APPsychology

Unit 1 :
Biological bases of behavior

11
.
:
Interaction of Heredity and Environment

Nature vs . Nurture :

I 1
Nature

Genetics

EnNumen
-

Intrinsic factors

Biological makeup

Epigenetics the effect of nurture nature

(genes
:
on

Identical twins-monozygotic ,
Fraternal
twins-dizygotic twins

Minnesota Twin
study
:

35 of research
years
twins reared apart have similarities
many
Refer "Jim Twins'

Heritability :
the variation
among individuals that we can attribute to
genetics

Intelligence pairs studied

> :
11 , 000

differences factors
62 % of in academic
performance attributed to
genetic
 1 2
.
Overview of the Nervous System

I I I
cosome
Autonomic NS

function
Regulates involuntary
>
-
=

a heart rate ,
blood pressure ,
breathing , digestion
- motor neurons take info
about what/how to move
from the CNS to various
muscles

1
Sympathetic NS
Parasympatheic
num
NS

>
- Rest and digest
>
- Fight or flight response
increases : HR , BP , respiration, calms body
secretion of stress hormones
(cortisol +
epinephrine)
Nervous system
pupil dilation

decreases :
digestion ,
saliva
↑

Peripheral is Central NS

(Brain +
spinal cord)
↓ V

Somatic NS Autonomic NS

v -

Sympathetic NS Parasympathetic NS

(tight
or
flight) Crest and digest
 1 3 .
The Neuron and Neural Firing
Glial Cells
that
>
- Non neural cells
support and protect neurons

>
- produces myelin
>
- send and receive chemical signals to and from each other

and to and from neurons

>
- There are 10 times more glia cells than neurons

I I I
sensory Motor
Relay
neuron
>
- Different for each sense >
- connected to all our muscles

to non-chemical and
>
- Responds >
- React to
voluntary
Stimulation
involuntary signals
>
- sends afferent signals receive
>
- motor neurons

>
- Afferent signals arrive at efferent signals
the brain Efferent exit the
>
-
signals
brain

S A M E sends afferent ; motor receives efferent

* . . .
=

sensory

Neural
Anatomy
MyelinSheath
Dendrites :

>
- Fatty substance
encasing most neurons in

the brain
AXoTerminal
and insulates
Myelin
>
- Myelin protects the axon

Sheath
nucleus
speeds up transmission of nerve

impulses
soma
>
-
Many disorders are linked to problems
Axon in the creation or deterioration of
sheath
myelin

-
> Neurotransmitters cross the synaptic gap and

lock into the dendrite of the postsynaptic

neuron

* DSATs =
dendrite , soma axon ,
terminal button
, synapse
,

↑ order the ACTION POTENTIAL is fired in

Fibe
reused

Biological Recycling system original neuron

=> where the

REABSORBS the neurotransmitters

 1 3
.
The Neuron and Neural Firing
Neural
Firing
fire shift in electrical action potential
there is
creating
when >
-
Neurons energy an
·
a

·
When the action potential reaches the terminal buttons , neurotransmitters are released
into the
synapse
·
Neurotransmitters lock into dendrites of next neuron

·
some neurotransmitters are
excitatory ,
others are
inhibitory
to fire
* Action potential =

Excitatory
: makes the next neurone more likely electrical impulse
less to fire
Inhibitory
: makes the next neurone
likely

Resting potential : -

70 millivolts >
- polarized
positive outside
threshold
Firing :

All or none law :

Once at threshold , the neuron will fire ,
AND it will fire at same intensity every time

Action potential :
An electrical impulse that travels down the axon

This change in
electricity creates a
positive electrical
charge ( + 30 millivolts) inside the

neuron . This is called depolarization

Refractory period : A brief period where the neuron can't fire

again
Reuptake The
sending neuron recollects neurotransmitters.
:
 1 3 .
The Neuron and Neural Firing

I I I
Glutamate GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid)
Neurotransmitters
>
-
most abundant EXCITATORY -
most abundant INHIBITORY
neurotransmitter neurotransmitter

Acetylcholine (ACh) :
> Enhances learning and memory
>
- Associated with various
>
-
Found in CNS and PNS by strengthening synaptic disorders
anxiety-related
connections
>
- ALL MOVEMENT involves Ach

>
- Involved in
learning -
memory

>
-
Alzheimer's disease =
diminishing Ach
functioning

Dopamine :

>
-
Linked anticipation of pleasurable activities
rewarding
to +

attention and
>
- Involved in movement , learning
>
- Parkinson's lack of dopamine

>
-
Schizophrenia ~excess dopamine

Endorphins :

>
-
Body's natural painkiller -

involved in
pain reduction + reward

>
- can be stimulated
by intense exercise e euphoric feelings

Epinephrine (Adrenaline) :

>
-
Neurotransmitter AND hormone boost energy
a >
-

primary 'flight fight'

>
-
chemical in or
response

Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline) :

(heightened sensitivity surroundings)

