CHAPTER 2 SENTENCE TYPES AND DIRECT- INDIRECT,

ACTIVE-PASSIVE SPEECH

GRAMMAR
I am I was I do I did
You are You were You do You did
We are We were We do We did
He is He was He does He did
She is She was She does She did
It is It was It does It did
They are They were They do They did

I have I had I go I went

You have You had You go You went
We have We had We go We went
He has He had He goes He went
She has She had She goes She went
It has It had It goes It went
They have They had They go They went

TENSES

Present Past Future

Simple Present Simple Past Simple Future

Present Past Continuous Future
Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
Present perfect Future Perfect
Present Perfect Future Perfect
Continuous Continuous
(Rarely used)
Note: S= Subject, V1= Present tense, V2= Past tense, V3= Past participle,
V4= Present participle

 Present Tense

Simple Present Present Continuous

S+V S + am/ is/ are + V1 +ing
I speak I am speaking
You speak You are speaking
We speak We are speaking
He speaks He is speaking
She speaks She is speaking
It speaks It is speaking
They speak They are speaking

Present perfect Present perfect

continuous
S + have/has +V3 S+have/has +been+V1 +ing
I have spoken I have been speaking
You have spoken You have been speaking
We have spoken We have been speaking
He has spoken He has been speaking
She has spoken She has been speaking
It has spoken It has been speaking
They have spoken They have been speaking
 Past Tense

Simple past Past continuous

S + V2 S + was/were + V1 + ing
I spoke I was speaking
You spoke You were speaking
We spoke We were speaking
He spoke He was speaking
She spoke She was speaking
It spoke It was speaking
They spoke They were speaking

Past perfect Past perfect continuous

S + had + V3 S + had + been + V1 + ing
I had spoken I had been speaking
You had spoken You had been speaking
We had spoken We had been speaking
He had spoken He had been speaking
She had spoken She had been speaking
It had spoken It had been speaking
They had spoken They had been speaking
 Future Tense

Simple Future Future Continuous

S +shall/will + V1 S +shall/will +be + V1 +ing
I shall speak I shall be speaking
You will speak You will be speaking
We shall/will speak We shall/will be speaking
He will speak He will be speaking
She will speak She will be speaking
It will speak It will be speaking
They will speak They will be speaking

Future Perfect Future perfect continuous

S +shall/will+ have + V3S + shall/will + have+ been
+ V1 +ing
I shall have spoken I shall have been speaking
You will have spoken You will have been
speaking
We will/shall have spoken We shall/will have been
speaking
He will have spoken He will have been
speaking
She will have spoken She will have been
speaking
It will have spoken It will have been speaking
They will have spoken They will have been
speaking
Sentence types
Terms:
1. Syntax-The arrangement of words and phrases to create a well formed
sentence in a language.
2. Morphology- The study of the forms of things in a particular form, shape or
structure.
3. Semantics- The branch of linguistics (language) and logic concerned with the
meaning.
4. Phonology- The science of speech sound, including especially the history and
theory of sound changes in a language or in two or more related languages.
5. Pragmatics- The branch of linguistics (languages) dealing with language in use
and the context in which it is used.
Phrase, Clause and Sentence
 Are the three structural units that create meaning in language.
 They are made of groups of words with meaning.

I. Phrase- It is a group of words that make sense, but not complete sense.
- It cannot stand on its own.
- Can be used as a part of a sentence.
E.g. - 1. Towards the river.
2. in the east.
3. in the morning.
4. A red dress.
 II. Clause-
- A group of words which contain a subject and a predicate is called a
clause.
- A clause can make complete sense on its own or may form a part of a
sentence.

Clause

Subordinate
Main Clause
Clause

A. Main or Independent clause:

A main clause has a subject and predicate and can stand on its own as a
complete sentence.
e.g. 1. She has a dress of silk.
2. John lives in Dubai.

B. Subordinate or dependent clause:

A subordinate clause also consists of a subject and predicate but does not
make complete sense on its own. It is dependent on the main cause for the
reader to understand it fully.
e.g. 1. She has a dress which is made of silk.
2. This is the house where I lived.

Sentence: A sentence is a group of words that make complete sense. It contains a

subject and predicate. It maybe a statement, question, exclamation or command
and contains of a main clause and sometimes one or more subordinate clauses. It
always begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop.
 A finite verb is an essential component of a sentence.
E.g. 1. Vicky likes apples.
2. Vicky likes sweet apples.
3. Vicky likes sweet apples that are organic.
4. Vicky likes sweet apples that are organic and very fresh.

