CAT A1/B1.

1/B2
MODULE 1 MATHEMATICS
TRAINEE NOTES

MODULE 1: MATHEMATICS
(PART 66 CATEGORY A1/B1.1/B2)

WARNING
This document is intended for the purposes of training only. The information contained herein is as
accurate as possible at the time of issue, and is subject to ongoing amendments where necessary
according to any regulatory journals and documents. Where the information contained in this
document is in variation with other official journals and/or documents, the latter must be taken as the
overriding document. The contents herein shall not be reproduced in any form without the expressed
permission of AAC.

For Training Purposes Only A1/B1.1/B2M01 Trainee Notes V1.1 dated 15.04.14
 CAT A1/B1.1/B2
MODULE 1 MATHEMATICS
TRAINEE NOTES

NOTE TO TRAINEES:

This Trainee Notes will be used for Category A1, B1.1 and B2. The topics covered will differ for each category. Please
refer to the table below for the allocation of topics.

MODULE 1: MATHEMATICS CAT A1 CAT B1.1/B2

1.1 Arithmetic L1 L2
1.2 Algebra
(a) L1 L2
(b) - L2
1.3 Geometry
(a) - L1
(b) L2 L2
(c) - L2

For Training Purposes Only A1/B1.1/B2M01 Trainee Notes V1.1 dated 15.04.14
 CAT A1/B1.1/B2
MODULE 1 MATHEMATICS
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.1 ARITHMETIC...............................................................................................................................................................................................1
1.1.1 Arithmetic Term and Signs....................................................................................................................................................................1
1.1.1.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................................1
1.1.1.2 Basic Arithmetic Operations..............................................................................................................................................................1
1.1.1.3 Whole Numbers .................................................................................................................................................................................3
1.1.1.4 Addition of Whole Numbers (+)........................................................................................................................................................4
1.1.1.5 Subtraction of Whole Numbers (-) ....................................................................................................................................................5
1.1.2 Methods of Multiplication and Division................................................................................................................................................6
1.1.2.1 Multiplication of Whole Number (×).................................................................................................................................................6
1.1.2.2 Division of Whole Number (÷)..........................................................................................................................................................7
1.1.2.3 Brackets and Basic Laws ...................................................................................................................................................................8
1.1.2.4 Positive and Negative Numbers.......................................................................................................................................................13
1.1.2.5 Adding Signed Numbers..................................................................................................................................................................13
1.1.2.6 Subtracting Signed Numbers ...........................................................................................................................................................14
1.1.2.7 Multiplying Signed Numbers ..........................................................................................................................................................14
1.1.2.8 Dividing Signed Numbers ...............................................................................................................................................................15
1.1.3 Fractions and Decimals........................................................................................................................................................................16
1.1.3.1 Fractions ..........................................................................................................................................................................................16
1.1.3.1.1 Lowest Terms ..............................................................................................................................................................................17
1.1.3.1.2 Finding the Least Common Denominator (LCD)........................................................................................................................17
1.1.3.1.3 Addition of Fractions ...................................................................................................................................................................18
1.1.3.1.4 Subtraction of Fractions...............................................................................................................................................................19
1.1.3.1.5 Multiplication of Fractions ..........................................................................................................................................................21
1.1.3.1.6 Division of Fractions ...................................................................................................................................................................22
1.1.3.2 Decimals ..........................................................................................................................................................................................22
1.1.3.2.1 Decimals are Fraction ..................................................................................................................................................................23
1.1.3.2.2 Add Decimals ..............................................................................................................................................................................23
1.1.3.2.3 Subtract Decimals ........................................................................................................................................................................24
1.1.3.2.4 Multiply Decimals .......................................................................................................................................................................24

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1.1.3.2.5 Divide Decimals ..........................................................................................................................................................................25

1.1.3.2.6 Rounding Off Decimals ...............................................................................................................................................................25
1.1.3.2.7 Converting Decimals to Fractions ...............................................................................................................................................26
1.1.3.2.8 Converting Fractions to Decimals ...............................................................................................................................................26
1.1.4 Factors and Multiples ..........................................................................................................................................................................29
1.1.4.1 Factors..............................................................................................................................................................................................29
1.1.4.2 Multiples ..........................................................................................................................................................................................29
1.1.4.3 Highest common factor (HCF) and Lowest Common Multiples ....................................................................................................30
1.1.5 Weights .......................................................................................................................................................................................................32
1.1.6 Measures and Conversion Factors .......................................................................................................................................................33
1.1.6.1 Systems of Units of Measurement ...................................................................................................................................................35
1.1.6.1.1 Length ..........................................................................................................................................................................................35
1.1.6.1.2 Mass .............................................................................................................................................................................................36
1.1.6.1.3 Time .............................................................................................................................................................................................37
1.1.6.2 Conversions .....................................................................................................................................................................................37
1.1.7 Ratio and Proportion ............................................................................................................................................................................39
1.1.7.1 Ratio.................................................................................................................................................................................................39
1.1.7.2 Proportion ........................................................................................................................................................................................39
1.1.8 Averages and Percentages ...................................................................................................................................................................40
1.1.8.1 Average ............................................................................................................................................................................................40
1.1.8.2 Percentage ........................................................................................................................................................................................42
1.1.8.2.1 Expressing one Quantity as a Percentage ....................................................................................................................................42
1.1.8.2.2 Converting Fractions to Percentages ...........................................................................................................................................43
1.1.8.2.3 Converting Percentages to Fractions ...........................................................................................................................................43
1.1.8.2.4 Converting Percentages to Decimals ...........................................................................................................................................44
1.1.8.2.5 Convert a Decimal to a Percentage..............................................................................................................................................44
1.1.8.2.6 Values of a Percentage of a Quantity ..........................................................................................................................................44
1.1.9 Areas and Volumes .....................................................................................................................................................................................46
1.1.9.1 Classifications of polygons ..............................................................................................................................................................46
1.1.9.2 Triangle ............................................................................................................................................................................................47

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1.1.9.3 Quadrilateral ....................................................................................................................................................................................50

1.1.9.4 Computing Area...............................................................................................................................................................................52
1.1.9.4.1 Rectangle .....................................................................................................................................................................................52
1.1.9.4.2 Parallelogram ...............................................................................................................................................................................53
1.1.9.4.3 Rhombus ......................................................................................................................................................................................53
1.1.9.4.4 Trapezoid .....................................................................................................................................................................................54
1.1.9.4.5 Circle............................................................................................................................................................................................54
1.1.9.4.6 Area of ring/ annulus ...................................................................................................................................................................55
1.1.9.4.7 Triangle ........................................................................................................................................................................................55
1.1.9.5 Volumes of Regular Solids ..................................................................................................................................................................56
1.1.9.5.1 Volume of a rectangle..................................................................................................................................................................56
1.1.9.5.2 Volume of a cube .........................................................................................................................................................................57
1.1.9.5.3 Volume of a cylinder ...................................................................................................................................................................58
1.1.9.5.4 Volume of a sphere ......................................................................................................................................................................59
1.1.9.5.5 Prisms ..........................................................................................................................................................................................60
1.1.9.5.6 Pyramids ......................................................................................................................................................................................62
1.1.10 Squares, Cubes, Square and Cube Roots ............................................................................................................................................66
1.1.10.1 Power of Numbers .......................................................................................................................................................................66
1.1.10.2 Root of a Number ........................................................................................................................................................................66
1.1.10.3 Square Root .................................................................................................................................................................................67
1.1.10.4 Cube Root ....................................................................................................................................................................................67
1.2 ALGEBRA ..................................................................................................................................................................................................68
1.2.1 Equations .............................................................................................................................................................................................68
1.2.2 Transposition of Formulae...................................................................................................................................................................68
1.2.3 Substitution ..........................................................................................................................................................................................69
1.2(a) Evaluating Simple Algebraic Expressions...........................................................................................................................................70
1.2(a).1 Addition .......................................................................................................................................................................................70
1.2(a).2 Subtraction ...................................................................................................................................................................................71
1.2(a).3 Multiplication ..............................................................................................................................................................................72
1.2(a).3.1 Multiplication Involving Algebraic Sums ...................................................................................................................................73

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1.2(a).4 Division........................................................................................................................................................................................74
1.2(a).4.1 Division of an Algebraic Sum by a Number ...............................................................................................................................74
1.2(a).5 Use of Brackets ............................................................................................................................................................................75
1.2(a).5.1 To Remove Brackets....................................................................................................................................................................75
1.2(a).5.2 System of Brackets ......................................................................................................................................................................76
1.2(a).6 Simple Algebraic Fractions .........................................................................................................................................................78
1.2(a).6.1 Adding & Subtracting Algebraic Fractions .................................................................................................................................78
1.2(a).6.2 Multiplication & Division of Algebraic Fractions.......................................................................................................................79
1.2(b) Linear Function and Their Solutions ...................................................................................................................................................80
1.2(b).1 Linear Equation ...........................................................................................................................................................................80
1.2(b).1.1 Equations .....................................................................................................................................................................................80
1.2(b).1.2 Solving Linear Equations ............................................................................................................................................................80
1.2(b).1.3 Equations Requiring Addition & Subtraction..............................................................................................................................81
1.2(b).1.4 Equations Requiring Multiplication & Division..........................................................................................................................82
1.2(b).2 Indices and Power, Negative and Fractional Indices .......................................................................................................................83
1.2(b).2.1 Power ...........................................................................................................................................................................................83
1.2(b).2.2 Roots ............................................................................................................................................................................................84
1.2(b).2.3 Indices ..........................................................................................................................................................................................85
1.2(b).2.3.1 Base, Index & Power ...............................................................................................................................................................85
1.2(b).2.3.2 Laws of Indices ........................................................................................................................................................................85
1.2(b).2.3.3 Negative Indices ......................................................................................................................................................................87
1.2(b).2.3.4 Fractional Indices.....................................................................................................................................................................87
1.2(b).2.4 Scientific Notation .......................................................................................................................................................................88
1.2(b).2.4.1 Multiplying by Scientific Notation ..........................................................................................................................................89
1.2(b).2.4.2 Division by Scientific Notation ...............................................................................................................................................90
1.2(b).2.5 Metric Prefixes.............................................................................................................................................................................90
1.2(b).3 Binary and Other Applicable Numbering System .......................................................................................................................92
1.2(b).3.1 Numbering Systems .....................................................................................................................................................................92
1.2(b).3.1.1 Positional Notation ..................................................................................................................................................................92
1.2(b).3.1.2 Base..........................................................................................................................................................................................92

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1.2(b).3.1.3 Decimal Number System .........................................................................................................................................................92

1.2(b).3.1.4 Positional Notation for Decimal Number ................................................................................................................................94
1.2(b).3.2 Binary Number System................................................................................................................................................................94
1.2(b).3.3 Hexadecimal Number System .....................................................................................................................................................95
1.2(b).3.4 Octal Number System ..................................................................................................................................................................97
1.2(b).3.5.1 Convert Decimal to Binary ......................................................................................................................................................98
1.2(b).3.5.2 Convert Binary to Decimal ......................................................................................................................................................99
1.2(b).3.5.3 Convert Decimal to Octal ......................................................................................................................................................100
1.2(b).3.5.4 Convert Octal to Decimal ......................................................................................................................................................101
1.2(b).3.5.5 Convert Binary to Octal .........................................................................................................................................................102
1.2(b).3.5.6 Convert Octal to Binary.........................................................................................................................................................102
1.2(b).3.5.7 Convert Decimal to Hexadecimal..........................................................................................................................................103
1.2(b).3.5.8 Convert Binary to Hexadecimal ............................................................................................................................................104
1.2(b).3.5.9 Convert Hexadecimal to Binary ............................................................................................................................................105
1.2(b).3.5.10 Convert Decimal to BCD (binary code decimal) ..................................................................................................................106
1.2(b).3.5.11 Convert BCD to Decimal ......................................................................................................................................................106
1.2(b).4 Simultaneous Equations and Second Degree Equations with One Unknown ...........................................................................107
1.2(b).4.1 Linear Systems of Equations of Two Variables ........................................................................................................................107
1.2(b).4.2 Solving Systems of Equations by the Substitution Method.......................................................................................................108
1.2(b).4.3 Solving Systems of Equations by the Elimination Method .......................................................................................................109
1.2(b).4.4 Solving Quadratic Equations .....................................................................................................................................................111
1.2(b).5 Logarithms .................................................................................................................................................................................113
1.3 GEOMETRY ...................................................................................................................................................................................................122
1.3(a) Simple Geometrical Constructions ....................................................................................................................................................122
1.3(a).1 To Bisect a Line Segment ..........................................................................................................................................................123
1.3(a).2 To Bisect an Angle ....................................................................................................................................................................124
1.3(a).3 To Divide a Given Line into Equal Parts...................................................................................................................................125
1.3(a).4 Construction of Triangles ..........................................................................................................................................................126
1.3(a).5 Construction of Regular Polygons .............................................................................................................................................127
1.3(b) Graphical Representation...................................................................................................................................................................129

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1.3(b).1 Coordinates ................................................................................................................................................................................129

1.3(b).2 Nature and Uses of Graph..........................................................................................................................................................131
1.3(b).3 Graph of Functions ....................................................................................................................................................................133
1.3(b).3.1 Graphs of equations/functions ......................................................................................................................................................135
1.3(c) Simple Trigonometry.........................................................................................................................................................................146
1.3(c).1 Trigonometrical Relationship ....................................................................................................................................................147
1.3(c).1.1 Anticlockwise Rotation .............................................................................................................................................................147
1.3.3.1.2 Clockwise Rotation....................................................................................................................................................................151
1.3(c).2 Solving Simple Trigonometric Equations .................................................................................................................................154
1.3(c).3 Use of Tables and Rectangular and Polar Coordinates..............................................................................................................157
1.3(c).3.1 Rectangular Coordinates............................................................................................................................................................157
1.3(c).3.2 Polar Coordinates.......................................................................................................................................................................161

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1.1 ARITHMETIC

1.1.1 Arithmetic Term and Signs

1.1.1.1 Introduction

The science of mathematics is so important to the modern age of technology. It had its beginnings in the dim ages of the past.
The use of mathematics is so woven into every area of everyday life that we seldom realise how helpless we would be in the
performance of most of our daily work without the knowledge of even the simplest form of mathematics.

A person entering the aviation field will be required to perform with accuracy. The aviation mechanic is often involved in tasks that
require mathematical computations of some sort. Mathematics may be thought of as a kit of tools, each mathematical operation
being compared to the use of one of the tools in the solving of a problem. The basic operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division are the tools available to aid us in solving a particular problem.

1.1.1.2 Basic Arithmetic Operations

Four basic arithmetic operations associated with some integers are shown in the table below.

OPERATION SYMBOL EXAMPLE

Addition + 12 + 4 = 16
Subtraction - 12 - 4 = 8
Multiplication X 12 x 4 = 48
Division ÷ 12 ÷ 4 = 3

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When positive and negative integers occur in the same calculation the following rules apply;
Unlike signs give a negative overall sign.
Like signs give a positive overall sign.
The addition of +4 to -2, is written 4 + -2 since, if no sign is shown in front of an integer, a positive sign is assumed. The + and -
are unlike signs and give a negative overall sign. Thus 4 + - 2 = 4 - 2 = 2.
Similarly, subtracting -2 from 4 is written 4 -- 2. The - and - are like signs and give a positive overall sign, hence 4 -- 2 = 4 + 2 = 6.
In multiplication + x - gives -,
- x - gives +.
Thus 4 x-2 = -8, whereas -4 x -2 = + 8, which is just written as 8.
For division 4 ÷ -2 = -2 (unlike signs) and -4 ÷ -2 = 2 (like signs)
When adding positive and negative integers, the overall sign in front of a number governs the direction of movement. For
example, +6 + -10 becomes 6 -10 or -4 can be indicated by movement to the left. Also +4 - - 10 becomes - 4 + 10 or + 6 and can
be shown by movement to the right.
The number 234 means (2 x 100) + ( 3 x 10 ) + ( 4 x 1) and the number 561 means ( 5 x 100 ) + ( 6 x 10 ) + (1 x 1) and
grouping like terms gives
(2 + 5) x 100 + (3 + 6) x 10 + (4 + 1 ) x 1
or 700 + 90 + 5 that is, 795.