>
-
Arousal ,
alertness , vigilance to

Heavily
>
-
involved in sleep cycle
>
- Low levels associated with depression

serotonin :

in
>
-
Significant role mood
, appetite, sleep , and dreams

>
-
Low levels - depression
 1 3 .
The Neuron and Neural Firing
Agonist and
Antagonist Drugs
Psychoactive drugs have direct impact
>
- more neuvotransmitters the
at
a on one or
synapse
>
-
Agonists or Antagonists based on influence on neural transmission

Agonists
- enhance action of neurotransmitters

1 Direct mimic neurotransmitters and bind with the receptor of next

.

agonists neurone

Indirect of neurotransmitter > inhibitors

.
2
agonists can block reuptake reuptake
-

Direct Agonists
Ex : Heroin is an
agonist for endorphins

It mimics ; the receptor site cannot distinguish between an endorphin and the heroin.

Ex : Nicotine is an
agonist for Ach (acetylcholine
Stimulates Skeletal muscles and HR

Reuptake Inhibitors (Indirect Agonists)

>
- Blocks the
reuptake channel

Ex :
Prozac inhibits the reuptake of serotonin >
- floods the synapse with serotonin

Decreasing symptoms of depression/anxiety

EX : Cocaine inhibits the reuptake of dopamine e floods the
synapse with dopamine

Antagonists >
- inhibits the actions of neurotransmitters in various
ways
>
-
Bind to a
receptor but do not stimulate it

EX :
Botox is an
antagonist for ACh
(acetylcholine)
↑ Blocks Ach from affected
reaching receptors -> muscles cannot move

EX :
Thorazine (an early drug for schizophrenia) is an
antagonist for dopamine

dopamine
-
Blocks receptors , thereby blocking the transmission of dopamine

Blood Brain Barrier-

:

A barrier allowing chemicals pass from blood brain other chemicals

>
-
some to to but prevents
->
All chemicals mentioned below can enter the blood-brain barrier
 1 3 .
The Neuron and Neural Firing
Psychoactive Drugs (Most) :

>
- states
Alter mental

producing
>
-
Activate domaine -

neurons

>
-
Associated with reward
greater
>
-
Many drugs create tolerance :
needing increasing amounts for original effect
>
-
Many drugs create
physical dependence with repeated use,
person may need
:
a to
keep

administering the
drug to
prevent withdrawal symptoms

Depressants :

Categories of Psychoactive Drugs

:

> Slow or
- inhibit [NS functions Stimulants
Depressants
· ·

>
-
Create drowsiness/sedation/sleep-relieve anxiety ·

Opioids
·

Hallucinogens/Psyedelics
>
-
combining depressants >
-
deadly
EX : Alcohol

Agonist for GABA Stimulants :

Lessens inhibitions
by depressing
>
-
Activate sympathetic NS

judgement + self-control >

-
& brain activity ,
arouse behavior , mental alertness

Ex : Caffeine (most widely used in the world)

Opioids :
=
promotes wakefulness , faster thought processes
>
-
Agonist for endorphins Antagonist for adenosine -

blocks sleep

powerful
>
-
Incredibly addictive - addictive
physically withdrawal symptoms
+ +

withdrawal symptoms EX : Cocaine

EX : Heroin , Oxycodone , tentanyl Dopamine agonist Creuptake inhibitor

-
Intense ↑ alertness confidence
euphoria , +

Hallucinogens (Psychedelics)
: -
Crash after high dissipates
>
-
sensory and perception distortion

>
-
Research for use in therapy in experimental phase
EX THC (active
:
ingredient in weed)
-
mid hallucinogen
relaxation
dreamy state of ,
mild
euphoria
-
Interferes with muscle coordination , learning , memory ,
overall
cognitive function

various therapeutic uses

 1. 4 The Brain

Hindbrain : Medulla Hindbrain Pons :

Hindbrain : Cerebellum
Basic autonomic functions :
Functions : Functions

HR brainster and cerebellum· Balance and equilibrium

Br
breathing
·
·

, , connects

Reflexes Coordinated sequences

·
:
coordinates movements between
·

of of movement
swallowing sides
body
·

both the

plays sleep functions implicit

· ·

sneeking memory
·

a role in
mmmmmm

vomiting without
thought
·

concious

Hindbrain : Reticular
Activating System (RAS) :

A network of nerve fibres involved in attention ,

arousal , and alertness

midbrain :

Nerve
system connecting higher and lower
portions of the brain
·

Relays info between the brain and the

eyes
·

midbrain

cerebellum
 1. 4 The Brain
Limbic System
Forebrain
J
specific of
and a set structures
greatly involved in
limbic system
emotion , motivation learning
, ,
memory

structures Hypothalamus Amygdala

·
Thalamus Function :
Functions :

Fight Flight Anger

·
·
or
Hypothalamus
·

Feeding Aggression
· ·

Amygdala
·

·
Fornication ·
Afraid (fear responses)
Hippocampus
·

>
- Also helps ingrain highly emotional memories

inalamus
·

sensory switchboard Hippocampus

·

Receives and sorts sensory information Functions :

·
converts short term to
long term
memory
then sends it to the cortex for
interpretation
Involved processing retrieving
·

in +
smell only sensory exception
·
is the

declarative (fact +
event) memory

spatial relationship memories

·

Dysfunction :

Alzheimer's and anterograde amnesia

·

#
 1. 4 The Brain
The brain consists of 2 hemispheres ,
each containing ↑ lobes

Left Hemisphere :
F P 0 7
. . .