Sentence
(Primary structure)

Subject Predicate

 Main parts of a Sentence

1. Subject, 2.Predicate, 3.Direct object, 4.Indirect object, 5.Object of the
preposition, 6.Verbs, 7.Phrases, 8.Complements.
1. Subject: The subject is the person or thing about which something is stated.
E.g. Tom plays a piano

2. Predicate: Predicate is the part of a sentence that tells us something about the
subject. E.g. a. Rani works in Mumbai.
b. Rakesh reached late.
c. The children were playing on the ground.
d. The weather in Manali is cool and pleasant.
 Note: 1. the subject of a sentence comes first but occasionally it is put after
the predicate.
e.g., a. yesterday saw I a ship.
b. Song a sing now.
2. In an Imperative sentence the subject is left out (omitted).
e.g. a. Get out. (The subject ‘You’ is understood)
b. Keep quiet.

3. Direct object:
 A direct object is a person or a thing that is affected by the action (verb) of
the subject.
 The direct object ‘receives’ the action (verb) of the subject.
 It follows the verb and answers the question ‘what?’
 Example- 1. Raja hit the dog. (direct object)
2. Rani wrote the letter. (direct object)
3. My mother has made a pizza. (direct object)

4. Indirect object:
 The indirect object is a person or thing that the action is done to or for.
 The indirect object usually comes just before the direct object and can be
called the receiver of the direct object.
 It directly follows the verb and answers the question ‘whom?’

Structure:-
S +V +Indirect object +Direct object +_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
E.g.1. Mother made Ruhi pizza for dinner. (Ruhi - Ind. O, Pizza – D. O)
2. Seema gave her a doll on her birthday. (Her- Ind. O, Doll- D. O)
3. John is writing her a letter. (Her- Ind. O, Letter- D. O)
 5. The object of the preposition:
 Is a noun or pronoun that completes its meaning.
E.g. the boy is looking at _ _ _ _ _ _ _
(It is an incomplete sentence)
 We don't know what the boy is looking at
 Complete sentence: The boy is looking at the sky.
(The sky is the object of the preposition ‘at’)
 I am speaking to _ _ _ _ _ _ _
 (It is an incomplete sentence)
Complete sentence: I am speaking to Roma.
(Roma is the object of the preposition ‘to’)

6. Verb:
 Verb is an action word.
 It describes an action or occurrence or indicates a state.
 In every sentence the most important word is the verb.

There are various types of verbs according to their function in the structure of the
sentence.

Verb

Finite verb Non-finite verb

Finite verb
 A finite verb is limited by its subject.
 It agrees with the subject in the number and person.
 It also changes according to the tense of the sentence.
 It forms the main clause.
E.g. 1. I am a boy.
2. We are students.
3. He is a teacher.
4. You are a teacher.
5. She is a teacher.
6. He goes to gym everyday.
7. They go to the garden every Sunday.

Non-finite verb
 A non-finite verb is a form of the verb that does not change according to
the person, number or tense of the sentence.
 It cannot stand alone as the main verb in a sentence.

Kinds of non-
finite verb

Infinitive ( to +
Participle Gerund
verb)

Present
Past Participle
Participle

V + d/ed/ent
V + ing (V4)
(V3)
 Infinitive: (to +verb) It is a form of the verb generally like a noun. The word
to is frequently used with an Infinitive.
E.g., 1. To err is human.
2. To forgive is divine.
3. Raju loves to play.
4. I like to paint.

 Gerund: A Gerund is a form of words which ends in ‘ing’ and has the
feature of a noun or a verb.
- A Gerund is used as a subject of a sentence.
e.g., Running is very good to keep you fit.
- Gerund is used after some verb.
e.g., Enjoy eating
Mind blowing
Risk-taking
she enjoys singing old songs.
- Gerund is used after some preposition.
e.g., thank you for giving me another opportunity.
(for- preposition, giving- gerund)
- Gerund is used after some expression.
e.g., give up smoking.
carry on writing.
look forward to achieving good results.
you should give up smoking.
Swimming is fun.
act as a subject of a sentence therefore – Gerund.
Going to parties is fun.
act as a subject of a sentence therefore – Gerund.
They enjoy reading story books.
gerund comes after a verb.
Difference:

