round in a vertical circle, let’s examine the motion of the mass at three
sections of the circle, when it is down C, at the middle B and at the top A, of
the circular path.
- the tension T is always directed towards the center because that is where
the string is held and the weight (mg) will normally act vertically downward
- At the point A, both the weight and the tension provide the centripetal
force. 𝑭𝒄 = 𝑻 + 𝒎𝒈
- At the point B, Only the tension alone provides the centripetal force, the
weight is not towards the center 𝑭𝒄 = 𝑻
- At the point C, the centripetal force 𝑭𝒄 = 𝑻 − 𝒎𝒈 at this point, the string
experiences the maximum tension

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C) Banked tracks:
From the Newton’s first law, it is interesting to know that when a moving makes a bend at a curved junction, there
need to be enough friction between the tyres and the road. to achieve this, the road needs to be banked, when
we talk of it being banked, it means the road should be constructed in such a way which it should be raised
sideways at an angle above the horizontal.
in a banked road, the component of the normal reaction towards the center of the road provides the centripetal
force

it will be difficult for the car to slip off and misses the track at the bending corner because the road is already raised
up and acts like a hill, remember that frictional force F is 𝑭 = 𝝁𝑵 where N is the normal reaction which is equal
to the weight of the car and 𝝁 is the coefficient of friction. This means the friction here which needs to keep the
car on the road so that it doesn’t slip off track at the bending corner depends more on the normal reaction N. the
normal reaction force is always perpendicular to the plane on which it acts. the is means that the forces acting on
the car can be seen in the diagram below
- N𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 provides the centripetal force
𝒎𝒗𝟐
- 𝒓
= 𝑵𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 ………………….. (1)
- the weight is equal N𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
- 𝒎𝒈 = 𝑵𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 …………………….(2)

- (1) ÷ (2)
𝒗𝟐
- Tan 𝜽 =
𝒓𝒈

the angle at which the road has to be banked needs to be

well calculated depending on the speed v which the car
has to negotiate the bend and the radius r of the bend. when it is highly banked, it becomes a load for the
car because the car now sees it as a hill to ascend, when it is banked a little, the component of the normal
reaction towards the center will be little and will not provide enough centripetal force for the car to safely
negotiate the bend.
Simple Harmonic Motion
 This is the motion of an object whose acceleration is directly proportional to its displacement from a fixed
point and it is always directed towards the fixed point.
a𝜶−𝒙
𝒂 = −𝒌𝒙
k is the constant of proportionality which is equal to the square of the angular frequency 𝝎
𝒂 = −𝝎𝟐 𝒙

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the negative sign indicates that the acceleration and the displacement from the fixed point are always
opposite to each other. the displacement is away from the fixed point while the acceleration is towards
the fixed point.
 examples of simple harmonic motion are
- oscillating pendulum
- vibration of the ear drum
- the motion of a spring
- spring-mass system
etc
 consider an oscillating simple pendulum with a string of length r making vertical oscillations

- At the equilibrium position, the acceleration is zero, displacement is equal to zero and the velocity is
maximum.
- the radius of the circle formed by the oscillation is equal to the length of the string r
- the maximum displacement it can make from the rest position (equilibrium position) is when the
displacement 𝒙 = 𝒓 and it occurs when 𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎 this maximum displacement is known as the amplitude
- at maximum displacement, the velocity is zero and the acceleration is maximum
- the acceleration at any given displacement x is given as
𝒂 = −𝝎𝟐 𝒙
𝜽
- But 𝒙 = 𝒓𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜽 also from 𝝎 = 𝒕
it implies that 𝜽 = 𝝎𝒕. therefore 𝒙 = 𝒓𝐬𝐢𝐧𝝎𝒕 if the motion was
analyzed from the equilibrium. If you start analyzing the motion from the maximum displacement, then
𝒙 = 𝒓𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝎𝒕 .
- the velocity time graphs and displacement time graphs are given below

 from 𝒙 = 𝒓𝐬𝐢𝐧𝝎𝒕 when you differentiate the displacement you will have the velocity
𝒗 = 𝒓𝝎𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝎𝒕
when you differentiate velocity you arrive at to the acceleration
𝒂 = −𝒓𝝎𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝝎𝒕
hence the acceleration time graph also follow the sine function (sine curve)
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 Note that 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟗𝟎 = 𝟏 and 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟗𝟎 = 𝟎

 at the maximum position 𝜽 = 𝝎𝒕 = 𝟗𝟎 we will have the maximum acceleration
𝒙=𝒓 𝒗=𝟎 𝒂 = 𝒓𝝎𝟐
 At the minimum position (equilibrium) 𝜽 = 𝝎𝒕 = 𝟎 we will have the maximum velocity
𝒙=𝟎 𝒗 = 𝒓𝝎 𝒂=𝟎
 from 𝒗 = 𝒓𝝎𝐜𝐨𝐬𝝎𝒕 and 𝒙 = 𝒓𝐬𝐢𝐧𝝎𝒕 combining the two equations will give
𝒙𝟐 𝒗𝟐
+ =𝟏
𝒓𝟐 (𝒓𝝎)𝟐
𝒙𝟐 𝒗𝟐
 + = 𝟏 can still be arranged to give 𝒗 = ±𝝎√𝒓𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐
𝒓𝟐 (𝒓𝝎)𝟐
 For the simple pendulum, with the bob of mass 𝒎, string of length 𝒍, the tension on the string T comes from
the components of the weight depending on the position of the bob at a displacement 𝒙 from the equilibrium
𝒈
position this gives 𝝎 = √ 𝒍
𝟐𝝅
- Also from 𝝎 =
𝑻
𝒍 𝒆
- it means 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√ but for a vertical mass spring oscillator 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√ where 𝒆 is the extension.
𝒈 𝒈
𝒎
- it is still the same as 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√ 𝒌 where k is the spring constant
𝟏 𝒍
- the frequency 𝒇 = √
𝟐𝝅 𝒈
 looking at the changes in kinetic and potential energy,
𝟏
𝑲𝑬 = 𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐 since 𝒗 = ±𝝎√𝒓𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 it implies that 𝒗𝟐 = 𝝎𝟐 (𝒓𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 )
𝟏
therefore 𝑲𝑬 = 𝟐 𝒎𝝎𝟐 (𝒓𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 )
 when the kinetic energy is maximum, the potential energy is minimum and vice versa.
 maximum KE is gotten when the velocity v is maximum, and v is maximum at the equilibrium position where
𝒙=𝟎
𝟏
therefore maximum KE is 𝑲𝑬 = 𝟐 𝒎𝝎𝟐 𝒓𝟐 when KE is maximum
 the total energy is KE + PE since PE is zero when KE is maximum, it means here the total energy is E = KE + 0
𝟏
𝑬 = 𝟐 𝒎𝝎𝟐 𝒓𝟐
𝟏
but at any displacement 𝒙 𝑲𝑬 = 𝟐 𝒎𝝎𝟐 (𝒓𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 )
 PE = E – KE
𝟏 𝟏
 PE = (𝟐 𝒎𝝎𝟐 𝒓𝟐 ) − [𝟐 𝒎𝝎𝟐 (𝒓𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 )]
𝟏
 PE = 𝟐 𝒎𝝎𝟐 𝒙𝟐

Last minutes revision summary A-Level Physics-Mechanics Acha Anjoh Divine-673218849