Frontal Lobe
Prefrontal Correy
·
Involved in
highest-level cognitive function

Thinking , planning ,
decision making , impulse control

undergoes massive reorganization from 18-25 yo

·

Motor cortex
hemisphere is mostly mirror
*
Right a ·

initiating voluntary movement

Contralateral movement right side of body

·
-
LH controls on

Parietal Lobe ·

Body areas that make diverse and precise

Somatosensory cortex movements

get more tissue on this strip in the

sense of
·

touch brain

Contralateral
·

Body
·
areas that are more sensitive have

more tissue devoted to them on this strip

Temporal Lobe
occipital Lobe

Primary Visual cortex Primary Auditory Cortex

Bulk
auditory perception
·
·
Bulk visual perception

Auditory Association Cortex

Left Cerebral Cortex Auditory recognition

·

with known sounds

Associating
·

lateralised
language is almost
·

exclusively to the left side

for most people .

 1. 4 The Brain
Right vs Left Hemispheres of the Brain :

Split Brain Procedure corpus callosum

>
- sever callosum >
- bundle of
the corpus huge nerves
connecting
>
-
Done to relieve life
threatening epilepsy the 2 hemispheres
>
-
Allows constant communication bu

2 hemispheres
Effects of Split Brain Procedure
>
-
when patients were showed images in

right visual field (RVF) they were able to .

identify
>
-
left visual field
However ,
images in the were

unrecognizable. could
they see
something there

but
they couldn't identify .
it

>
-
Moreover asked draw
,
when to the
image in

LVF with their

finger ,
they drew successfully.

due
>
-
Primarily to brain lateralization

Brain Lateralization
* Some things are lateralized to the left hemisphere and

others are lateralized to the

right.
>
- For most functions lateralized to the left hemisphere
, language are

Broca's Area
* Cortical involved in
area expressive speech
>
- When images are flashed to the LVF , to the right hemisphere but
it
goes ,

that into can't travel across to

get to Broca's area

Other Findings
- The ability faces
to
recognize is
primarily lateralized as a
right
hemisphere function

Why did you

>
-
stand up when
seeing a command on LVF

>
-
patient made up an excuse

?
Gazzinga left 'interpreter
>
-
Why argues the hemisphere is the
 1. 4 The Brain

* The
Neuroplasticity
brain's ability to
change and adapt by reorganizing neural networks in response to

learning , experiences or
injuries.

Neurogenesis
>
-
The creation of new cells

>
-
Exercise increases neurogenesis ; social isolation decreases
neurogenesis

Structural Plasticity
Long term potentiation (LTP)
>
-
When a network of neurons fire together repeatedly that neural
,

pathway becomes smootherI more efficient

·

Changes
>
-
in
physical structure

>
- of
LTP represent
may the
biological bases
learning

oc

Functional Plasticity
What happens when you remove half a brain

Ccase miller
study Jody
:

3 removed
At had
right hemisphere
-
her
age
>
- Within weeks her left hemisphere compensated
*
Example of functional
plasticity :

The brain can shift functions from damaged to

undamaged areas
 1. 4 The Brain
Brain scans

I I I
Structure Function

·
fMRI ·
EEG
·
fMRI

EEG
(Electroencephalograph)
>
- Measures electrical activity coming off the surface of the brain

>
- Can be used to identify issues such as
epilepsy
or
sleep disorders

fMRI (Functional
Magnetic Resonance
Imaging
>
- shows both structure and function

>
-
Measures
changes in
oxygen levels as brain areas activate/deactivate

-Activated areas light up

cerebellum

Oj
Pons

Medulla
 1 5 .
Sleep
>
-
sleep in
we
cycles
>
-
each laste 90-120
cycle minutes

>
-
there 4 of 1 NREMI
are
stages sleep : .

2 . NREM2

3 .
NREM 3
NREM
4 . REM
NREM
2

* At first , we transition down deeper

to stages
brain and become
where our
body less

responsive to stimuli

* Later transition
in each cycle , we back up to more
internally active
stages

I
>
-
REM sleep =
dream sleep
paradoxical sleep
so
your large muscles are
paralyzed

>
-
NREM3 shorter with REM with
get each cycle , gets longer each cycle

I I I
REM (Stage 4) NREM (Stages 1-3)

Increases in >
- Decreases
>
-
length throughout in
length throughout the
the night night
>
- Vivid -
dreaming Vague, partial images & stories

-
Nightmares >
-
Night terrors (NREM3)
>
-
talking (NREM 3)
>
Paralyzed body sleepwalking &

>
- Essential part of sleep for the mind >
- Essential part of sleep for the body