Participle Gerund
Acts as an adjective. Acts as a noun.
E.g., The swimming toddler wears E.g., Since Francisco was 5 years old,
floaters on his arms. Swimming has been his Passion.
Swimming - Adjective Swimming - Noun

 Participle: (present, past) is that form of verb which has the nature of both
-a verb and an adjective.
1. Present participle - (V4) V+ ing
e.g., Work + ing = working.
2. Past participle – (V3) ends in ed, d, t and en.
e.g., walk – walked
burn – burnt
bake – baked
eat – eaten.
e.g., (a). He sat on a broken chair.
(V3) (V4)
(b). I met a boy crying on the road.
(V3) (V4)
(c). Can you catch the swimming fish?
(Participle)
The singing bird was the center of attraction.
(Participle)
Exercise I: Underline the phrase: -

1. The sun rises in the east.

Ans. The sun rises in the east.

2. Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall.

Ans. Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall.

3. It was a sunset of a great beauty.

Ans. It was a sunset of a great beauty.

4. Show me how to do it.

Ans. Show me how to do it.

5. There came a giant to my door.

Ans. There came a giant to my door.
Exercise II: Underline main clause and the subordinate clause: -

1. I think that you have made a mistake.

Ans. Main Clause- I think
Subordinate Clause- that you have made a mistake.

2. We cannot start while it is raining.

Ans. Main Clause- We cannot start
Subordinate Clause- while it is raining.

3. Women were taught how they could apply for bank loans.
Ans. Main Clause- Women were taught
Subordinate Clause- how they could apply for bank loans.

4. We need to realize that we are imperfect human beings.

Ans. Main Clause- We need to realize
Subordinate Clause- that we are imperfect human beings.

5. The geologist is a person who studies rocks.

Ans. Main Clause- The geologist is a person
Subordinate Clause- who studies rocks.
Exercise III: Underline the subject and the predicate: -

1. The boy stood on the burning rock.

Ans. The boy stood on the burning rock.
(subject) (predicate)
2. Singing of the birds delight us.
Ans. Singing of the birds delight us.
(subject) (predicate)

3. The Earth revolves around the sun.

Ans. The Earth revolves around the sun.
(subject) (predicate)

4. Nature is the best physician.

Ans. Nature is the best physician.
(subject) (predicate)

5. Borrowed garments never fit well.

Ans. Borrowed garments never fit well.
(subject) (predicate)
Exercise III: Underline the verb and state its type: -

1. birds love to sing.

Ans. birds love to sing. (infinitive)

2. To respect your parents is our duty.

Ans. To respect your parents is our duty. (infinitive)

3. Loudly knocking at the door, he demanded admission.

Ans. Loudly knocking at the door he demanded admission.
(Present participle - V+ ing)

4. The child thinking all was safe attempted to cross the road.
Ans. The child thinking all was safe attempted to cross the road.
(Thinking- Present participle, attempted- Past participle, to cross- infinitive)

5. Hearing the noise, he woke up.

Ans. Hearing the noise he woke up.
(Gerund- used as a subject)

6. Blinded by dust storm they fell into disorder.

Ans. Blinded by dust storm they fell into disorder.
(Blinded- Past participle- ed)

7. We saw a few trees laden with fruits.

Ans. We saw a few trees laden with fruits.
(Past participle - ed)

8. Time mis-spent is time lost.

 Ans. Time mis-spent is time lost.
(Past participle- t)

9. Hunting tigers is a favorite spot in this country.

Ans. Hunting tiger is a favorite sport in this country. (Gerund)

10. I like reading poetry.

Ans. I like reading poetry.
(Gerund- comes after verb)

11. Teach me swimming.

Ans. Teach me swimming.
(Gerund- object)

12. Seeing is believing.

Ans. Seeing is believing. (Gerund)

13.He was found fighting desperately for his life.

Ans. He was found fighting desperately for his life.
(found- past participle, fighting- gerund)

14. Hearing the noise, he ran to the window.

Ans. Hearing the noise, he ran to the window.
(hearing- Gerund)
 Chapter 2. SENTENCE TYPES
ACTIVE-PASSIVE
VOICE DIRECT-INDIRECT SPEECH

Auxiliaries (Two kinds)

Auxillaries

auxillary modal
verb auxillary

Primary verb
(helping verb) can,could,may,
might.will,
would,must,
need,
dare,ought-
to,have to,
used to

*Auxiliaries are of two kinds: -

[A] Auxiliary verbs: These are the helping verbs.
They are primary verbs.
(a) be form: am, is, was, are, were, being, been.
(b) have form: have, has, had.
(c) do form: do, does, did.