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When adding or subtracting integers, the units, tens, hundreds, thousands and so on …….columns must be kept underneath one
another.
Thus 234
561
Sum 795

1.1.1.3 Whole Numbers

The number 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ….. are called whole numbers.

The ten single-number characters or numerals are called digits.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 0

A whole number can be written in words or figures.

Each digit in a whole numbers represents a certain called according to its place value.

Example: State a place value and the value of digit 7 in 375 894.
Solution:
The place value of digit 7 is ten thousands.
The value of digit is 70 000.

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1.1.1.4 Addition of Whole Numbers (+)

The process of finding the combined amount of two or more numbers is called addition. The answer is called the sum. The sign
for addition is the plus sign (+). This sign placed between numbers indicates that they are to be added. Numbers to be added
may be arranged horizontally or vertically in columns, as shown here:

Number + Number = Sum

324 + 25 + 78 = 427

NUMBER
+ NUMBER
SUM

324
+ 25
+ 78
427

To check addition either adding the figures again in the same order or add them in a reverse order.

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1.1.1.5 Subtraction of Whole Numbers (-)

Subtraction is the process of finding the difference between two numbers by taking the smaller from the larger of the two
numbers. The number which is subtracted is called the subtrahend, the other number is the minuend, and the difference is called
the remainder. The sign for subtraction is the minus sign (−). This sign placed between numbers indicates that they are to be
subtracted. Numbers to be subtracted may be arranged horizontally or vertically in columns, as shown here:

Minuend - Subtrahend = Remainder

324 − 25 = 299

Minuend
− Subtrahend
Re mainder
324
− 25
299
To check subtraction, add the remainder and the subtrahend together. The sum of the two should equal the minuend.

Question: Arithmetic term & sign

1. 324 + 25 + 78 =
2. 675 - 342 =
3. The sum of an odd and even number is

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1.1.2 Methods of Multiplication and Division

1.1.2.1 Multiplication of Whole Number (×)

The act of multiplication may be considered multiple additions. If we add 2 + 2 to obtain 4, we have multiplied 2 by 2, because we
have taken 2 two times. Likewise, if we add 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 to obtain 8, we have multiplied 2 by 4, because we have taken 2 four
times. In multiplication the number to be multiplied is called the multiplicand, and the number of times the multiplicand is to be
taken is called the multiplier. The answer obtained from a multiplication is the product. The following example illustrates these
terms:
325 multiplicand
× 18 multiplier
Multiply: 325 × 18 = 5850 2600
325
5850 product

When multiplying a series of number together, the final product will be the same regardless of the order in which the number are
arranged.
7 21 105
Multiply: 7 × 3 × 5 × 2 = 210 ×3 × 5 × 2
21 105 210

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Accurate multiplication requires great care. First, it is important to know the multiplication tables. Second, care must be taken to
record products in the correct column. Third, the addition must be made carefully and accurately. In order to acquire proficiency in
multiplication, practice is essential. In any mathematical problem it is smart to check the answer for accuracy. There are a number
of methods for checking multiplication, and the most obvious is to divide the product by either the multiplicand or the multiplier. If
the product is divided by the multiplicand, the quotient (answer) should be the multiplier. Another method for checking
multiplication is to repeat the problem, reversing the multiplicand and multiplier. If the product is the same in each case, the
answer is probably correct.

1.1.2.2 Division of Whole Number (÷)

The act of division may be considered the reverse of multiplication; that is, division is the separating or dividing of a number into a
certain number of equal parts. The symbol for division is the division sign (÷), and it is read "divided by." For example, 98 ÷ 4 is
read "98 divided by 4." In arithmetic, there are two commonly used methods for the division of whole numbers. These are short
division and long division. The terms used to describe the elements of a division problem are dividend, which is the number to be
divided; divisor, the number of times the dividend is to be divided; and quotient, the number of times the divisor goes into the divi-
dend. In the problem 235 ÷ 5 = 47, the number 235 is the dividend, 5 is the divisor, and 47 is the quotient. The process of short
division is often used to divide a number by a divisor having only one digit. This is accomplished as follows:
551
7 3857
3857
0

Long division is employed most often when the dividend and the divisor both contain more than one digit. The process is
somewhat more complex than that of short division, but with a little practice, long division may be accomplished easily and
accurately.

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647
To solve the problem 18 116 ÷ 28, we arrange the terms of the problem as shown here: 28 18116
168
131
112
196
196
0
Question: Methods of multiplication and division

1. 328 x 6 =
2. 3857 ÷ 7

1.1.2.3 Brackets and Basic Laws

Brackets are used in arithmetic to indicate that the operation inside the bracket must be done first. For instance, take the sum of 3
and 4 from 9 is written as:
9 - (3 + 4) = 9 - 7 = 2
Since the (3 + 4) is in a bracket, this operation must be done before subtracting the result from 9.
Another use of brackets is to indicate multiplication. An integer which is next to a bracket means multiply the contents of that
bracket by this integer. For instance, take twice the sum of 3 and 4 from 9 is written as
9 -2(3 +4) = 9 - 2(7) = 9 - 2 x 7 = 9 - 14 = -5

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Other examples are:

3(4 + 5) = 3 x 9 = 27
-2 (6 - 3) = -2 x 3 = -6
(8 - 3) 7 = 5 x 7 = 35

This last example shows that the integer can be written either in front of or behind the bracket, although it is usual to write it in
front of the bracket.

When there is no integer next to the bracket, it is inferred that the integer is 1. Thus

(4 + 5) = 1 x (4 + 5) =1x9=9
but
-1(4 + 5) = -1 x (4 + 5) = -1 x 9 = -9

Adjacent brackets with no + or - sign between them indicate multiplication.

(2 + 3) (4 + 5) = (5) (9) = 5 x 9 = 45

There are certain laws which govern basic arithmetic operations and the use of brackets. In both addition and multiplication the
order of writing integers does not affect the value.

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For example
For addition 2+3=5
Also 3+2=5
Thus 2+3=3+2
For multiplication 2x 3 = 6
And 3x2=6
Thus 2x3=3x2

However, the same laws must not be applied for the operation of subtraction and division. 2 - 3 are not equal to 3 - 2 and 2 / 3 is
not equal to 3 / 2. The position of bracket in problems containing only addition signs or multiplication signs does not alter the final
value.

For example
In addition 2 + (3 + 4) = 2 + 7 = 9
Also (2 + 3) + 4 = 5 + 4 = 9
Hence 2 + (3 + 4) = (2 + 3) + 4
In multiplication 2 x (3 x 4) = 2 x 12 = 24
Also (2 x 3) x 4 = 6 x 4 = 24
Then 2 (3 x 4) = (2 x 3) 4

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These laws do not apply in the case of subtraction and division. 2 - (3 + 4) is not equal to (2 - 3) + 4. Also (2 / 3) + 4 is not equal to
2 / (3+ 4). Using the method of dealing with the bracket first:
2 (3 + 4) = 2 x 7 = 14
Alternatively 2 (3 + 4) = (2 x 3) + (2 x 4)
= 6 + 8 = 14

Frequently, in a problem, more than one operator is involved. Different answers to the problem can be obtained depending on the
order in which operations are carried out.

For example, to find the value of 2 x 3 + 7 can give and answer of 2 x 3 = 6 and 6 + 7 = 13. Another way of getting an answer
would be to add 3 and 7 and multiply by 2. Then 2 x 3 + 7 = 2 x 10 = 20. Both of these answers cannot be correct and an order of
precedence of operations is used.

This order of operations is Brackets, Of, Division, Multiplication, Addition and Subtraction often remembered by the initials
BODMAS. Applying the order of precedence to 2 x 3 + 7, shows that since multiplication comes before addition, the only correct
solution to this problem is 2 x 3 + 7 = 6 + 7 = 13, and the answer 20 is incorrect.

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A simple mnemonic helps us to remember the order in which to simplify expressions

B – Brackets ( )
O – Of of
D – Divide ÷
M – Multiply x
A – Add +
S – Subtract –

This rule does not alter the method used for addition and subtraction; however these must be left until all multiplications and
divisions have been carried out unless Brackets indicate otherwise.

Example of using BODMAS:

( 3
) 4 12 12
( 4 12 4
)
1 + 1 of 1 = 3 + 4 of 1 = 7 × 1 = 7
4 48

QUESTIONS: BODMAS

1. Simplify each of the following:

(a) (2 4/5 – 1 ½) ÷ 2/3
(b) 3 1/3 × (1 5/6 – 5/9)
(c) 3 3/4 ÷ 5 + 1/6
(d) 1/4 + 5/6 × 3/10

2. Evaluate the following:

(a) 4 + (–6) × 2 – 9
(b) –14 + (8 – 24) ÷ (–4)
(c) 8 × [–2 + (–4)] ÷ 12

[ (
3. 8 + 4 5 × 2 5 − 9
3
)]
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1.1.2.4 Positive and Negative Numbers

Positive and negative numbers are that have directional value from a given starting point or from zero. Number above or to one
side, usually right, of zero are designated as positive (+). Those below or to the opposite side, usually left, of zero are designated
as negative (−). Representative of signed numbers on a horizontal scale is shown below:
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

The sum of positive number is positive

The sum of negative number is negative

Brackets can be used to distinguish between the positive ‘plus‘ number and operation ‘add’. It is similar, with the negative number
‘minus’ and the operation ‘subtract’.
Example: (+5) + (+6) − (−4) = 15

1.1.2.5 Adding Signed Numbers

When adding two or more numbers with the same sign, ignore the sign and find the sum of the values and then place the common
sign in front of the answer. In other words, adding two or more positive numbers always results in a positive sum, whereas adding
two or more negative numbers results in a negative sum. When adding a positive and a negative number, find the difference
between the two numbers and apply (+ or −) of the larger number. In other words, adding a negative number is the same as
subtracting a positive number. The result of adding or subtracting signed numbers is called algebraic sum of those numbers.

- a + (+b) = a + b
- a + (−b) = a − b

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Example:
2 + (+4) = 2 + 4 = 6
2 + (−4) = 2 – 4 = −2

1.1.2.6 Subtracting Signed Numbers

When subtracting numbers with different signs, change the operation sign to plus and change the sign of the subtrahend. Once
this is done, proceed as you do in addition. For example +3 − −4 is the same as +3 + +4. There is no difference if the subtrahend
is larger than the minuend, since the operation is done as though the two quantities are added.

- a − (+b) = a − b
- a − (−b) = a + b

Example:
3 – (+5) = 3 − 5 = −2
3 – (−5) = 3 + 5 = 8

1.1.2.7 Multiplying Signed Numbers

Multiplication of signed numbers is accomplished in the same manner as multiplication of any other number. However, after
multiplying, the product must be given a sign. There are three rules to follow when determining a products sign.

1. The product of two positive numbers is always positive. (+) x (+) = (+)
2. The product of two negative numbers is always positive. (–) x (–) = (+)
3. The product of a positive and a negative number is always negative. (+) x (–) = (–)
(–) x (+) = (–)

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Example:
12 x 4 = 48
(–3) x (–7) = 21
5 x (–6) = –30
(–2) x 13 = –26

1.1.2.8 Dividing Signed Numbers

Like multiplying signed numbers, division of signed numbers is accomplished in the same manner as dividing any other number.
The sign of the quotient is determined using the rules identical to those used in multiplication.

- (+) ÷ (+) = (+)

- (–) ÷ (–) = (+)
- (+) ÷ (–) = (–)
- (–) ÷ (+) = (–)

Example:

a) 10 ÷ 5 = 2
b) (–36) ÷ (–9) = 4
c) 27 ÷ (–3) = –9
d) (–25) ÷ 5 = (–5)

Questions: Positive and Negative Numbers

1. 4(4(4 - 2) - 2) – 2 =
2. Calculate (+3) – (–4)
3. Find (4(4(4-1)-1)-1)

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1.1.3 Fractions and Decimals

1.1.3.1 Fractions

A fraction is an indicated division that expresses one or more of the equal parts into which a unit is divided. For example, the
fraction 2 3 indicates that the whole has been divided into 3 equal parts and that 2 of these parts are being used or considered.
The number above the line is the numerator and the number below the line is the denominator.

If the numerator of a fraction is equal to or larger than the denominator, the fraction is known as an improper fraction. In the
fraction158 , if the indicated division is performed, the improper fraction is changed to a mixed number, which is a whole number
and a fraction: 15 8 = 1 7 8

A decimal fraction is obtained by dividing the numerator of a fraction by the denominator and showing the quotient as a decimal.
The fraction 58 equals 5 ÷ 8 = 0.625.

A fraction does not change its value if both numerator and denominator are multiplied or divided by the same number.
1 ×3 =3 =1
4 3 12 4

The same fundamental operations performed with whole numbers can also be performed with fractions. These are addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division.

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1.1.3.1.1 Lowest Terms

A fraction is said to be in its lowest terms when it is impossible to find a number which will divide exactly into both its numerator
and denominator. The fractions 15 7 and 1119 are both in their lowest terms but the fraction 6 10 is not in its lowest terms because it
can be reduced to 3 5 by dividing top and bottom numbers by 2.

Example:
Reduce 21 35 to its lowest terms
21 is equivalent to 21÷7 and 35÷7 = 3
35 5

1.1.3.1.2 Finding the Least Common Denominator (LCD)

When the denominators of fractions to be added or subtracted are such that a common denominator cannot be determined
readily, The LCD can be found by the continued division method.

To find the LCD of group of fractions, write the denominators in a horizontal row. Next, divide the denominators in this row by the
smallest integer that will exactly divide two or more of the denominators. Bring down to a new row all the quotients and numbers
that were not divisible. Continue this process until there are no two numbers in the resulting row that are divisible by any integer
other than one. Multiply together all the divisors and the remaining terms in the last row to obtain the least common denominator.

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Example

Find LCD for 7 8 , 1120 , 836 , 2145

FIRST : Write the denominators in a horizontal row and divide this row by the smallest integer that will exactly divide two or more
of the numbers.
2 8 20 36 45
4 10 18 45

NEXT : Continue this process until there are no two numbers in the resulting row that are divisible by any integer other than one.

2 8 20 36 45
2 4 10 18 45
3 2 5 9 45
3 2 5 3 15
5 2 5 1 5
2 1 1 1

THEN : Multiply together all the divisors and remaining terms in the last row to obtain the LCD

∴LCD = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 2 = 360

1.1.3.1.3 Addition of Fractions

Two fractions which have the same denominator can be added together by adding their numerators. Thus 311 + 511 = (3+5)11 = 811 .
When two fractions have different denominators they cannot be added together directly. However, if we express the fractions with
the same denominator, they can be added.

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Example:

Add 2 5 and 37

The lowest common denominator of 5 and 7 is 35

2 + 3 = 14 + 15 = (14+15) = 29
5 7 35 35 35 35

When mixed numbers are to be added together, the whole numbers and the fractions are added separately.
Example:

Add 4 2 3 and 2 35

4 2 3 + 2 35 = 6 + 2 3 + 35 = 6 + 1015 + 915 = 6 + 1915 = 6 + 1 4 4

1.1.3.1.4 Subtraction of Fractions 15 = 7 15

If the fractions to be subtracted have the same denominator, then one numerator can be subtracted from the other.
Example:
9 − 5 =4 = 1
16 16 16 4

If the two fractions have different denominators, then a method similar to that for addition is used.

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Example:

Subtract 3 4 from 5 6

The lowest common denominator is 12

5 − 3 = 10 − 9 = (10−9) = 1
6 4 12 12 12 12

When mixed numbers are involved first subtract the whole numbers and then deal with the fractional parts.
Example:
Subtract 6 3 4 − 4 13

6 3 4 − 4 13 = 2 + 3 4 − 13 = 2 + (9−4)12 = 2 + 5 5
12 = 2 12
Alternatively the numbers can be converted into improper fractions and then the subtraction is carried out as before.

Example:
Subtract 3 516 − 1 18
53 − 9 = 53 − 18 = 35 = 2 3
16 8 16 16 16 16

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1.1.3.1.5 Multiplication of Fractions

Multiplication of fractions is performed by multiplication the numerators of each fraction to form the product numerators, and
multiplying the individual denominators to form the product denominator. The resulting fraction is then reduced to its lowest terms.

Example:
Multiply 38 by 57
3 × 5 = (3×5) 15
8 7 (8×7) = 56

If any factors are common to a numerator and a denominator, they should be cancelled before multiplying.
Example:
Find the value of 2 3 × 5 7 × 2132
2 × 5 × 21 = (1×5×1) 5
3 7 32 (1×1×16) = 16

Mixed numbers must be converted into improper fractions before multiplying.