* When used with ordinary verbs to make tenses,

passive forms and negative are called auxiliaries or
helping verbs.
e.g.1. He is working on a project.
2. The gate was opened by the postman.

Modal Auxiliary: - They are used before ordinary

verbs and express meanings such as permission,
possibilities, certainty, necessity, ability, assumption,
inability, duty, wish, habitual action, request, courage,
lack of courage….
Examples:
1. Can/ Could: ability, grant permission.
2. May/ might: possibility, grant permission.
3. Shall: future action, command, compulsion,
permission, request.
4. Will: action in future, promise, determination,
intention, willingness.
 5. Should: duty, obligation, advise, condition,
approval.
6. Would: wish, refusal, determination, habitual
action, polite request.
7. Must: compulsion, indicate duty, determination,
strong obligation.
8. Need: necessity.
9. Dare: courage.
10. Ought to: duty, moral obligation.
11. Have to: indicate obligation.
12. Used to: past habit now discontinued.

Exercise: -
1. He can draw and paint very well. (ability)
2. Even as a child he could dance well. (past ability
or ability in the past)
3. You can use my phone. (grant permission)
4. May I use your calculator? (request, ask
permission)
5. We may go out this weekend. (possibility)
6. You might leave now. (permission)
7. It might rain today. (possibility)
8. May God bless you. (wish)
9. I shall show you the album tomorrow. (action in
future)
10. You shall not steal. (command, advise,
suggestion)
11. Members shall pay their fees by the end of
the week. (compulsion)
12. Shall I open the box? (permission, request)
13. I will do as I like. (determination)
14. Rajesh will buy a new bike. (action in future)
15. I will not repeat this mistake. (promise)
16. He will solve all your problems. (willingness)
17. Will he sing at the concert? (wish, intention)
18. You should come to college in uniform.
(duty, obligation)
19. You should not laugh at her mistake.
(advise)
20. Should you need help, do call us. (express
condition)
21. I should like to thank you for the compliment.
(approval)
22. The principal would like to see the students
project. (wish)
23. The engine would not start. (refusal)
24. He would have his own way. (determination)
25. He would go out for a walk every evening.
(habitual action)
26. Would you like some iced tea? (polite
request)
27. We must keep our promises. (compulsion)
28. I must have my money back. (firm
determination)
29. A judge must be upright and impartial. (duty)
 30. They must have missed the train. (strong
probability)
31. You need not worry about the tickets. (no
necessity)
32. He dare not oppose us. (lack of courage)
33. You ought to respect your teachers. (moral
obligation)
34. I have to go to church. (obligation)
35. He will eat pizza tonight. (determination)

*Transitive Verbs: -
Transitive verbs are action verbs that always express
doable activities. These verbs always have direct
objects.
Meaning: someone or something receives the action
of the verb.
Examples:
1. Mihir spoke the truth. (object)
2. The driver stopped the car. (object)
3. The donkey kicked the washerman. (object)

* Intransitive verbs: -
It denotes an action that doesn’t pass over to an
object. It may be a state or being.
Examples:
1. He ran long distance. (action)
2. The baby sleeps twelve hours a day. (state)
3. There is a flow in the design. (being)

*Phrases: -
 Phrases are groups of related words that make
sense but not complete sense.
 They may not have subject or a predicate or both
and that act as a single part of speech.
 There are several types of phrases:

Phrases

prepositonal noun Verb

phrases phrases phrases

* 1. Prepositional phrase:
Prepositional phrase is a group of words that begin
with a preposition and are generally followed by a
noun or a pronoun or anything that acts as a noun, a
gerund.
Examples:
 1. She gave the look to him. (prepositional pronoun)
2. My car is stuck in the pothole.
3. My mother prepares food for the entire family.

Prepositional phrases are almost used as adjectives

or adverbs.
- If the phrase is being used as adjective it comes
after the noun or pronoun it is describing.
e.g. The beautiful fountain is a part of the shopping
complex.
[of -the preposition, shopping complex – noun and is
the object of the preposition. The phrase describes
the word ‘part’]

* In the prepositional phrase, the objective case of a

pronoun is used.
e.g. me, her, him, us, them, you.
‘you’ is the same in the subjective and objective case.