Example:
Multiply 1 38 × 2 13

1 38 × 2 13 = 118 × 7 3 = (11×7) (8×3) = 77 24 = 3 5 24

In problems with fractions, the word “of” is frequently used. It should always be taken as meaning “multiply”.

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1.1.3.1.6 Division of Fractions

Division of common fractions is accomplished by inverting, or turning over, the divisor and then multiplying. However, it is
important that you invert the divisor only and not the dividend. Once the divisor is inverted, multiply the numerators to obtain a
new numerator multiply the denominators to obtain a new denominator, and reduce the quotient to its lowest terms.
Example:
Divide 35 by 7 8
3 ÷ 7 = 3 × 8 = (3×8) 24
5 8 5 7 (5×7) = 35

Mixed numbers must be converted into improper fractions before multiplying.

1.1.3.2 Decimals

Decimals are a very important and particular set of fractions. They are fractions which denominators are powers of 10, ie.10, 100,
1000, 10,000 etc. Decimals are not written in the usual fraction form, but in shorthand using a decimal point.

For example:-
1/10 = 0.1
1/100 = 0.01
1/1000 = 0.001
57/10 = 5.7
6370/100 = 63.07

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1.1.3.2.1 Decimals are Fraction

To understand the subject, look at the table below:

Thousand Hundred Tens Unit Tenth Hundredth Thousandth

1000 100 10 1/10 1/100 1/1000
5 3 4 6 . 7 9 2

The number in the table is 5346.792. It consists of 5 thousands, 3 hundreds, 4 ten, 6 units, 7 tenths, 9 hundredths and 2
thousandths.

The number of digits after the decimal point is called decimal places.

For example:
a. 27.6 has one decimal place
b. 27.16 has two decimal places
c. 27.026 has three decimal places
d. 101.2032 has four decimal places

1.1.3.2.2 Add Decimals

In addition of decimals, particular care must be taken in ensuring that decimal points are in line.
Evaluate 3.76 + 0.021 + 68.3 = 72.081

3.76
0.021
+ 68.3
72.081

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1.1.3.2.3 Subtract Decimals

Similarly in subtraction, ensure that decimal points are in line.

Evaluate 27.3 – 4.36 = 22.94

Note: 27.3 can be taken as 27.30.

27.30
- 4.36
22.94

1.1.3.2.4 Multiply Decimals

When multiplying decimals, ignore the decimal point until the final answer is obtained. Then count the number of decimal places
in both numbers being multiplied.

Evaluate: 27.3 x 9.31

(Note: Total of 3 decimal places)

273
x 931
273
8190
245700
254163 Answer = 254.163

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1.1.3.2.5 Divide Decimals

In division, it is easier to divide by a whole number than by a decimal. To make the divisor (the number you are dividing by) into a
whole number, move the decimal point a specific number of places to the right. You must then also move the decimal point in the
dividend (the number you are dividing into) to the right by the same number of decimal places.

For example:

24.024 / 4.62
= 2402.4 / 462
= 5.2

1.1.3.2.6 Rounding Off Decimals

There is a general tendency to think of all numbers as being precise. Actually the whole realm of measurement involves numbers
that are only approximations of precise numbers. For example, measurements of length, area and volume are at best
approximations. The degree of accuracy of these measurements depends on the refinement of the measuring instruments

Occasionally it is necessary to round a number to some value that is practical to use. For example, a measurement is completed
to be 29.4948 inches. It is impractical, if not impossible, to measure this accurately with a steel rule which is accurate only to 1 64 of
an inch.

To use this measurement we can use the process of “rounding”. A decimal expression is “rounded off” by retaining the digits for a
certain number of places and discarding the rest. The retained number is an approximation of the computed or exact number. The
degree of accuracy desired determines the number of digits to be retained. When the digit immediately to the right of the last
retained digit is a 5 or greater than 5, increase the last digit by 1. When the digit immediately to the right of the last retained digit is
less than 5, leave the last retained digit unchanged.

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Example:
Round up 29.4948 to the nearest tenth.

FIRST: Determine the number of digits to retain. In this case one – tenth being the first places to the right the decimal point.
29.4948
NEXT: Change the value of the last retained digit, if required. In this case, since 9 is greater than 5, the final decimal is
expressed thus: 29.4948 becomes 29.5 inches

1.1.3.2.7 Converting Decimals to Fractions

Although decimals are typically easier to work with, there are times when the use of a fraction is more practical. For example,
when measuring something, most scales are fractional increments. For this reason it is important that you know how to convert a
decimal number into a fraction. For example, 0.125 is read as 125 thousandths, which is written as 125/1000. This fraction is then
reduced to its lowest terms.

Examples:
0.800 = 800/1000 = 4/5
6.250 = 6+ 250/1000 = 6 1/4
0.037 = 37/1000

1.1.3.2.8 Converting Fractions to Decimals

To convert a fraction into a decimal, we divide the denominator into the numerator.

Convert 27/32 to decimals

27/32 = 27 ÷ 32 = 0.84375

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When we have mixed numbers to convert into decimals, we need only deal with the fractional part. Thus to convert 2 9/16 into
decimals, we only have to deal with 9/16
9/16 = 9 ÷ 16 = 0.5625

The division shows that 9/16 = 0.5625 and hence 2 9/16 = 2.5625. Sometimes a fraction will not divide out exactly. If the number
is recurring, the answer can be given to 1 or 2 decimal places or that specified by the equation.

QUESTIONS: Fractions and decimals

1. Evaluate 6.22 + 4.79 + 3.06 =

2. 4 3 − 2 1 + 1 =
8 4 8
3. 1 1 5
+ =
16 8
4. 3 multiplied by 0.82 is equal to
4
5. 7 can be expressed as (in decimals)
6
6. The fraction 17 is classed as
11
7. In the common fraction 2 5 the number 5 is known as

8. Convert into decimal fraction 5

8 of 60
9. Evaluate 15.4 2 − 2(4.6 − 15.7) =

10. 3 8 in decimal is
11. 5 8 of 90 is

12. Solve 15.2 − 2(6.2 − 15.6)

2
13. What is the fraction 1 7 in decimal

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14. 4 3 8 − 2 1 4 + 1 5 =
15. 3 18 − 1 15 =

16. Solve the following 1 +5 =

16 8
1
17. Solve the following
9 + 5 +1 3 =
4 12 8
7
18. Express the fraction 8 as a decimal
19. Solve 0.75 x 0.003
20. 3 x 82 =
4
21. Add together; 3 4 , 5 7
16 , 8 and 0.375
22. 5 8 + 34 =

23. The LCD for the problem 1 6 + 15 + 1 + 1 is

17 2

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1.1.4 Factors and Multiples

1.1.4.1 Factors

The factors of a given whole number are the numbers that can divide the given whole number exactly.

Example:
16 ÷ 1 = 16
16 ÷ 2 = 8
16 ÷ 4 = 4
16 ÷ 8 = 2
16 ÷ 16 = 1

16 can be divided exactly by 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16. Therefore, 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 are the factors of 16.

1.1.4.2 Multiples

A multiple of a given whole number is the product of itself and another nonzero whole number.

Example:

Multiples of 4:
4 x 1, 4 x 2, 4 x 3, 4 x 4, 4 x 5, 4 x 6, 4 x 7, ……
4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28

Therefore, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28,….. are multiples of 4.

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1.1.4.3 Highest common factor (HCF) and Lowest Common Multiples

A factor is a number which divides a number into another number (therefore another factor) exactly. Thus both 2 and 3 are factors
of 6. The numbers 2 and 3 are also factors of 12, 18 and 24 and are called common factors of all these numbers. The highest
common factor, usually abbreviated H.C.F., is the largest number that divides into two or more numbers exactly.

To find the H.C.F. of two or more numbers, each number is broken into its simplest factors, and those which are common to all the
numbers constitute the H.C.F. Numbers which have no factors apart from 1 are called prime numbers. Since 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13,
and 17 ... have no factors apart from 1, they are prime numbers. When looking for factors, numbers are expressed in terms of
factors comprising these prime numbers. The simplest ones are found first, that is 2, 3, 5, 7 and so on. For example:

12 = 2 x 2 x 3 2x2x 3
48 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 or 2x2x 3 x2x2
60 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 2x2x 3 x5

The factors contained in each of the numbers 12, 48 and 60 are 2 x 2 x 3 = 12 ; thus the H.C.F. of the numbers 12, 48 and 60 is
12, this being the largest number which goes exactly into 12, 48 and 60.

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A multiple is a number that contains another number an exact number of times. Thus 6 is a multiple of both 2 and 3 and since it is
a multiple of both 2 and 3, it is said to be the common multiple of 2 and 3. When considering more than one number, the lowest
common multiple, usually abbreviated L.C.M., is the smallest number which is exactly divisible by each of two or more given
numbers.

To find the L.C.M. of two or more numbers each number is broken into its simplest factors and all factors in any numbers must be
taken as part of the L.C.M. For example
12 = 2 x 2 x 3
24 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3
60 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 5

The largest group of twos is in the number 24, and this covers the 2 x 2 factors in 12 and 60, so that they will not be required to
contribute towards the L.C.M. As there is one 3 factor in each of the numbers only one of these will be required. The L.C.M. is 2
x 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 = 120, the lowest number which can be exactly divided by 12, 24 and 60.

The method of finding the L.C.M. of a group of numbers one or more of which are negative is treated in a similar manner. The
L.C.M. is usually expressed in terms of positive numbers. This is because, for example, the numbers 6 and 9 have factors 2 x 3
and 3 x 3 and their L.C.M. is 18. Also the numbers 6 and -9 have factors 2 x 3 and -1 x 3 x 3 and at first sight have an L.C.M. of -1
x 2 x 3 x 3 or -18. However, since 18/6 =3 and 19/-9 = -2, this shows that 18 is the L.C.M. of both 6 and -9 and the positive value
of 18 is the one taken.

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1.1.5 Weights

It is often necessary to describe the amount of material needed for a certain job. For example, how much copper is needed to
produce 20 ft of 16-gauge electric wire? How much wax is needed to polish a car? What amount of gasoline will fill a given
storage tank? In such cases, we are interested in the quantity of matter which is called the mass of an object. The internationally
accepted unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). Thus, a 4 kg block of steel is recognised anywhere in the world as the same quantity of
steel.

One kilogram is that mass which is equivalent to the mass contained in the standard kilogram specimen located at the
International Bureau of Weight and Measures in France.

We will see later that larger masses are more difficult to move, and we will be able to better define mass in term of force and
motion.

One important property of masses is their attraction to other masses. For example, any object near the earth will have a force
exerted on it by earth. This gravitational attraction that the earth has on an object is defined as the weight of the object.
Unfortunately, the effects of gravity are not the same at different locations on the earth. Objects located at greater distances from
the centre of the earth will experience smaller attractions. In other words, the weight of an object on a mountaintop is slightly less
than the weight of the same object at the sea level. For this reason, the weight of objects should not be used as an indicator of
quantity of material.

1 kilogram (kg) = fundamental unit

1 gram (g) = 0.001 kg
1 milligram (mg) = 0.001 g
1 metric ton (t) = 1000 kg

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1.1.6 Measures and Conversion Factors

It is often necessary to convert a measurement from one unit to another. For example, suppose that a machinist records the
outside diameter of a pipe as 1 1/2 inches. To order a fitting for the pipe, he may need to know this diameter of a pipe in
millimeters. Such conversions can easily be accomplished by treating units algebraically and using the principle of cancellation.

In the above case, he should first convert the fraction to a decimal.

1 ½ in. = 1.5 in
Next he should write down the quantity to be converted, giving both the number and the unit (1.5 in.). The definition which relates
inches to millimeters is:
1 in. = 25.4 mm. Since this statement is an equality we can form two ratios, each to 1:
1 in 25.4 mm
=1 =1
25.4 mm 1 in
Note that the number 1 does not equal the number 25.4, but the length of 1 in. is equal to the length of 25.4 mm. Thus, if we
multiply some other length by either of these ratios, we will get a new number, but we will not change the length. Such ratios are
called conversion factors. Either of the above conversion factors may be multiplied by 1.5 in. without changing the length
represented. Multiplication by the first ratio does not give a meaningful result. Note those units are treated as algebraic quantities.
1 in 1.5 in 2
(1.5 in ) = # Answer is wrong
25.4 mm 25.4 mm

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Multiplication by the second ratio, however, gives the following result:

25.4 mm (1.5 )(25.4 )
(1.5 in ) = mm = 38.1 mm
1 in 1
Therefore, the outside diameter of the pipe is 38.1 mm.

The following procedure is used in unit conversions:

1. Write down the quantity to be converted.
2. Define each unit appearing in the quantity to be converted in terms of the desired unit(s).
3. For each definition, form two conversion factors, one being the reciprocal of the other.
4. Multiply the quantity to be converted by those factors which will cancel all the desired units.

Example: Convert a speed of 60 miles per hour ( mi/h) to units of km per hour (km/h)

Solution: Recall that 1 mile = 1609 meters = 1.609 km

Thus,
mi mi km km
60 = 60 1.609 = 96.54
h h h h

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1.1.6.1 Systems of Units of Measurement

When the size of a quantity is determined using a defined unit, it is known as a measurement. To make accurate, reliable
measurements, we need units of measurement that do not change and that can be duplicated. The system of units used by most
countries is called ‘The Metric System’, but now it is known as the System’ International D’Unites or SI Units.

Other systems of units are the English System of Units and the United States Customary System Units (USCS).

1.1.6.1.1 Length

Length is a measurement of distance between two points. It measures how far two points are apart. Other than meter, the
Metric System units for length are millimetre (mm), centimetre (cm) and kilometre (km).

1 km = 1000 m
1 m = 100 cm
1 cm = 10 mm

The standard SI unit of length is meter (m). The Standard English System of unit for length is foot (ft).

1 m = 3.281 ft
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1ft = 12 in

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1.1.6.1.2 Mass

Mass is the measurement of the amount of matter in an object. The greater the amount of matter contained in an object, the
greater will be the mass and hence the heavier it will be. The standard SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg).

Other than kilogram, the Metric System of units for mass are milligram (mg), gram (g) and metric tonne (t).

1 tonne = 1000 kg
1 kg = 1000 g
1 g = 1000 mg

The standard English System of unit for mass is slug.

1 slug = 14.59 kg

Another unit of mass is pound-mass (lbm).

1 lbm = 0.45359 kg
1 kg = 2.2 lbm
1 slug = 32 lbm

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1.1.6.1.3 Time

Time is a measurement of interval between two events. It measures how long duration of time is. The units of time are second,
minute, hour, day, week, month, year, century and millennium. The standard SI unit of time is second (s).

1 millennium = 1 000 years

1 century = 100 years
1 year = 12 months = 52 weeks = 365 days
1 week = 7 days
1 day = 24 hours
1 hour = 60 minutes
1 minute = 60 seconds

1.1.6.2 Conversions

Length 1in. = 2.54cm

1m = 39.37in. or 3.281ft.
1ft. = 0.3048m
Volume 1 imp gal = 4,546 litres
1 US gal = 3.785 litres
Force & Weight 1N = 0.2248lb
Power 1 HP = 550 ft.lb/sec
1 HP = 746 W
1 W = 1 J/sec
1 W = 0.738 ft.lb/sec
1 Btu/hr = 0.293 W

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Temperature 1 °F = ((9/5)x °C) + 32

1 °C = °F - 32 x (5/9)
°C = K + 273.15

Pressure 1 atm = 760 mmHg

1 atm = 29.92 inHg
1 atm = 14.7 lb/in2
1 Pa = 0.000145 lb/in2
2
1 bar = 14.5 lb/in
1 bar = 100,000 Pa

Fundamental Constant g = 9.8 N/kg

Other Useful Data; 1 litre water = 1kg

QUESTIONS: Measures and conversion factors

1. Millibar is a unit of
2. To convert 1 inch to centimetres
0 0
3. 166 46’ 47” + 13 13’ 13” =
4. 17 degrees 49 minutes and 10 seconds added to 22 degrees 22 minutes and 59 seconds, equal
5. Weight is equal to
6. To convert gallons to litres
7. 6 mm is equal to (in)
8. To convert pound of fuel into kilograms, it is necessary to
9. Convert 162 knots to mph
10. To convert inches to millimetres, it is necessary to
11. To convert imperial gallons to litres, multiply by
12. How much centimetres is in an inch

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1.1.7 Ratio and Proportion

1.1.7.1 Ratio

A ratio is the numerical relation between two quantities. If one man has two airplanes and another has three airplanes, the ratio of
their airplane ownership is 2 to 3. This may also be expressed as 2/3 or 2:3. Thus we see that a ratio is actually a fraction, and it
may also be used mathematically as a fraction.

A ratio may be reduced to lowest terms in the same manner as a fraction. For example, the ratio 24:36 may be reduced to 2:3 by
dividing each term of the ratio by 12. If a certain store has 60 customers on Friday and 80 on Saturday, the ratio is 60:80, or 3:4.

1.1.7.2 Proportion

A proportion expresses equality between two ratios. For example, 4:5::12:15. This may also be expressed 4:5 = 12:15 or

4 12
=
5 15

In a proportion problem, the outer numbers (such as 4 and 15 in the example just given) are called the extremes, and the two
inside numbers (5 and 12) are called the means. In a proportion, the product of the means is equal to the product of the extremes.
We may demonstrate this rule by using the preceding example.

5 × 12 = 4 × 15 = 60

We may use the rule to find an unknown term in a proportion.

6:16 = 9:?

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Using x to denote the unknown quantity, we can say

6 × x = 16 × 9 or 6x = 144
Then,
6x 144
= or x = 24
6 6
We can prove the foregoing answer by using it in the original proportion.
6 9
6: 16 = 9 : 24 or =
16 24

QUESTIONS: Ratio and proportion

1. The ratio of 6:5 can be expressed as

2. A piece of wire has a resistance of 160 ohms. Its resistance is increased with a ratio of 5 to 8. What is its new resistance?
3. If resin to hardener is used in the ratio of 100 : 45, how much hardener is used with 60 grams of resin

1.1.8 Averages and Percentages

1.1.8.1 Average

An average of a set of figures, (or quantities), is the sum of the figures divided by the number of figures.

Total of the values

Average =
Total number of values

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Example 1:

An airman makes the following scores at cricket 8, 20, 3, 0, 5, 9, 15 and 12. What is his average score?
Average Score

8 + 20 + 3 + 0 + 5 + 9 + 15 + 12 72
= = =9
8 8

Example 2:

Find the average age of a team of men given that 4 of them are each 25 years 3 months old and the other 3 are 21 years 9 month
old.

Total age of 4 men at 25 years 3 months = (25 years 3 months) × 4

= 101 years
Total age of 3 men at 21 years 9 months = (21 years 9 months) × 3
= 65 years 3 months
Total age of 7 men = 166 years 3 months
166 years 3 months
=
7
= 23 years 9 months

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1.1.8.2 Percentage

The word percentage implies a common standard of 100, and per cent, written %, means ` for every 100 ` or per 100. Thus, in all
percentages, a fraction is formed whose denominator is 100. Thus 62% becomes 62 / 100 or 31/50 and 35% becomes 35/100 or
7/20.
Example 1:
9% = 9100 17% = 17
100
258% = 258
100

1.1.8.2.1 Expressing one Quantity as a Percentage

To express one quantity as a percentage of another, make a fraction of the two quantities and multiply by 100.

Example:
12 as a percentage of 50 = 12 50 ×100 = 24%

4 as a percentage of 60 = 4 60 ×100 = 6.67%

3.2 as a percentage of 2.4 = 3.2 2.4 ×100 = 133.33%

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1.1.8.2.2 Converting Fractions to Percentages

To change a fraction to a percentage you must multiply by 100.

Example:

3 3 ×100% = (3 ×100) = 60%

5 as a percentage = 5 5
4 3 19
as a percentage = 4 ×100% = 1900 = 475%
4 4

1.1.8.2.3 Converting Percentages to Fractions

To change a percentage to a fraction, divide by 100%.

Examples:

8% as a fraction = 8%100% = 8100 = 2 25

12 1 % as a fraction = 12.5% 100% = 25 × 1

2 = 25 200 = 18
2 100

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1.1.8.2.4 Converting Percentages to Decimals

To convert a percentage to a decimal, firstly, convert the percentage to a fraction, then the fraction to a decimal.

Examples:
65% as a fraction = 65 , as a decimal = 0.65
100
32 1 % as a fraction = 32.5 , as a decimal = 0.325
2 100

1.1.8.2.5 Convert a Decimal to a Percentage

To convert a decimal to a percentage, firstly, convert the decimal to a fraction, then convert the fraction to a percentage.
Example:
0.021 as a fraction = 21 2.1
1000 = 100 , as a decimal = 2.1%
0.037 as a fraction = 37 1000 = 3.7
100 , as a decimal = 3.7%
0.43 as a fraction = 430 = 43
1000 100 , as a decimal = 43%

1.1.8.2.6 Values of a Percentage of a Quantity

To find the value of a percentage of a quantity, firstly, express the percentage as a fraction and multiply by the quantity.
Examples:
4% of 60 = 4100 × 60 = 240 100 = 12 5 = 2 2 5
3 1 2 % of 1500 = 3.5100 ×1500 = 5250100 = 52510 = 105 2 = 52 1 2

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QUESTIONS: Averages and percentages

1. You have made 20% profit. Your balance is now £900. What was your pre profit balance?
2. In a flight control system, the control cable is allowed an elongation of 3% due to wear. The length from the manufacturer is
78cm, what is its maximum used length?
4. If 42% = 15000, what does 100% =
5. An aeroplane has 1800 gallons of fuel on board; 35% in the left wing, 42.5% in the right wing. How much fuel does the centre
tank have?
6. What is 30% of 0.01
7. An aircraft flies 1350nm in 2 hrs 15 minutes. What is the average speed?
8. What is 3% of 0.001
9. The ratio of 6:4 can also be expressed as
10. Express 9 20 as a percentage

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1.1.9 Areas and Volumes

Measuration
Measuration is a branch of mathematics concerned with the determination of lengths, areas and volumes.

1.1.9.1 Classifications of polygons

A polygon is a closed plane figure bounded by straight lines. A polygon, which has 3 sides, is called a triangle. The names of
some different types of polygons are summarized below:
Number of sides Name of Polygons
Three Triangle
Four Quadrilateral
Five Pentagon
Six Hexagon
Seven Heptagon
Eight Octagon
Nine Nonagon
Ten Decagon

If the term regular is applied to any of the above figures it means that all the sides in the polygon are equal.

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1.1.9.2 Triangle

The triangle is a three-sided figure consisting of three angles whose combined measurement equals 180 degrees. Three basic
types of triangles you should be familiar with are: the scalene triangle, which consists of three unequal angles and sides, the
equilateral triangle, which has equal sides and equal angles, and the isosceles triangle, which has two equal angles.

Triangles are further classified by the measurement of one angle. For example, a right triangle is one that has one angle
measuring 90 degrees. In an obtuse triangle, one angle is greater than 90 degrees, while in an acute triangle all angles are less
than go degrees.

There are several terms associated with triangles. For instance, the base of a triangle is the side the triangle rests or stands on.
Depending on a triangle's orientation, any side may be the base. The vertex is a common endpoint, or the point where the sides
of the triangle meet. The altitude of a triangle is the height of the vertex above the base.

If a triangle is set in a rectangle and the triangle's base and height are equal to two of the rectangle's sides, the area of the triangle
is exactly one-half that of the rectangle. Therefore, the formula for calculating the area of a triangle is one-half the base times the
height, or ½ bh.

Find the area of a triangle whose base is 6 inches height is 15 inches.

Step 1: Insert given values into the formula.
1
A = × 6 ×15
2
Step 2: Perform multiplication.
A = 45 square inches

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Three typical types of triangles

a) Scalene: all the sides are of different length
b) Isosceles: two sides are equal
c) Equilateral: all the sides are equal

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Theorem of Pythagoras

Theorem of Pythagoras formula is shown in below

C
B

i) ( AC )2 = ( AB )2 + (BC )2
AC = ( AB ) + (BC )
2 2

Ii) ( AB )2 = ( AC )2 − (BC )2

AB = ( AC )2 − (BC )2
Ii) (BC )2 = ( AC )2 − ( AB )2

BC = ( AC )2 − ( AB )2
Figure 3: Theorem Pythagoras

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1.1.9.3 Quadrilateral

Typical types of Quadrilateral

a) Rectangle
It is a plane rectilinear four-sided figure with all four of its internal angles equal to 90º. (The word ‘rectilinear’ means it is composed
entirely of straight lines)
b) Square
It is a rectangle in which all four sides are of equal length.
c) Parallelogram
It is a plane rectilinear four-sided figure with its opposite sides parallel. This definition means the rectangle and the square are
both particular kinds of parallelogram with additional properties.
d) Rhombus
It is a plane rectilinear four-sided figure in which all four sides are of equal length and the opposites sides are parallel. A rhombus
is thus a parallelogram having additional properties.
e) Trapezium
It is a plane rectilinear four-sided figure, which has a pair of parallel lines, which are of not equal length.
f) Trapezoid
It is a plane rectilinear four-sided figure in which all sides have different length.
g) Kite
It is a plane rectilinear four-sided figure in which pairs of adjacent sides have equal length, opposite pairs have different length.

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A summary of Quadrilateral family is shown in FIGURE 1.

QUADRILATERAL FAMILY
(Any four-sided figure)
TRAPEZIUM
(Only 2 sides parallel)
PARALLELOGRAM
(A quadrilateral with opposite sides parallel) – No interior angles = 90°

TRAPEZOID
(All sides have different length)
RHOMBUS RECTANGLE
(Parallelogram with all sides equal) (Parallelogram with all angle = 90°)
KITE
(2 isosceles triangles)

SQUARE
(Rhombus with one angle = 90° or Rectangle with all sides equal)

Figure 1: A Summary of Quadrilateral Family

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1.1.9.4 Computing Area

The area of a surface is two dimensional and is expressed in square units. An area that is square and measures one inch on each
side is called a square inch. This same relationship holds true for other units of measure such as square feet, square yards,
square miles, and square meters. The area of a figure is equal to the number of square units the figure contains,

Areas of some main plane figures are shown in below

1.1.9.4.1 Rectangle

a d

b
Area = a × b square units
2 2
Diagonal, d = a + b

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1.1.9.4.2 Parallelogram

The parallelogram, like the rectangle, has opposite sides that are parallel and equal in length. However, the corner angles of a
parallelogram are some measurement other than 90 degrees. The area of a parallelogram is calculated by multiplying the length
by the height (A = I x h). The height is measured perpendicular to the length, similar to the way the altitude of a triangle is
determined.

1.1.9.4.3 Rhombus
D1

D2

A rhombus is actually just a special type of parallelogram. Recall that in a parallelogram each pair of opposite sides are equal in
length. With a rhombus, all four sides are the same length. Its a bit like a square that can 'lean over' and the interior angles need
not be 90°. It is sometimes called a 'diamond' or 'lozenge' shape. The area of any rhombus is one half the products of the lengths
of its diagonals:
D × D2
A= 1
2

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1.1.9.4.4 Trapezoid

A trapezoid is a four-sided figure that has one set of parallel sides. If you lay two trapezoids side by side so the top and bottom
sides form straight lines, a parallelogram is formed with a base that is equal to the combined length of the trapezoid's parallel
sides. As discussed earlier, the area of a parallelogram is found by multiplying the length, which in this case equals the sum of the
parallel sides, by the height. However, because the area of a single trapezoid is one-half that of the parallelogram, the trapezoid's
area is equal to one-half the product of the base times the height. This is expressed with the formula:

1.1.9.4.5 Circle

r Area = π × r 2 square units

22
π= ≈ 3.142
7
Circumference, C = 2πr units

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1.1.9.4.6 Area of ring/ annulus

R Area = π (R 2 − R 2 )
This can be shown by;
= π (R + R )(R − R )
Area of large circle = πR 2
Area of small circle = πR 2
∴ Area of ring = πR 2 − πR 2
= π (R 2 − R 2 )

1.1.9.4.7 Triangle

1
Area = ×a×h square units
2
Note: h = perpendicular height

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1.1.9.5 Volumes of Regular Solids

The volume of any solid is a measure of the space occupied by the solid.

1.1.9.5.1 Volume of a rectangle

The volume of a rectangular solid is found by multiplying the dimensions of length, width, and when calculating volume, it is
important measurements are in terms. The formula for calculating the volume of a rectangular solid is:

V=LxW xH

Where: V = volume
L = length
W = width
H = height

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1.1.9.5.2 Volume of a cube

A cube is a solid with equal sides. Since all dimensions of a cube are identical, its area is calculated by multiplying one dimension
by itself three times.

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1.1.9.5.3 Volume of a cylinder

A cylinder is a solid with circular ends and parallel sides. Its volume is found by multiplying the area of one end by the cylinder's
height. The formula is expressed as:
Volume = π r2 H

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1.1.9.5.4 Volume of a sphere

A sphere is any round body having a surface on which all points are an equal distance from the centre of the sphere. A sphere
has the greatest volume for its surface area, and is used in aircraft systems for hydraulic accumulators and liquid oxygen
converters. The volume of a sphere is determined by multiplying the cube of the diameter by a factor which is 1/6 pi, or 0.5236. If
you want to find the volume of a sphere that is 6 inches in diameter, you must first cube the diameter and multiply the resulting
value by 0.5236. For example, calculate the volume of a sphere with a diameter of 6 inches.

The volume V of a sphere of radius r is given by V = 4/3 πr³ cubic units or V=1/6 πD³ cubic units

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1.1.9.5.5 Prisms

A prism is a solid with a constant cross-section and with the two ends parallel. The shape of the end is used to describe the prism.
The volume V of the prism of cross-sectional area A and perpendicular height h is given by

V = Ah cubic units.

The diagrams of prisms and their formula are shown in FIGURE 4.

The diagrams below show 4 typical prisms and their volume.

(a) Rectangular prism; V = Area of rectangle, A × h cubic units

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(b) Triangular prism; V = Area of triangle, A × h cubic units

h V = Area of circle A × h cubic units

= πr 2 h cubic units
(c) Circular Prism or Cylinder;

(d) Hexagonal Prism; V = Area of hexagon A × h cubic units

Note: h = perpendicular height

Figure 4: Prisms

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1.1.9.5.6 Pyramids

A solid with a plane end and straight sides meeting in a point is called a pyramid

The volume V of any pyramid of base area A and perpendicular height h is given by V = 1/3 Ah cubic units
The diagrams of pyramids and their formula are shown in FIGURE 5.
The diagrams below show 3 typical pyramids and their volume.

1
Triangular pyramid; V = × Area of triangle A × h cubic units
3

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1
r V = × Area of circle A × h cubic units
A 3
Circular pyramid or cone;
1
= × π × r 2 × h cubic units
3

A
1
Rectangular pyramid; V = × Area of rectangle A × h cubic units
3
Note: Perpendicular height (h) is the height from the vertex to the base below it, which forms 90º.

Figure 5: Pyramids

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QUESTIONS: Areas and volumes

1. A cuboid has dimensions of 4 cm, 6 cm and 12 cm. What is its volume?

2
2. A rectangle 11cm x 120cm. What is its area in m
3. If there are two similar angles in a right triangle, these angles are
4. The surface area of a cone whose flat is 10cm and diameter is 8cm is
5. Find the curved surface area of a cylinder diameter 20 cm and length 10 cm
6. A cylinder has a radius of 20 cm and a length of 40 cm. What is its volume?
7. The sum of the angles of a polygon with ‘n’ sides is
8. A sphere with a radius of 2cm has a surface area of
9. In a right angled triangle the longest side is 20cm long, the shortest side is 12cm. What length is the last side?
0
10. A shape with 4 equal sides and one 90 angle is a
11. A line to create a segment from the centre of a circle is a
0
12. In a parallelogram, if all the sides are of equal length and 1 angle is 90 , it is a
13. What is the area of the shape below?
12”

3”

3”
28”

5”

20”
14. A mound of soil is piled up into a cone of base diameter 1.8m and height 0.6m. What is the volume of soil?
15. The straight line from the centre to a circle is known as the
16. What is the area of a ring with an outer diameter of 90 inches and an inner diameter of 80 inches?