Nominative case Accusative case

(subjective case) (objective case)
I Me
You You
We Us
He Him
She Her
They Them
It it

*Noun phrase:
 A phrase that does the function of a noun is a
noun phrase.
 Noun phrases are composed of a noun or
pronoun and its modifiers. (describes another
word). They are used as subjects, objects or
compliments.
Examples:
1. The strange, creaking sound scared the inmates
in the house. (Noun phrase as subject)
2. Sarita eats a lot of food at lunch. (Noun phrase
as object)
3. The beach is a great place for picnic. (Noun
phrase as compliment)

*Verb Phrase:
 A verb phrase consists of a main verb and one
or more helping verbs, linked together.
 They serve as the predicate of a sentence or
clause. The verb phrase defines the different
times of action.
Examples:
1. Shyam has eaten a chocolate. (present perfect)
2. Shyam was eating a chocolate. (past continuous)
3. Shyam has already eaten a chocolate. (action
completed).
4. Shyam must have been eating a chocolate.
(assumption)
The pattern for a verb can be as long as this.
Auxillary verb/ modal verb + auxillary verb +
auxillary verb + main verb.
*Compliments:
 A word or word-group that completes the
meaning of a subject, an object or a verb is
called complement.
 Subject Compliment: follows a verb and
modifies or refers to the subject.
 It may be a noun or an adjective.
 Kamla is pretty. (the adjective pretty is a
subject compliment).
It describes the subject Kamla.
 Ms. Monica Sharma is an English teacher.
(Ms. Monica Sharma : Subject compliment)
(is an English teacher: Noun phrase)
English teacher is also a subject complement, it
describes Ms. Monica Sharma.
*Object compliment:
 It follows and modifies or refer to a direct
object.
e.g.1- I consider Indian television negative.
[television is a direct object – negative
describes the television]
- It is the object compliment.
e.g.2- The judges elected her Miss Universe,
2016.
[Miss Universe is the object complement
describing her].

*Verb Compliment:
 This is a direct or indirect object of a verb.
 It may be a noun, pronoun or a word or word
group acting as a noun.
e.g.: Sushma gave Shaili my chocolate.
(Shaili is the indirect object - my chocolate is the
direct object of the verb gave. Both are considered
verb compliments)

Classification of sentences according to

the structure.
 Sentences

Complex/
Simple Compound Complex
Compound

(I). Simple sentence:

 The structure consists of only one subject and
one predicate.
 It has only one finite verb.
 It has a single main clause.
Examples:
1. I walk (I – subject, walk – finite verb, predicate)
2. George ran after his little brother. (George-
subject, main clause; ran after his little brother-
Predicate)
 Here predicate is the verb phrase that consists of
more than one word.
e.g.- In great anger, the man shouted and yelled
at his lazy son.
(single subject – man, single predicate- shouted
and yelled at his lazy son)
This predicate has two verbs known as ‘Compound
verbs’ shouted and yelled- this is a compound word
and not a compound sentence.
 In great anger and at his lazy son are prepositional
phrases.

Examples:
1. He must work very hard to make up for the lost
time.(prepositional phrase)
2. The moon was very bright.
3. We could see our way.
4. His courage won him honour. (His courage-
subject; won him honour- predicate)
5. The teacher punished the boy for disobedience.
(prepositional phrase)
6. Taking pity on the mouse, the magician turned it
into a cat.

(II) Compound sentences:

 Compound sentences is composed of two or
more main/independent clauses.
 It does not have a dependent clause.
 The clauses are joined by a coordinating
conjunction, a comma, a semicolon and even a
colon.

 Co-ordinating conjunctions:
 Coordinating conjunctions join grammatically similar
elements, two nouns, two verbs, two modifiers, two
independent clauses.

F A N B O Y S

For And Nor But Or Yet So

* Co-relative conjunctions:
Work in pairs to join words and groups of words of
equal weight in a sentence.
e.g. either____ or, neither_____ nor, not only_____
but also, both_____ and, whether_____ or, just
as____ so, no sooner____ than, rather____ than.