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17. What is the height of an oblique pyramid?

18. What is the area of rectangle with base 160cm and height 12cm
19. A congruent triangle has
20. What is an obtuse angle?
24. What is the area of a rectangle when its height is 11cm and the width 120cm?
25. What is the surface area of a cone if the base is 8cm diameter and the length is 10cm?
26. In an equilateral triangle, all of the angles are equal to
27. The diameter of a cylinder is 200cm and the height is 20cm, what is the volume.
28. For a triangle, which has two sides equal in length and two angles
29. The area of the shape is calculated by

30. The surface area of a cylinder of diameter 10 cm and height 10 cm is

31. A parallelogram has a base 120cm and height 11cm. What is the area?
32. A cylinder has a diameter of 20 cm and a length of 20 cm, what is its volume?
33. What is the formula for calculating the curved area of a cone
34. The circumference of a circle is found by
35. A right-angled triangle has sides of 3 inches and 4 inches, what will the third side be?
36. The formulae for calculating the area of a right angled triangle is

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1.1.10 Squares, Cubes, Square and Cube Roots

1.1.10.1 Power of Numbers

The square of a number is called the ‘Second Power’ of the number. The square of a number is the product you get when a
number multiplied by itself. Likewise the cube of a number is called the ‘Third Power’ and so on. The cube of a number is the
number multiplied by itself twice.

Example 1:

Second Power (Square)

32 = 3 x 3 = 9
122 = 12 x 12 = 144
2
0.9 = 0.9 x 0.9 = 0.81

Third Power (Cube)

33 = 3 x 3 x 3 = 27
123 = 12 x 12 x 12 = 1728
3
0.9 = 0.9 x 0.9 x 0.9 = 0.729

1.1.10.2 Root of a Number

A root of a number is of two or more equal numbers that, when multiplied together will produce the number. Such a number
is called an equal factor. Thus, two equal factors that will produce 9 when multiplied together are 3 and 3.

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1.1.10.3 Square Root

The square root of a number is the number when multiplied by itself, equals to the given number. We have seen that 9 is the
square of 3. Then 3 is the square root of 9. 144 is the square of 12, so 12 is the square root of 144.
The square root is indicated by the sign:
Example:
9 =3
144 = 12
0.81 = 0.9

1.1.10.4 Cube Root

The cube root of a number is the number when multiplied by itself twice, equals to the given number.

Example:

2x2x2=8 23 = 8 (2 is a cube root of 8)

3
4 x 4 x 4 = 64 4 = 64 (4 is a cube root of 64)

The symbol for cube root is 3

QUESTIONS: Squares, cubes, square and cube roots

2
1. (6+2) x 2 – (2 x 45)
3
2. 14 can be expressed as

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1.2 ALGEBRA

Algebra is a form of arithmetic that uses letters or symbols to represent numbers in equations and formulas. For example, if an
airplane cruises at 200 knots, how long will it take to fly 600 nautical miles? To solve this problem, an equation is set up with the
unknown variable of time represented by the letter "T." The equation is 200 kts. x T = 600 n.m. Through algebra, you calculate the
time (T) required of 3 hours. While some forms of algebra are extremely complex, others are fairly simple and straightforward.
This section introduces you to the basic algebra you need to know to perform your duties as an aviation maintenance technician.

1.2.1 Equations

One way to express a math problem is to write it out in words. For example, "What is 24 divided by 3?" This is written in an
algebraic sentence in the form 24 + 3 = x. In this example, "x" represents the unknown quantity, or variable, you are solving for.
The expression 24 + 3 = x is called an equation. The purpose of the equation is to identify two equal quantities. Typically, once
you get a math problem set up in an equation, the problem is fairly easy to solve. For example, if asked to determine what
quantity, when added to 23, results in 48, your first step should be to set up an equation. The equation used to solve this problem
is 23 + x = 48. To find the value of "x," subtract 23 from both sides of the equation. The equation now reads x = 48 - 23. Once sim-
plified, the equation reads x = 25.

1.2.2 Transposition of Formulae

The formula y = ax + b has “y” as its subject. By rearranging this formula we could make “x” the subject. We are then said to have
transposed the formula to make “x” the subject.
The rules for transforming a formula are:
1. Remove square roots or other roots.
2. Get rid of fractions.
3. Clear brackets.
4. Collect together the terms containing the required subject.
5. Factorise if necessary.
6. Isolate the required subject.

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These steps should be performed in the order given.

Examples:

i. Transpose the formula F = ma to make “a” the subject.

Step 1. Divide both sides by “m”. then,

F m = ma m

or F m = a or a = F m
ii. Transpose x = y b to make “b” the subject

Step 1 Multiply both sides by “b” then,

x × b = yb × b
bx = y or y = bx

1.2.3 Substitution

The process of finding the numerical value of an algebraic expression for given values of the symbols that appear in it is called
substitution.

Example:
If x = 3, y = 4 and z = 5 find the value of:
(3 y+2z) (3×4)+(2×5)
( x+z) = (3+5)
= (12+10) / 8
= 228 = 2.75 or 2¾.

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QUESTIONS: Algebra
1 L
1. Find L in the following expression Q =
R C
2. If x in an equation equals Ly + 7cb, define the formula for finding the subject y
3. The heat of resistor is given by the equation h = I 2 RT . Find the current I.
4. y = mx + c can also be written
5. Make m the subject of the formulae y=mx+c
6. Given that A = X + BY, what is Y equal to?
X +B
7. Given that a= , what is y equal to
y
8. Make L the subject of the formulae 2πfL = x
9. Make x the subject of the formulae y = mx + c
10. Make c the subject of the formulae y = mx + c

1.2(a) Evaluating Simple Algebraic Expressions

1.2(a).1 Addition

Only the like terms or equal summands can be added together in order to get the sum. Like terms are the terms having exactly
similar letters or symbols to the same power. A summand or a term comprises a letter (or more than 1 letter) and a real number.
The letter is also called literal and the real number is called coefficient. In the process of adding, the like terms are usually
grouped together. Then the coefficients are added and the literal(s) is (are) retained.

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For examples:
a. 2x + 3y + 4x = 2x + 4x + 3y
= 6x + 3y
b. 6x² + 3ax + 2x² + ax = 6x² + 2x² + 3ax + ax
= 8x² + 4ax

QUESTIONS: Addition

1. 3x + 5x =
2. 2ax + 5x + 7ax=
3. 6x² + 3ax + 2x²

1.2(a).2 Subtraction

1. Positive Numbers:

- When the minuend and subtrahend are both positive, the rules are similar to addition:
Group the like terms (if different terms exist)
Subtract the coefficient of subtrahend from the coefficient of minuend and retain the literal.

2. Negative Number:

- The rules for the subtraction with negative numbers are as follows:
a. a – (–b) = a + b (subtrahend is negative)
b. –a – (–b) = –a + b
= b – a (minuend and subtrahend are negative)

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Examples:
a. 6x – (–2x) = 6x + 2x
= 8x
b. –6x – (–2x) = – 6x + 2x
= – 4x

QUESTIONS: Subtraction

1. 15x – 3x =
2. 7x – 3x – y =
3. 5x – (–3x) =
4. 9ax – 3x – 2ax =
5. –6x – (–3x) =

1.2(a).3 Multiplication

Products of literal numbers are multiplied by multiplying first the coefficients and then literals.

Example 1:
4m x 3n
=4x3xmxn
= 12mn

Notes: 4m = First literal number

3n = Second literal number
4 and 3 = coefficients
m and n = literals

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Example 2:
2ab x 7yz
= 2 x 7 x ab x yz
= 14abyz

1.2(a).3.1 Multiplication Involving Algebraic Sums

1) Multiplication of a number by an algebraic sum.

Method: Multiply the number by each of the terms of the sum.

Example:
3 multiplied by a + b + c

Solution: = 3 (a + b + c)
= 3a + 3b + 3c

2) Multiplication of an algebraic sum by another algebraic sum.

Method: Multiply each term of the first sum by each term of another.

Example:
Multiply (3a + b) by (2c + d)

Solution: = (3a + b)×(2c + d)

= 3a (2c + d) + b (2c + d)
= 6ac + 3ad + 2bc + bd

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1.2(a).4 Division

The rules for division in general are similar to the ones for real numbers. The result of division i.e.. quotient can be reduced by
cancellation.
For examples:

1. 4a ÷ 6ax = 4a 6ax

= 2 3x
2 2
2. 12m n ÷ 6n = 12m n 6n
= 2m2

1.2(a).4.1 Division of an Algebraic Sum by a Number

An algebraic sum is divided by a number by dividing each element of the sum by the number and adding the resulting quotients.

Examples:
1. Divide (12xyz + 3xz – 24) by 6z
+ 3xz − 24)
Solution: (12xyz + 3xz – 24) ÷ 6z = (12xyz 6z
= 12xyz 6z + 3xz 6z − 24 6z
= 2xy + x 2 − 4 z

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2. Divide (54mn – 72mx – 25) by 9m

72mx 25)
Solution: (54mn – 72mx – 25) ÷ 9m = (54mn 9m
= 54mn − 72mx − 25
9m 9m 9m
= 6n − 8x − 25 9m

QUESTIONS: Multiplication and division

1. 3a x 6m=
2. 3(a + b)×(2x + 5y)=
3. 4(M + 3N) =
4. 7ab ÷ 2ac=
5. 3ab ÷ 5ax=
6. -8xy ÷ 2x=
7. (30xyz + 5x) ÷ 10x=
8. (6mn - 8mnz - 9) ÷ 3mn=

1.2(a).5 Use of Brackets

1.2(a).5.1 To Remove Brackets

a) When performing mathematical operations with brackets, the following rules must be observed.
b) If a “+” symbol is set in front of a bracket, the bracket can be removed without changing the value of the sum.
Example: (x + 2y – 3z) = x + 2y – 3z
c) In line with the first rule, a bracket can be introduced without changing the value of the sum of the expression.
Example: a + 2b – 3c = a + (2b – 3c)
d) If a “-“ symbol is set in front of a bracket, the bracket can be removed by inverting all signs within the bracket.
Example: -(x + 2y – 3z) = -x – 2y + 3z

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1.2(a).5.2 System of Brackets

More difficult expressions may use many brackets where within these brackets, there are some parts which are also set in
brackets.

Such problems are solved by first solving the most inner one and then step by step from the inner to the outer ones.

Example: Simplify 3x – {2y + [5z - (x + y)] }

Solution : 3x – { 2y + [ 5z – ( x + y ) ] } Remove most inner bracket “( )”

= 3x – { 2y + [ 5z – x – y ] } Remove second inner bracket “[ ]”
= 3x – { 2y + 5z – x – y } Remove outer bracket “{ }”
= 3x – 2y – 5z + x + y Combine like terms.
= 4x – y – 5z

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QUESTIONS: Use of brackets

1. 3x - 9 = 3(x - 3) – (True/False)
2. 4a + 8b = 4a (1 + 2b) – (True/False)
3. ab + abc - abd = ab (1 + c - d) – (True/False)
4. Evaluate 6(x- y) + 4, when x = 5, y = 2
5. 3a - {b + [3c - (2d + 4e)]}
6. ( x + y + z)( x + y + z) =
7. Expand (a+b)(a-b)
8. Expand (a + b)(a - b)
2 2 2
9. 2x z (3x – z )
10. ( a + b )( a – b ) =
( x + z )( x − y)( y − w)
11. Simplify the following
( y − x)(w − y)(w + z)
2 2 2
12. 2x z (3x – z )=
13. (x-3)(x+5) =
2 2 2
14. 2x z (2x -22)=

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1.2(a).6 Simple Algebraic Fractions

Since algebraic expressions contain symbols (or letters) which represent numbers, all the rule of operations with numbers also
apply to algebraic terms, including fractions. Thus
( 11 ) 1 a
a = 1× 1 =a
And
a ÷ c = a × d = ad
b d b c bc
And

(x + y) (x + y) × (x - y) = (x + y) × (x - y) = (x + y)(x - y)
1 ÷ (x - y) = 1 1 1

You should note in the last example how we put brackets round x+y and x−y to remind us that they must be treated as single
expressions, otherwise we may have been tempted to handle the terms x and y on their own.

1.2(a).6.1 Adding & Subtracting Algebraic Fractions

Consider the expression a b + c d which is the addition of two fractional terms. If we wish to express the sum of these fractions as
one single fraction, then we use the same technique as for number fractions. First, find the lowest common denominator. This is
the LCM of b and d which is bd. Each fraction is then expressed with bd as the denominator.

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Example:

a = (a × d ) ad
b (b × d ) = bd
and
c = (c × b) = cb
d (d × b) bd
and adding these new fractions we have:
a + c = ad + cb = (ad + cb)
b d bd bd bd

1.2(a).6.2 Multiplication & Division of Algebraic Fractions

As with ordinary arithmetic fractions, numerators can be multiplied together, as can denominators, in order to form a single
fraction.
Example;
a × c = (a × c) ac
b d (b × d ) = bd
or
3x × p × r 2 = (3x × p × r )
2 2
= 3xpr
2y 4q s 2 y × 4q × s 8 yqs

Factors which are common to both numerator and denominator may be cancelled. It is important to realise that this cancelling
means dividing the numerator and denominator by the same quantity.
Example:
8ab 9mn 2 = (8 × a × b × 9 × n × n × m) 6n
8ab × 4ab 2 (3 × m × n × 4 × a × b × b) = b
5x2y ÷ 10xy 2 = (5x2y) × 4a b 10xy = (5 × x × x × y × 4a × a × b) (8 × a × b × b × b ×10 × x × y) = ax 2
2

8ab 3 4a b 8ab 3 4b

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1.2(b) Linear Function and Their Solutions

1.2(b).1 Linear Equation

An arithmetical quantity has a definite value, such as 93, 3.73 or 34. An algebraic quantity, however, given by algebraic
expressions such as x − (−3) or x2, represents many amounts depending on the value given to x.

1.2(b).1.1 Equations

A statement of the type x − 3 = 5 is called an equation. This means that the quantity on the left-hand side of the equation is equal
to the quantity on the right-hand side. We can see that, unlike an identity, there is only one value of x that will satisfy the equation,
or make the left-hand side equal to the right-hand side. The process of finding x = 8 is called solving the equation, and the value 8
is known as the solution or root of the equation.

1.2(b).1.2 Solving Linear Equations

Linear equations contain only the first power of the unknown quantity.

7t − 5 = 4t + 7

and

5x = (2x + 5)
3 2

are both examples of linear equations.

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In the process of solving an equation the appearances of the equation may be considerable altered but the values on both sides
must remain the same. We must maintain this equality, and hence whatever we do to one side of the equation we must do exactly
the same to the other side. After an equation is solved, the solution should be checked by substituting the result on each side of
the equation separately. If each side of the equation then has the same value, the solution is correct. In the detail which follows,
LHS means left-hand side and RHS means right-hand side.

1.2(b).1.3 Equations Requiring Addition & Subtraction

Example:

Solve the equation x − 4 = 8

If we add 4 to each side, we get
X−4+4=8+4
x = 12

The operation of adding 4 to each side is the same as transferring -4 to the RHS but in so doing the sign is changed from a minus
to a plus.
x−4=8
x=8+4
x = 12

Check: when x = 12, LHS = 12 - 4 = 8, RHS = 8

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1.2(b).1.4 Equations Requiring Multiplication & Division

Example: Solve the equation x/6 = 3

Multiply each side by 6, we get
(x/6)×6 = 3×6
x = 18
Check: when x = 18, LHS = 18/6, RHS = 3

QUESTIONS: Linear function and their solutions

1. In the equation 64y = 64, what is y equal to

y
2. 64 = 64 what is y =
3. 27y = 3 so y equals to:
4. 2x = 4(x-3) evaluate x
5. Solve x in the equation 3(x+2) = 30 + 2(x-4)
2
− −
( 9) 4
6. Calculate X, X = 81 + 2
8 + 12
7. Given 43 – x = 21, find the value of x
8. 2x – 3 = 4; x =
9. In 21 = 43 – X, X is equal to

4X

3X
80
X
10. What is the value of X?

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1.2(b).2 Indices and Power, Negative and Fractional Indices

1.2(b).2.1 Power

When a number is multiplied by itself, it is said to be raised to a given power. For example, 6 x 6 is expressed as 62, 6 x 6 x 6 is
expressed as 63 etc. In this example the number 6 is referred to as the base number and the small numbers 2 an 3 are referred to
as the exponents. If the exponent is a positive number then the base is multiplied by itself as shown above.

Example:
2
3 is read 3 squared or 3 to the power of 2.
3
2 is read 2 cubed or 2 to the power of three.

If the exponent is a negative number then the reciprocal of the number is multiplied by itself.

Example:

2-3 is read 2 to the power of minus 3. This means that the reciprocal of two is multiplied as below.
-3
2 =½ × ½ × ½ = 1/8

If the exponent has no sign then it is assumed to be positive.

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1.2(b).2.2 Roots

The root of a number is the value which, when multiplied by itself a certain number of times, produces that number. For example,
4 is a root of 16 because when multiplied by itself, the product is 16. However, 4 is also a root of 64 because 4 x 4 x 4 = 64. The
symbol used to indicate a root is the radical sign ( x ) placed over the number. If the radical sign appears over a number, it
indicates that you have to extract the square root or second root of the number under the sign. If the radical sign appears with an
index number next to it, this indicates the root which is to be taken. For example 3 64 indicates that the cube root or third root is to
be taken.

So 3 64 = 4 because 4 x 4 x 4 = 64
and 16 = 4 because 4 x 4 = 16

Note that the 2 is generally not used so if the radical sign appears with no number, then it is assumed to be 2 (square root).

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1.2(b).2.3 Indices

1.2(b).2.3.1 Base, Index & Power

The quantity 2×2×2×2 may be written as 24. 24 can be said as the fourth power of the base 2. The number 4, which gives the
number of 2s to be multiplied together is called the index (plural: Indices). Similarly axaxa = a3. Here, a3 is the third power of the
base a, and the index is 3. Thus in this expression,

xn is called the nth power of x

x is called the base, and
n is called the index.

Remember that, in algebra, letters such as a in the above expression merely represent numbers. Hence the laws of arithmetic
apply strictly to algebraic terms as well as numbers. The expression ½ is called the reciprocal of 2. Similarly the expression 1/p is
called the reciprocal of p likewise the expression 1/xn is called the reciprocal of xn

1.2(b).2.3.2 Laws of Indices

1. Multiplication

If powers are multiplied together then we can see the following.

3 4
2 ×2 is equal to (2 x 2 x 2) x (2 x 2 x 2 x 2)
3 4 3+4 7
so 2 ×2 = 2 = 2

Multiplication of powers which have the same base can be simplified by adding the powers together.

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2. Division

If powers are to be divided, it can be seen that 25 /23 is equal to (2x2x2x2x2)/(2x2x2)

This fraction can be reduced to 2 x 2 which is equal to 22

so 25/23 = 25−3 = 22

Division of powers which have the same base can be carried out by subtracting one index from the other.

3. Powers of Powers

If a power is to be itself raised to a power, then we have the following.

(23)4 is equal to 23 x 23 x 23 x 23
or ( 2 x 2 x 2) x ( 2 x 2 x 2) x ( 2 x 2 x 2) x ( 2 x 2 x 2)
3x4 12
or 2 or 2

Raising a power to a power can be achieved by multiplying the indices together

4. Numbers raised to the power of zero or one

The most difficult indices to visualize are x0 and x1.

If we consider (x × x × x × x)/(x × x × x × x) we have a value of 1 as any number divided by itself is 1.
This fraction can also be expressed as x4/x4 or x0. So:

Any number raised to the power of zero equals one

If we consider
1
(x × x × x × x)/(x × x × x) we have a value which is x or x. So,

Any number raised to the power of one is equal to itself.

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1.2(b).2.3.3 Negative Indices

2
If we consider (x × x × x)/(x × x × x × x × x), we have a value of 1/x
3−5 −2
which can be expressed as x or x

If a base is raised to a negative power, the value is equal to the reciprocal of the base raised to a positive power.

1.2(b).2.3.4 Fractional Indices

3
The cube root of 5 (written as 5 ) is the number which, when multiplied by itself three times, gives 5.

3 3 3
5× 5× 5= 5

but we also know that 51/3×51/3×51/3 = 51/3+1/3+1/3 = 5

Comparing these expressions 3

5 = 51/3
Similarly the fourth root of base d (written as 4 d ) is the number which, when multiplied by itself four times, gives d.

4 4 4 4
d× d× d× d=d

But we also know that d1/4×d1/4×d1/4×d1/4 = d1/4+1/4+1/4+1/4 = d

Comparing these expressions 4

d = d1/4

The law is: A fractional index represents a root, the denominator of the index denotes the root to be taken.

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QUESTIONS: Indices and power, negative and fractional indices

( A + B)4
1. is
( A + B)2
(x + y)2
2.
(x + y) 8 has a base and exponent of
2 3 2
3. ( 5 x 5 ) is
4. What is (X2 x X3)3
5. Rewrite the following with a positive index: Z-2 and X-3
6. 67 divided by 127 is equal to
3 5
7. Calculate 10 x 2 + 10 x 2

1.2(b).2.4 Scientific Notation

Many engineering and scientific calculations involve very large or very small numbers. To ease manipulation and decrease the
possibility for error, scientific notation is used. Scientific notation is based on multiplying a number by a power of ten. Therefore,
you must understand how to use exponents.

Positive Powers Negative Powers

of Ten of Ten
100 = 1 10-1 = 0.1
101 = 10 10-2 = 0.01
102 = 100 10-3 = 0.001
103 = 1,000 10-4 = 0.0001
104 = 10,000 10-5 = 0.00001
105 = 100,000 10-6 = 0.000001
6
10 = 1,000,000

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When using scientific notation, multiply the number you want to change by a power of ten equal to the number of places you want
to move the decimal point. The net result does not change the value of the number, only the way it is written.

Example:
6
2,540,000 = 2.54 x 10

As you can see, the decimal point was moved six places; therefore, the resulting number must be multiplied by a power of ten
equal to 1,000,000, which is 106.

If the number you are working with is smaller than 1, and you want to move the decimal point to get a number between 1 and 10,
count the number of places you want to move the decimal point and multiply the number by a power of ten. For example,
0.000004 is equal to 4.0 x 10-6. Since the decimal point has been moved 6 places to the right, you must multiply the number
-6
by 0.000001, which is 10 .
∴0.000004 = 4.0 x 10-6

1.2(b).2.4.1 Multiplying by Scientific Notation

Multiplication of very large or very small numbers is often made easier when using scientific notation. To begin, convert each of
the numbers being multiplied to scientific notation. Once this is done, the product is found by multiplying the numbers and finding
the algebraic sum of the exponents.

Example: Multiply 0.275 x 30,000.0 using scientific notation.

Step 1: Convert to scientific notation.

0.275 = 2.75 X 10-1
4
30,000 = 3.0 x 10

Step 2: Multiply the numbers and add the exponents.

(2.75 x 10-1) x (3.0 x 104) = 8.25 x 103

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1.2(b).2.4.2 Division by Scientific Notation

Division using scientific notation is performed in a manner similar to multiplication. Begin by converting the numbers to their
scientific notation equivalents. Perform the division operation as you normally would, and find the power of ten by subtracting the
exponents.

Example:
Divide 5,280 by 0.25 using scientific notation.

Step 1: Convert to scientific notation.

5,280 = 5.28 X 103
-1
0.25 = 2.5 X 10

Step 2: Divide the numbers and subtract the exponents.

(5.28 X 103) + (2.5 x 10 -1) = 2.112 X 10 4

Remember, when multiplying or dividing using scientific notation, you must calculate the algebraic sum of the exponents. Pay
attention to the signs of the exponents, and observe the rules for adding and subtracting signed numbers.

1.2(b).2.5 Metric Prefixes

Metric is based on the decimal system. Multiples and submultiples of any given unit are always related by powers of 10. For
instance, there are 10 millimetres in one centimetre; 100 centimetres in one meter; and 1000 meters in one kilometre. This greatly
simplifies converting larger to smaller measurements. For example, in order to calculate the numbers of metres in 3.794
kilometres, multiply by 1000 (move the decimal point three places to the right), and the answer is 3794. For comparison, in order
to find the number of inches in 3.794 miles, it is necessary to multiply first by 5280 and then by 12.

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Moreover, multiples and submultiples of all the International Metric units follow a consistent naming scheme, which consist of
attaching a prefix to the unit, whatever it may be. For example, kilo stands for 1000: one kilometre equals 1000 meters, and 1
kilogram equal 1000 grams. Micro is the prefix for one millionth: one metre equals one million micrometers and one gram equals
one million micrograms.

PREFIX MEANS
tera ( 1012 ) One trillion times
giga (109 ) One billion times
mega ( 106 ) One million times
kilo ( 103 ) One thousand times
hector ( 102 ) One hundred times
deca ( 101 ) Ten times

deci ( 10-1 ) One tenth of

centi ( 10-2 ) One hundredth of
mili ( 10-3 ) One thousandth of
micro ( 10-6 ) One millionth of
nano (10-9 ) One billionth of
pico ( 10-12) One trillionth of

QUESTIONS: SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

1. 0.000006 volts can be written as (in mV)

2. 0.004 amperes can be written as (in mA)
3. 200 kilo volts can be expressed as (in scientific notation)
4. 0.0000413 can be written as (in scientific notation)

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1.2(b).3 Binary and Other Applicable Numbering System

1.2(b).3.1 Numbering Systems

Knowledge of numbering systems is fundamental to understand computers and their operation. All numbering systems are
used to count objects or perform mathematical calculations, and each is a set of symbols and characters, commonly referred to as
digits.

1.2(b).3.1.1 Positional Notation

The standard shorthand form of writing numbers is known as positional notation. The value of a particular digit depends not
only on the digit value, but also on the position of the digit within the number. For example, the decimal number 3721 is standard
shorthand form for the quantity three thousand seven hundred twenty-one. Each position has a "value" or "weight". Starting at
the right is the units position, next the tens, then hundreds, and at the left is the thousands position. The digit at the far right is
called the Least Significant Digit (LSD) and the digit at the far left is called the Most Significant Digit (MSD).

1.2(b).3.1.2 Base

Every numbering system has a base which is equal to the number of digits

1.2(b).3.1.3 Decimal Number System

The decimal number system is a base 10 number system (deci means ten). The base of a number system indicates how many
symbols are used in it. For example:
3 represents a quantity of three
5 represents a quantity of five

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The decimal number system is also a positional number system. This means that in a number such as 3721, each position in the
number has a value associated with it. The decimal number 3721:

a. The 1 is in the ones, or units, position and represents one ones or (1 x 1);
b. The 2 is in the tens position and represents two tens or (2 x 10);
c. The 7 is in the hundreds position and represents seven hundred or (7 x 100);
d. The 3 is in the thousand position and represents three thousand or (3 x 1000).
e. The number 3721 is the sum of the values in each position of the number
(3000 + 700 + 20 + 1 = 3721)

103 102 101 100

3 7 2 1
THOUSANDS HUNDREDS TENS UNITS

(3 X 103) + (7 X 102) + (2 X 101) + (1X 100)

= 3000 + 700 + 20 + 1
= 3721

The decimal number system uses 10 symbols

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

Each of the symbols in the number system has a value associated with it.

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1.2(b).3.1.4 Positional Notation for Decimal Number

Weighted
105 104 103 102 101 100 10-1 10-2
Value
Number 6 5 8 9 1 2 3 3

600000 + 50000 + 8000 + 900 + 10 + 2 + 3/10 + 3/100

= 658912.3310

1.2(b).3.2 Binary Number System

The purpose of binary number system is to represent the electronic status of the bits in memory and to address the memory
locations. Binary is a base 2 number system (bi means two). The binary number system uses 2 symbols (0 and 1). Each of the
symbols in the number system has a value associated with it.

Positional Notation for Binary Number

Weighted Value 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Base 10 Value 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Binary Number To Be Converted 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1

Equivalent Base 10 Number 0 0 0 16 0 4 2 1

16 + 4 + 2 + 1
= 2310

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1.2(b).3.3 Hexadecimal Number System

It is difficult for the programmer to understand the 0’s and 1’s of binary code. So the computer uses the hexadecimal system to
communicate with a programmer when a problem with a program exists. The hexadecimal number system uses 16 symbols to
represent values (hex means six, deci means ten).

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

The primary reason why the hexadecimal number system is used with computers is because:
- It can represent binary values in a more compact and readable form.
- The conversion between the binary and the hexadecimal number systems is very efficient.

An eight-digit binary number (a byte), can be represented by a two-digit hexadecimal number.

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Conversion table

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0100 11012 = 4D16

Binary 0100 1101

Positional Value 8421 8421
Decimal 4 13
Hexadecimal 4 D

1.2(b).3.4 Octal Number System

Base 8 number systems.

The octal number system uses 8 symbols

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

3 bit binary count from 000 to 111

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1.2(b).3.5.1 Convert Decimal to Binary

2 23 Remainder 1 (LSD)

2 11 Remainder 1

2 5 Remainder 1

2 2 Remainder 0

2 1 Remainder 1 (MSD)

2310 = 101112

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1.2(b).3.5.2 Convert Binary to Decimal

Weighted
24 23 22 21 20
Value

Base 10
16 8 4 2 1
Value

Binary
Number
1 0 1 1 1
To Be
Converted
Equivalent
Base 10 16 0 4 2 1
Number

101112= (1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (1 x 21) + (1 x 20)

= (1 x 16) + (0 x 8) + (1 x 4) + (1 x 2) + (1 x 1)
= 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 1
= 2310

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1.2(b).3.5.3 Convert Decimal to Octal

8 2386 Remainder 2 (LSD)

8 298 Remainder 2

8 37 Remainder 5

8 4 Remainder 4 (MSD)

238610 = 45228

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1.2(b).3.5.4 Convert Octal to Decimal

Weighted Value 84 83 82 81 80

Base 10 Value 4096 512 64 8 1

Octal Number To Be Converted 0 4 5 2 2

Equivalent Base 10 Number 0 2048 320 16 2

4522 = (0 x 84) + (4 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (2 x 81) + (2 x 80)

= (0 x 4096) + (1 x 512) + (1 x 64) + (1 x 8) + (1 x 1)
= 2048 + 320 + 16 + 2
= 238610

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1.2(b).3.5.5 Convert Binary to Octal

0111000012

011 001
100

3 4 1

3418

0111000012 = 3418

1.2(b).3.5.6 Convert Octal to Binary

2258

2 5
2

010 010 101

0100101018

2258 = 0100101012

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1.2(b).3.5.7 Convert Decimal to Hexadecimal

4325310 = A8F516

16 43253 Remainder 5 (LSD)

16 2703 Remainder 15 (F)

16 168 Remainder 8

16 10 Remainder 10 (A) (MSD)

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1.2(b).3.5.8 Convert Binary to Hexadecimal

10101000111101012

1010 1000 1111 0101

A 8 F 5

A8F516

10101000111101012 = A8F516

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1.2(b).3.5.9 Convert Hexadecimal to Binary

F13A16 = 1111 0001 0011 10102

F13A16

F 1 3 A

1111 0001 0011 1010

11110001001110102

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1.2(b).3.5.10 Convert Decimal to BCD (binary code decimal)

73810 = 0111 0011 10002

7 3 8

0111 0011 1000

1.2(b).3.5.11 Convert BCD to Decimal

1001 0100 01102 = 94610

1001 0100 0110

9 4 6

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QUESTIONS: Binary and other applicable numbering system

1. What is 111100012 in Octal?

2. 100000 in binary is which number in decimal?
3. D in hexadecimal is which number in decimal
4. 101012 + 110012 =
5. What is 738 in binary coded decimal?
6. Octal is to the base of
7. 101110 binary is
8. What is octal 13 in base 10
9. Hexadecimal is base
10. BCD format of numbering system having base of
11. 100112 = decimals

1.2(b).4 Simultaneous Equations and Second Degree Equations with One Unknown

1.2(b).4.1 Linear Systems of Equations of Two Variables

In many practical situations there are problems which involve more than one unknown quantity. In order to solve a problem with
two unknown quantity, it is necessary to write two equations which relate to the unknown quantity. These two equations whose
common solution is sought to form a system of equations. There are different methods to solve such systems of equations for the
two unknown or variables.

Example: The following problem is to be solved: The sum of two numbers is 62.
Their difference is 16. Find the numbers.