Examples:
1. The robber tried to escape but the police caught
him.
2. He must work hard and make up for the loss.
 3. I will decide what I have to do; you are requested
not to interfere.
4. The law has been passed: from 1 July, all
business will have to comply with GST norms.
5. The night came on the rain fell heavily and we all
got wet.
6. He is rich yet he is not so contented.
7. Search his pocket and you will find the watch.
8. He is neither good at studies nor in sports.
9. She is not only beautiful but also clever.
Or
She is both beautiful and clever.

* Complex sentences:
 Complex sentences have one main clause and
one or more dependent clauses (subordinate).
 The subordinating conjunctions performs two
important functions.
(a) Demonstrate the importance of independent
clause.
(b) Provide a link between two ideas in the
same sentence indicating a time, place or
cause and therefore affecting the relationship
between the clauses.

Time Place Mann Reaso Condit Conces

er n ion sion
After, Where As if Becau If, Though,
before, , how, se, unless, althoug
since, where as since, until, in h, even
when, ver though why, case though,
whene so (that), while,
ver, that, provide where
while, as, in d that, as,
until, order only if, rather
once, that that than
aslong so,
as now
that

Examples:
1. The boy ran away when he saw the lion.
2. When he saw the bears, he climbed the nearest
tree because he was terrified.
3. I think that you should ask him personally if it is
convenient for him before you call him.
[ 1 main clause + 3 subordinate class]

* Complex Compound Sentences:

 A sentence with two or more independent
clauses plus one or more independent clauses is
called compound-complex or complex-compound
sentence.
Examples:
 1. He smiled brightly and laughed delightedly
when he saw his new bicycle. [Compound
Complex]
2. Although I like to watch movies, I haven’t
been able to see any lately and there haven’t
been any interesting ones released recently.
[complex-compound]
3. The door of the room was open as I crossed
the hall and I saw the most beautiful
arrangements of flowers. [complex-
compound]
4. I usually use a wooden spoon, whenever I
cook in on-stick ware but sometimes, I prefer
to use my plastic spatula.

 In the complex sentences, subordinate clauses

function within the sentence as adjectives,
adverbs or nouns.

* An Adjective clause:
 An adjective clause is a dependent clause that
functions like an adjective.
 An adjective qualifies or describes a noun or a
pronoun.

Examples:
 1. The star performer at the concert chose dresses
which would look good on her.
2. I know a man who believed in black magic.
Function: Adjective clause qualifying the noun
‘man’ in the main clause.
3. It is a long lane that has no turning.
4. The reason why he failed is obvious.
5. Men who have risen by their own exertions are
always respected.
6. He sold his horse which belonged to his brother.
7. The heart that is full of grief is heavy.
8. The son who was his chief pride in his old age
is dead.
9. The place where Buddha was cremated has
recently been discovered.
10. The evil that men do lives after them.
11. The birds have no water that they can drink.

*Adverb clause:
 It is a dependent clause that functions like an
adverb.
 It modifies a verb and adjective or another
adverb.
Examples:
1. When the food arrived, the children ate
everything.
2. I am pushing my business wherever I can find
an opening.
3. I was surprised when I heard him talk so.
4. The boy ran as fast as he could.
5. Although he has failed twice he will try again.
6. I congratulated him because he has passed.

*Noun Clause:
It is a dependent clause that functions like a
noun- person, place or thing.
Examples:
1. That it will rain seems likely.
2. We believe that he is innocent.
3. He remarked how impudent (rude) the boy
was.
4. Tell me what you mean by this.
5. We hope that better times will come.

Clause Analysis
 Clauses

Noun Adjective Adverb

[A] Noun Clause:

 Noun clause is generally introduced by the
conjunctions (subordinators).
 It answers to the question ‘what?’ put to the verb,
preposition, infinitive, participle in the main
clause.
 The function depends on them.
 Subordinators- how, however, what, whatever,
that.

(a) Subject of the verb:

When the subordinate clause (S.C) is before the
main clause (M.C) It is subject of the verb.
e.g. That he was a fool was obvious.
M.C – was obvious
S.C – That he was a fool.
Subordinator – that.
Type – Noun clause.
Function – Noun clause subject of the verb was
in the M.C.
(b) Object of the verb:
e.g. The boy said that he was fool.
Noun clause object of the verb ‘said’ in the main
clause.

(c) Object of the infinitive:

e.g. I couldn’t bare to see how foolish he was.
Noun clause of the infinitive ‘to see’ in the main
clause.

(d) Object of the preposition:

e.g. It all depends on how foolish he was.
Noun clause object of the preposition ‘on’ in the
main clause.