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In the first step the verbal problem is to be converted into two mathematical equations. The two unknown numbers are called x
and y. Then the first equation is

x + y = 62 The sum of two numbers is 62.

The second equation is:

x - y = 16 Their difference is 16.

These two equations form a system of equations of two variables.

1.2(b).4.2 Solving Systems of Equations by the Substitution Method

Using the substitution method out of one equation one of the unknowns is determined in dependence on the other one. The result
is inserted in the other equation which then forms an equation with one unknown. This equation is solved and the result inserted in
one of the equations to solve for the second unknown.

Example: Solve the system of equations got from the first example
x + y = 62 (1)
x − y = 16 (2).
Solution:

On both sides of equation (1) the number (--x) is added:

x + y + (− x) = 62 + (− x)
y = 62 −x (3)

Then y in equation (2) is substituted by the left side of equation (3):

x − (62 − x) = 16 (4).

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To both sides of equation (4) the number +62 is added:

2x = 78 (5)

Dividing both sides of equation (5) gives the value of the first unknown:

x = 39 (6)

In order to get the value of the second unknown y the value of the first unknown x is inserted in equation (2):

39 − y = 16 (7)

Then the numbers (-16) and (+y) are added to both sides of equation (7):

39 − 16 =y (8)
y = 23 (9)

The two numbers asked for are 39 and 23.

1.2(b).4.3 Solving Systems of Equations by the Elimination Method

Using the elimination method for solving equations of two variables, it is looked for that by addition or subtraction of a matching
multiple of the second equation with a multiple of the first equation; a new equation is formed which only contains one unknown.
This remaining unknown is determined and then inserted in the first or second equation in order to get the second unknown.

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Example: Solve the following system of equations:

x − y =3 (1)
2x + 2y = 14 (2)

Solution:

In the first step each side of equation (1) is multiplied by the factor -2 , and each side of equation (2) by the factor +1, in order to
eliminate the unknown or variable x when adding both equations:

x−y=3 | (−2)
2x + 2y = 14 | (+1)
−2x + 2y = −6 (3)
2x + 2y = 14 (4)

Then the resulting equations (3) and (4) are added by adding the left sides and the right sides of the equations each.

(− 2x + 2y) + (2x + 2y) = (− 6) + 14

4y =8 (5)

The result of the addition (5) has to be divided by 4 in order to get the value of the unknown y :

4y = 8 |4
y =2 (6)

Then the variable y in equation (1) is replaced by its value to get an equation of only one variable, and then this equation is solved
for the second unknown x:

x−2=3
x =5 (7)

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The last step of each calculation is to prove the results. In this case, the variables in equations (1) and (2) are replaced by their
values:
5 − 2 =3 (8)
(2 × 5) + (2 × 2) = 14 (9).

1.2(b).4.4 Solving Quadratic Equations

A quadratic equation in one variable is any equation that can be written in the form : ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0 (Standard form) where
x is a variable and a, b, and c are constants. The highest exponent or power of the variable in quadratic equation is 2. A solution
of an equation is also called a root of the equation.

Methods usually used to solve Quadratic Equation:

i) By factoring

If ax2 + bx + c can be written as the product of two first-degree factors, then the quadratic equation can be quickly and easily
solved.

Example: Solve by factoring:

a) 6x2 – 19x – 7 = 0
(2x – 7) (3x + 1) = 0
2x – 7 = 0 or 3x + 1 = 0
2x = 7 or 3x = -1
x = 7/2 or x = -1/3
2
b) x – 6x + 5 = -4
x2 – 6x + 9 = 0
(x – 3)2 = 0
x=3
(2 similar roots or double roots)

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2
c) 2x = 3x
2x2 – 3x = 0
x (2x – 3) = 0
x = 0 or 2x – 3 = 0
x = 0 or x = 3/2
ii) Solution by using Formula
−b± b2 − 4ac
The formula to find the unknown or variable x is x = . Given a quadratic equation in the standard form ax2 + bx + c
2a
= 0, then a, b, and c are the coefficients of the terms x2, x1, and x0 respectively. For example, given 5x2 – 4x + 6 = 0, then a is 5, b
is – 4 and c is 6.
2
Example: Solve: 2x + 3x – 4 = 0
2
a = 2, b = 3, c = – 4 (by comparing with ax + bx + c = 0)
2
− 3 ± 3 − 4(2)(−4)
x=
2(2)

− 3 ± 9 + 32
=
4

− 3 ± 41
=
4
− 3 ± 6.40
=
4
− 3 + 6.40 − 3 − 6.40
= or
4 4
= 0.85 or – 2.35

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QUESTIONS: Simultaneous equations and second degree equations with one unknown

1. If x2 – 3 = 6, then x =
2. Solve the following equation to find x
4x + 8y = 64
2x – 8y = 86
3. Determine x in the following: (2x-1)(3x+2)=0
4. y = 2x + 4, when x = -1, y =
12x
5. + 14 = 50 when y=2, solve x
2y
2
6. Factorise the following: 4x – 6x – 28 = 0
2
7. Factorise the following: x – x - 6 = 0
8. 2x – 8y = 14 and 4x + 8y = 16; x =
8. If y x = 4 and y = 5 x =

9. If y = 4 and y = 5 then x =
x

1.2(b).5 Logarithms

A logarithms is an exponent. It is the exponent to which the base must be raised to produce a given number. For example, since
23 = 8 then 3 is called the logarithm of 8 with base 2. 3 = log28. 3 is the exponent to which 2 must be raised to produce 8. We
write the base 2 as a subscript.

Since 104 = 10,000, then log1010,000 = 4. "The logarithm of 10,000 with base 10 is 4.". 4 is the exponent to which the base 10
must be raised to produce 10,000. "104 = 10,000" is called the exponential form. "log1010,000 = 4" is called the logarithmic form.

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Here is the definition:

logbx = n means bn = x.

That base with that exponent produces x.

Example 1 : Write in exponential form : log232 = 5

Answer : 25 = 32

Example 2 : Write in logarithmic form: 4−2 = 1/16

Answer : log4 1/16 = −2

Problem 1 : Which numbers have negative logarithms?

Proper fractions

Example 3 : Evaluate log81.

Answer : 8 to what exponent produces 1? 80 = 1.
log81 = 0.
We can observe that in any base b, the logarithm of 1 is 0.
logb1 = 0
Example 4 : Evaluate log55.
Answer : 5 to what exponent will produce 5? 51 = 5.
log55 = 1.
In any base, the logarithm of the base itself is 1.
logbb = 1

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Example 5 : log22m = ?
Answer : 2 raised to what exponent will produce 2m ? m, obviously.
m
log22 = m.
This is an important formal rule, valid for any base b:
x
logbb = x
This rule embodies the very meaning of a logarithm. x -- on the right -- is the exponent to which the base b must be raised.

Example 6 : Evaluate log3 = 1/9

Answer : 1/9 is equal to 3 with what exponent? 1/9 = 3−2
log3 1/9 = log33−2 = −2

Example 7 : log2 0.25 = ?

Answer : 0.25 = ¼ = 2−2. Therefore,
log2 0.25 = log22−2 = −2

Example 8 : log3 =?
Answer : =3 .
Therefore, log3 = log33 = 1/5

Problem 2 Write each of the following in logarithmic form.

a) bn = x
b) 23 = 8
c) 102 = 100
d) 5−2 = 1/25

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Problem 3 Write each of the following in exponential form.

a) logbx = n
b) log232 = 5
c) 2 = log864
d) log61/36 = −2

Problem 4 Evaluate the following.

a) log216 =
b) log416 =
c) log5125 =
d) log81 =
e) log88 =
f) log101 =

Problem 5 What number is n?

a) log10n = 3
b) 5 = log2n
c) log2n = 0
d) 1 = log10n
e) logn1/16 = −2
f) logn 1/5 = −1
g) log21/32 = n
h) log2 1/2 = n

Problem 6 logbbx =

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Problem 7 Evaluate the following.

a) log9 1/9 =
b) log9 1/81 =
c) log2 1/4 =
d) log2 1/8 =
e) log2 1/16 =
f) log10 0.01 =
g) log10 0.001 =
h) log6 =
i) logb =

The three laws of logarithms

1. logbxy = logbx + logby

"The logarithm of a product is equal to the sum of the logarithms of each factor."

2. logb x/y = logbx − logby

"The logarithm of a quotient is equal to the logarithm of the numerator minus the logarithm of the denominator."

3. logb x n = n logbx

"The logarithm of a power of x is equal to the exponent of that power times the logarithm of x."
5
Example 1 : Use the laws of logarithms to rewrite log x y / z
Answer : According to the first two laws,
5
log x y / z = log x + log − log z5
Now, = y½. Therefore, according to the third law,
5
log x y / z = log x + ½ log y − 5 log z

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Example 2 : Use the laws of logarithms to rewrite log (sin x log x)

Solution : This has the form log ab. a = sin x, b = log x. Therefore,
log (sin x log x) = log sin x+ log log x

Example 3 : Use the laws of logarithms to rewrite log .

Solution
log . = log (x cos x)
= ½ log (x cos x), 3rd Law
= ½ (log x + log cos x), 1st Law

Problem 8 : Use the laws of logarithms to rewrite the following.

log ab/c =
4
log ab²/ c =
log 3 x y /z =
log (sin²x log x) =
log

Common logarithms
The system of common logarithms has 10 as its base. When the base is not indicated: log 100 = 2 then the system of
common logarithms -- base 10 -- is implied. Here are the powers of 10 and their logarithms:

1 1 1
Powers of 10: 1 10 100 1000 10,000
1000 100 10
Logarithms: −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

Logarithms replace a geometric series with an arithmetic series.

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Problem 9
a) log 105 = 5. 10 is the base.
b) log 10n = n
c) log 58 = 1.7634. Therefore, 101.7634 = 58
1.7634 is the common logarithm of 58. When 10 is raised to that exponent, 58 is produced.

Problem 10 : log (log x) = 1. What number is x?

log a = 1, implies a = 10. Therefore, log (log x) = 1 implies log x = 10. Since 10 is the base,
10
x = 10 = 10,000,000,000

Example 4 : Given: log 3 = 0.4771 Evaluate

a) log 3000

Solution: Write 3000 in scientific notation:

log 3000 = log (3 × 103)
3
= log 3 + log 10
= 0.4771 + 3
= 3.4771

b) log .003
−3
Solution: log 0.003 = log (3 × 10 )
−3
= log 3 + log 10
= 0.4771 − 3
= −2.5229

Problem 11 : Given: log 6 = 0.7781 Use the laws of logarithms to evaluate the following.
a) log 600 = log (6 × 102)
= log 6 + log 102
= 0.7781 + 2
= 2.7781

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b) log 60 = log (6 × 10)

= log 6 + log 10
= 0.7781 + 1
= 1.7781
−2
c) log .06 = log (6 × 10 )
−2
= log 6 + log 10
= 0.7781 − 2
= −1.2219

Example 5 : Given: log 2 = 0.3010, log 3 = 0.4771 Evaluate log 18.

Solution. 18 = 2· 3². Therefore,

log 18 = log (2· 3²)
= log 2 + log 3²
= log 2 + 2 log 3
= 0.3010 + 2(.4771)
= 0.3010 + 0.9542
= 1.2552

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Problem 12: Given: log 2 = 0.3010 log 3 = 0.4771 log 5 = 0.6990

Use the laws of logarithms to find the following.
a) log 6 =
b) log 15 =
c) log 4 =
d) log 8 =
e) log 30 =
f) log 300 =
g) log 3000 =
h) log 12 =
i) log 3/5 =
j) log
= k) log
=
l) log =
m) log =
n) log =
o) log 1500 =

QUESTIONS: Logarithms

1. What is log 9 – log 3 + log 4?

2. Given the log of A exceeds that of B by 4, find the correct statement about A and B
a) A is 1000 times the value of B
b) A is 4000 times the value of B
c) A is 10000 times the value of B

3. log 9 – log 3
a) log 3
b) log 6
c) log 9
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1.3 GEOMETRY

1.3(a) Simple Geometrical Constructions

In performing geometrical constructions, the following should be available.

1. A 30cm long ruler with mm and cm scale.

2. Set squares of 90°, 45°, 45°or 90°, 60°, 30°, 15 to 20 cm in size.
3. A protractor with 180°scale – to measure angles.
4. Pencil compasses for radii up to 10cm – to draw circles and arcs of circles.
5. HB pencil, pencil sharpener and eraser.

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1.3(a).1 To Bisect a Line Segment

C

A B

To bisect a line segment means to divide it into two equal parts. The point on a line segment that separates the line segment into
two equal parts is called the midpoint of the line segment.

a. Using a ruler, we first measure the line segment AB.

b. Using a compass, with A and B as centres, draw arcs which cross above and below the segment at C and D. In using the
compass, set it so that the radius is more than half the length of AB.
c. Join C and D. Line CD bisects line segment AB at point E. Observe that CD is also perpendicular to AB. Thus a line like CD,
which both bisects a line segment and is perpendicular to it, is called the perpendicular bisector of the given segment.

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1.3(a).2 To Bisect an Angle

To bisect an angle means to divide it into two equal angles.

a. Use a protractor to measure the given angle. Let it be angle ABC as in the figure shown below.
b. Using a compass: With B as the centre (vertex) and any radius draw an arc cutting side AB at D and side BC at E.
c. With D and E as centres and a radius of more than half the distance from D to E, draw arcs crossing at E.
d. Join BF. This is the line which bisects angle ABC.

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1.3(a).3 To Divide a Given Line into Equal Parts

This is a very accurate method when measurements may be troublesome or inaccurate. No measurements are required. Suppose
AB is to be divided into seven equal parts.

a. Draw any other line AX.

b. Step off seven equal steps at A1,A2 …. A7 using compasses. The length of the step is irrelevant, however the radius from A to
A1 from A1 to A2 up to from A6 to A7 must be similar.
c. Join A7 B.
d. Using set squares, make parallels through each step point to cut AB in the required points.

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1.3(a).4 Construction of Triangles

A triangle contains three sides and three angles. A triangle may be constructed when any of the following combinations of three
parts are known.
• Three sides
• Two sides and an included angle
• Two angles and an included side

1. Given three sides:

Draw one side and use compasses to locate the third vertex by intersecting arcs. Join the vertex with the left and right
endpoints of the side first drawn.

2. Given two sides and the included angle:

Draw one side, construct the angle and then measure off the second side. Join to obtain the triangle.

3. Given two angles and the included side:

Draw the side and measure the angles at each end of the line, calculating the third angle if necessary. Join to obtain the
triangle.

Examples:
(1) Construct a triangle having sides 4cm, 3.5 cm and 3cm.
To construct this triangle, we first use a ruler to lay off a line segment 4cm long. With one of the end points of the line just
drawn as the center and setting a compass so that the radius is 3.5cm, we draw an arc. With the other end points as the
center and a radius of 3cm, we draw an arc crossing the first arc. From this point of intersection, we draw line segments to the
end points of the base line to form the required triangle.

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(2) Construct a triangle having 2 sides that measure 2.8cm and 2.1 cm and the included angle measures 100°. To construct this
triangle we first draw a line segment 2.8cm long. Using the left endpoint as the vertex, we draw an angle of 100°. Along the
ray just draw and measure 2.1cm from the vertex. We then draw a line segment connecting endpoints to form the required
triangle.

(3) Construct a triangle having 2 angles that measure 30° and 90°and the included side measures 3.1cm. To draw this triangle
we first draw a line segment 3.1sm long. Using the left endpoints as the vertex, we draw an angle of 90°. We extend the sides
until they meet to form the required angle.

1.3(a).5 Construction of Regular Polygons

A regular polygon is a polygon that is both equilateral and equiangular. Equilateral means all of polygons sides are of equal
length. Equiangular means all of polygons angles are of equal size. An inscribed polygon in a circle is a polygon whose vertices
are points on the circle. One method to construct regular polygons is based on the geometric fact that equal central angles of a
circle intercept equals arcs and equal chords. A regular polygon constructed in this way is inscribed within a circle.

Therefore to construct a regular polygon, we first draw a circled, followed by the procedure to be explained in the following
examples. Then draw a circle responding number of equal central angles by dividing 360°

Example 1:

Construct a regular pentagon i.e. a polygon having 5 equal sides.

To construct this polygon after constructing a circle, we first determine the measure of each of the 5 equal central angles by
dividing 360° by 5 this measure is 72°. Then we draw 5 central angles each measuring 72°, with its sides or radii intercepting the
circle dividing it into 5 equal arcs. We then draw line segments to connect the points of division to form the regular pentagon.

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Example 2:

Construct a regular octagon i.e. polygon with 8 equal sides.

To construct, first we draw a circle. Then we determine the measure of each of the eight equal central angles by dividing 360° by
8. This measure is 45°. We then draw line segments to connect the points of division to form the regular octagon. We draw eight
central angles each measuring 45°, with its sides or radii interception the circle dividing it into eight equal arcs.

QUESTIONS: Simple geometry construction

1. List all instruments necessary in bisecting a line

2. A protractor is needed to divide a given line segment into equal parts
Answer: True / False
3. Only a protractor is needed to bisect an angle accurately
Answer: True / False
4. A triangle contains 3 sides and 3 angles
Answer: True / False
5. It is necessary to have a protractor in order to draw a triangle with 3 sides given.
Answer: True / False
6. Each of the central angles of a regular pentagon is 50°
Answer: True / False
7. Name the diagram below:

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1.3(b) Graphical Representation

1.3(b).1 Coordinates

Coordinates are numbers which are used to represent a particular point on a graph. Coordinate axes consist of a horizontal line (x
axis) and a vertical line (y axis). The point of intersection of these two lines is called the origin (denoted by the letter “O“).

Along the x and y axes we can mark off units of measurement (not necessarily the same on both axes). The origin takes the value
zero on both axes. The x axis takes positive values to the right of the origin and negative values to the left of the origin. The y axis
takes positive values above the origin and negative values below the origin.

Any point on this diagram can be defined by its coordinates (consisting of two numbers). The first, the x coordinate, defines the
horizontal distance of the point from the y axis, the second, the y coordinate, defines the vertical distance of the point from the x
axis. In general, a point is defined by its coordinates which are written in the form (x, y), the x coordinate always written first. The
coordinates are always written in brackets with a comma between them to avoid confusion.

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Example:

The point (3, 2) may be plotted on the coordinate axes as follows

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1.3(b).2 Nature and Uses of Graph

Graphs and charts are pictorial presentations of equations and formulas. Through their use the relationship between two or more
quantities may be more clearly understood. Also a person can see certain conditions or relationships at a glance, while it would
require considerable time to obtain the same information from a written description. Graphs may be used in a number of ways
such as representing a single equation or formula or they may be used to solve two equations for a common value.

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Graphs and charts take many forms. A few of the more common forms are called bar graphs, pictographs, broken-line graphs,
continuous-curved-line graphs and circle graphs. An example of each graph is shown in figure below. The most of these graphs in
technical work is the continuous-curved-line graph.

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1.3(b).3 Graph of Functions

1. A function shows a relation between two sets.

For examples:
a. Relation between incomes and expenses.
b. Relation between heights and ages.

2. The set which depends on another set is called dependent set (variable). Hence the other set is the independent one.

3. Usually, dependent and independent variables are represented by the literals y and x respectively. Having these literals,
then: y is said to be a function of x or in equation: y = f(x).

4. A plane having x and y axes can be used.

5. Any function having 2 literals or variables can be represented by graphs. Generally, a table is prepared to show the
coordinates of the 2 literals. This is especially for a graph having curvy shape.

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Functional Notation
To symbolise a function of x we write f(x) which is read ‘function of x’ :
- We usually describe function with the literal numbers x and y. With these, it is said y is a function of x or in short y = f(x)
- x is called independent variable and y the dependent variable.

Finding the value of a function :

Example: f (x) = 3x2 – 2x + 5, means that f (x) stands for the actual
function 3x2 – 2x + 5

∴ If we take a particular value of the variable x, say x = 2, then the value of the function f (x) when x = 2 is symbolized as f (2).
∴ f (2) = 3 (2)2 – 2 (2) + 5 = 13

f (2) means that in the function f(x), 2 is substituted for x wherever it occurs and
f (2) gives the actual value of the function.

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1.3(b).3.1 Graphs of equations/functions

Graph of Functions
- Make use of Cartesian Coordinates system.

II I
x

III IV

- ordered pair : (x, y)

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Graphing A Linear Function

Linear Function:
A function f is a linear function if f (x) = mx + b, m ≠ 0 where m and b are real numbers.
∴Graphing a linear function is equivalent to graphing the equation y = mx + b; where m is the gradient / slope m and y intercept b.

Since the expression mx + b represent a real number for all real number replacements of x, the domain of a linear function is the
set of all real numbers. The restriction m # 0 in the definition of a Linear function implies that the graph is not a horizontal line.
∴ The range of a Linear function is also the set of all real numbers.
Graph of f (x) = mx + b, m ≠ 0

f(x)

x
m>0
positive slope

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f(x)

m<0
negative slope

To graph a Linear function:

i) find the y intercept ( if function already in terms of f (x) = mx + b, ∴b = intercept)
ii) find x intercept by equating f (x) = 0, along x – axis, y = 0, ∴ f(x) = 0

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Examples:

i) Find the slope and intercepts, and then sketch the graph of the linear function defined by
a) f (x) = 3x – 9
∴ m = 3, y intercept = -9, x intercept = 3
f(x)
f(x)=3x-9

x
3
-9

1
ii) b) f ( x ) = x+6
2
f(x)

1
f (x) = x+6
2
6
x
-12

∴ m = ½, y intercept = 6, x intercept = -12

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Graphing Quadratic Function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c

Properties of f (x) = ax² + bx + c, a ≠ 0, and its graph.

e) Axis (of symmetry): x =-b/2a
f) Vertex (-b, f(-b/2a)) or turning point.
g) Maximum or minimum value of f (x)
f(-b/2a) = minimum if a > 0
maximum if a < 0

Domain : All real numbers

Range : Determined from graph.

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Example: Plot the graph of f(x) = -x2 –2x - 3

f(x) = -x2 – 2x –3 a = -1, b = -2, c = -3
b −2
Axis of symmetry : x =− =− = −1
2a 2(− 1)

b b
Vertex : − ,f − = (− 1, f (− 1)) = (− 1,−2)
2a 2a

Maximum value of f(x) since a = -1, < 0

To graph the function, locate the axis and vertex; then plot several points on either side of the axis.
X -3 -2 -1 0 1
f(x) -6 -3 -2 -3 -6

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f(x)
2

0 x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

-1

Vertex (-1,-2)
-2

-3

-4

-5

-6

Graph of f(x)=-x2-2x-3

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Example:

Sketch the graph of the function y = x² for the domain of 0 ≤ x ≤ 5 , x = integers.

Solution:

We substitute x = 0, x = 1 up to x = 5 into the function to give the table below:

X 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 0 1 4 9 16 25

Based on the table, the graph of the function is obtained.

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Example:
Sketch the graph of the function y equals 2x squared plus 1 for the following domains of x.

Solution:
To sketch we must first compute the values of x by substituting the values of x into the function y equals 2x squared plus 1.
Starting with x equals 0: when x equals 0, y equals 2 multiplied by 0 squared plus 1. Hence y equals 1. When x equals 1, y
equals 2 multiplied by 1 squared plus 1. Hence y equals 3. Substituting x equals 2,3,4 and 5 into the function, we will get the
respective values of y such as shown in the table. The table then enables us to sketch the graph of the function y equals 2x
squared plus 1. This is done by positioning the computed x and y coordinates in a plane having x and y axes.

X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
X2 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100
Y 3 9 19 33 51 73 99 129 163 201

200

150

100

50

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

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QUESTIONS: Graph of equations/functions

1. What type of equation is y = x2 + 9x + 14?

2. What is commonly referred to as the law of a straight line?
3. The y intercept of 4y = 4x + 8 is
4. What is the slope between the points (3,1) and (9,3)?
5. 2y = 5x + 3. What is the gradient?
6. In the following equation what is the y-intercept
4y = 2x + 8
7. What is the equation of this line?

2
8. How many times does the X axis get crossed when y = x – 3
2
9. ax + bx + c = 0, what type of equation is this?
10. The graph points (9,3) and (3,1) what is the slope?
11. For an equation 2y = 5x + 3, what is the gradient
12. On a graph what is the intercept of y when 4y = x + 8
13. What is the equation of the line shown

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14. Time is an independent variable and thus plotted horizontally

Answer: True / False
15. Distance is a dependent variable and thus plotted vertically.
Answer: True / False
16. If literal y is assigned for Distance and x for time, then y = x.
Answer: True / False
17. Find the value of the function y=2x3 + 4 when x=1 and x=2
Answers:
x= ,y=
x= ,y=

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1.3(c) Simple Trigonometry

θ
B C

The ratio of opposite side length over hypotenuse length is a function with the specific name sine of the angle concerned.
By referring to the above right-angled triangle:
opposite side AC
sin θ = =
hypotenuse AB

Opposite side is the side opposite to a given angle. Hypotenuse is the side opposite to the right angle (usually the longest side
and slanting).

Some other functions of acute angles:

adjacent side BC
cos θ = =
hypotenuse AB
opposite side AC
tan θ = =
adjacent side BC

The value of the sine, cosine and tangent θ for angles between 0° to 90° may be obtained from tables or from a pocket calculator.
Since for this Module calculators can not be used, take sin θ= ½ and θ = 30°. Using the function and with the help of Theorem of
Pythagoras, solve for all the functions.

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Angle sin θ cos θ tan θ

30°
45°
60°

1.3(c).1 Trigonometrical Relationship

General angle is an angle of any size, positive or negative. A positive angle is formed by having an anti clockwise rotation about 0
(the origin). A negative angle is formed by having a clockwise rotation about 0. Ratio of any angle (general angle) is the ratio of
the associated acute angle, which is formed between the final position of OP and its projection on the x-axis.

1.3(c).1.1 Anticlockwise Rotation

i) Ratios of angles formed in the 1st quadrant:

sin θ = y/r (positive : y positive, r positive)
cos θ = x/r (positive : x positive, r positive)
tan θ = y/x (positive : y positive, x positive)
(Refer to figure 1)
y

Figure 1

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Radius, r is always regarded as positive; θ is the acute or basic angle formed between the final position of OP and its projection
on the x – axis.

r
θ
x

Figure 2

ii) Ratios of angle ‘formed in the 2nd quadrant’

sin θ = y/r (positive) = sin θ

cos θ = -x/r (negative) = – cos θ
tan θ = -y/x (negative) = – tan θ
(Refer to figure 2)

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x
θ
r

Figure 3

iii) Ratios of angle ‘formed in the 3rd quadrant`

sin θ = -y/r (negative) = - sin θ

cos θ = -x/r (negative) = -cos θ
tan θ = -y/-x (positive) = + tan θ
(Refer to figure 3)

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x
θ
r

Figure 4

iv) Ratios of angle ‘formed in the 4th quadrant`

sin θ = -y/r (negative)
cos θ = x/r (positive)
tan θ = -y/x (negative)
(refer to figure 4)

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1.3.3.1.2 Clockwise Rotation

There will be similar signs of ratios in each quadrant although the rotation is opposite to the direction shown before.
(i.e. opposite to anticlockwise rotation).
y

x
θ
r

Figure 5

Examples:
sin (-30°) = -sin 30°
cos (- 30°) = + cos 30°
tan (-30°) = - tan 30°
(Refer to figure 5)

Note: (-30°) means negative angle of 30°.

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x
θ
r

Figure 6

The ratios related to (-30°) will be obtained in the fourth quadrant. The signs of the 3 ratios in this quadrant will be similar to the
general angle formed by having an anticlockwise rotation explained before.

Examples:

Find the value of:

a) sin 210°
sin 210° = -sin 30°
=-½
(Refer to figure 6)

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r
θ
x

Figure 7

b) cos (-230°)
cos (-230°) = - cos 50°
= - 0.64
(Refer to figure 7)

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1.3(c).2 Solving Simple Trigonometric Equations

Simple trigonometric equations: when given in terms of sin θ = ± k, cos θ = ± k, where

–1 ≤ ± k ≤ 1 and tan θ = ± k where k is a real number.

Examples:

1. Solve sin θ = 0.5 where 0°≤ θ ≤ 360°

From the table or calculator, sin θ = 0.5 when θ = 30°.

Sin θ is positive in the first and second quadrants.
∴ θ = 30° and 150°

2. Solve sin θ = -0.5

The associated acute angle which gives sin θ = 0.5 is θ = 30°

Sin θ is negative in the third and fourth quadrants.
∴ θ = 210° and 330°

3. Solve sin θ = -0.4417, for 0°≤ θ ≤ 360°

- the associated acute angle where sin θ = -0.4417 is θ = 26° 13′.

- sin θ is negative in the third and fourth quadrants,
∴θ = 206° 13′, 333° 47′

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4. Solve cos 2θ = 0.845, for 0° ≤ θ ≤ 360°

- the associated acute angle for cos 2θ = 0.845 is θ = 32° 20′

- cosine is positive in first and fourth quadrants

2θ = 32° 20′, 327° 40′, 392° 20′, 687° 40′

2θ
∴ θ= = 16° 10′, 163° 50′, 196° 10′, 343° 50′.
2

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QUESTIONS: Simple trigonometry & Trigonometrical relationship

1. Complete the following: sin a =

2. One radian is
3. Two angels of a triangle are 68°and 32°. Therefore the third angle must be
4. Which of the following formulae is correct for the triangle shown?

C
B
θ
A

a) C2 = A2 + B2
b) B2 = C2 +A2
c) A2 = C2 + B2

5. If there are two similar angles in a right triangle, these angels are
6. The three angles of a triangle summed together equal
0
7. In a right-angled triangle the other two angles are both 45 . The length of the opposite side can be calculated by
8. sin θ =

C
A
θ
B
9. Cos A =
10
6
A
8
10. 1660 46’ 47” + 130 13’ 13”

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1.3(c).3 Use of Tables and Rectangular and Polar Coordinates

1.3(c).3.1 Rectangular Coordinates

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Rectangular coordinates refer to the (x,y) coordinates of the point on a graph having x and y axes. The figure below shows the
rectangular coordinates of points A, B, C, D and E respectively

Rectangular coordinates refer to the standard (x,y) – coordinates that we commonly use in plotting graphs.

These coordinates are measured from two reference arcs positioned at right angles. It is conventional practice to call the
horizontal axis ‘x’ and the vertical axis ‘y’. See figure A. Independent variables are plotted on the x-axis and dependent variables
on the y-axis. Having this method, it means every point on graph is represented by certain values of an ordered pair (x,y)
coordinates. The (x,y) –coordinates of the point are called its rectangular coordinates. Figure A shows the rectangular
coordinates of point A, B, C, D and E respectively.

Notice that all the points start with coordinate x first, followed by coordinate y.

Point A is located on x equals 2 and y equals 1.

Point B is located on x equals –1 and y equals 3.
Point C is located on x equals –3 and y equals 0.
Point D is located on x equals –3 and y equals –3.
Point E is located on x equals 1 and y equals –2

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Questions:

Write down the rectangular coordinates of each point of the figure below.

x y
A=( , )
B=( , )
C=( , )
D=( , )
E=( , )

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1.3(c).3.2 Polar Coordinates

Polar Coordinates determine the position of a point in a plane by reference to:

1. A fixed point (the origin).
2. A fixed line from the origin.

Referring to Figure 1:
The point P has polar coordinates (r, θ)
i. r is conventionally taken as positive.
ii. θ is an angle in radians: -π < θ < π, θ is positive when measured anticlockwise and negative when measured clockwise.

Figure 1

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There is a simple relationship between polar and rectangular coordinates:

Figure 2

Referring to Figure 2:
x = r cos θ
y = r sin θ
or r = x 2 + y2 and tan θ = y x
cos θ = x x = r cos θ
r
sin θ = y r y = r sin θ

tan θ = y θ = tan −1 y
x x

r = x 2 + y2 (Pythagoras Theorem)

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QUESTIONS: Use of tables and rectangular and polar coordinates

1. Polar coordinates have (x, y) coordinates.

Answer: True / False
2. Rectangular and polar coordinates both make use of x and y axes.
Answer: True / False
3. θ in the polar coordinates system is in terms of radian.
Answer: True / False
4. Refer to the diagram below and state whether each of the following relationships is true or false

a) x = r, y = True / False
b) r2 = x2 + y2 True / False
c) tan /r = y True / False
d) cos = x / r , thus x = r / cos True / False

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