(e) Object of the present participle:

The boy kept saying how foolish he was.
Noun clause object of the present participle
‘saying’ in the main clause.

(f)Object of the complement:

The truth is that he is a fool.
Complement of the verb ‘fool’ in the main clause.

(g) It is sad that he is a fool

Noun clause complement of the adjective ‘sad’ in
the main clause.
[B] Adjective clause (Relative clause):
 Adjective clause is introduced by the relative
pronouns such as who, which, that, whose,
whom.
 To find out the adjective clause ask the question
‘who? where? which? why? what? or whose? to
the noun or pronoun preceding the noun or
pronoun in the main clause.
e.g. I have to read the novel which my teacher
has written.
M.C- I have to read the novel.
S.C- which my teacher has written.
Subordinator- which.
Type- Adjective clause.
Function- qualifies the noun ‘the novel’ in the
main clause.

[C] Adverb Clause:

  An adverb clause does the work of an adverb
hence its function is that it modifies the verb in the
M.C.

Kinds of Adverb Clause

Kinds Conjunctions Questions to be
asked to the
verb
Adverb of time When, till, until, ‘when?’ to the
as soon as, no verb in the M.C
sooner before,
after, while.
Adverb of place Where, ‘where?’ to the
wherever verb in M.C
Adverb of As, how, as far How ?….
manner as, as that
Adverb of Than To what extent?
degree
Adverb of Because, since Why?
reason
Adverb of If, unless, Under what
condition whether, condition?
provided, even
if.
Adverb of So that, in order For what
purpose that, in case, purpose?
such that
Adverb of result So…that, With what
such…that result?
Adverb of Though, -
concession although, even if

Exercise: Clause Analysis.

Analyze the main clause and subordinate clause and
state its kind.
1. The women were taught how they could apply for
bank loans.
M.C- The women were taught.
S.C – How they could apply for bank loans.
Subordinator- How
Type- Noun Clause
Function- Object of the verb were ‘taught’ in the
main clause.

2. There was John Anthony who was a college

student.
=> Adjective clause qualifies the noun John
Anthony in the main clause.

3. Some are afraid to make friends because they

are afraid of being taken advantage of.
=> Adverb clause of reason modifying the verb
‘afraid’ in the M.C.

4. The professor who was his guide, complemented

him on his work.
=> Adjective clause qualifying the noun professor
in the M.C.
 5. She told him that she would like to become his
daughter.
=> Adjective clause qualifying the pronoun ‘him’
in the M.C.

6. We need to realize that we are imperfect human

beings.
=>Noun clause object of the infinitive ‘to realize’
in the M.C.

7. Meena will come if she has the time.

=>Adverb clause of condition modifying the verb
‘will come’ in the M.C.

8. He responded that Tina had a whole life of

promises before her.
=>Noun clause object of the verb ‘responded’ in
the M.C.

9. When your friends talk you should listen

attentively.
=> Adverb clause of time modifying the verb
‘should listen’ in the M.C.

10. Though Molly was shocked, she rejected the

advice.
=> Adverb clause of concession modifying the verb
rejected in the M.C.
 Active and Passive Voice
Active voice:
A verb is said to be in active voice when its form
shows that the person or thing denoted by the subject
does something.
*Active voice means the subject is the doer of the
action.
*It is preferable to use the active voice for clarity,
conciseness and conveying the message more
effectively.

Examples:
1. Deepa watered all the plants.
=> Deepa (Doer subject)
watered (action verb)
all the plants [receiver of the action (object)]
2. I take care of my pet dog.
3. He writes a letter.
4. She writes beautiful poems.
5. I am eating my breakfast.

Passive voice:
When the receiver of the action (object) is in the
subject part playing a prominent role, the verb is said
to be in the passive voice.

Though Active voice is the preferred mode of

communication there are sometimes good reasons to
use the passive voice.
1. To emphasize the action rather than the actor.
e.g. Demonetization was announced in India.
2. To keep the subject and focus consistent
throughout the passage.
e.g. After a lengthy discussion, the decision was
taken that the rules must be obeyed in the office
campus.
3. The speaker is being discreet (distinct/ separate)
by not naming the person/ persons responsible in
the office campus.
4. To describe a condition in which the actor is
unknown or unimportant.
e.g. The government buildings were damaged in
the riots.
5. To create an authorative tone.
e.g. Florida destroyed by cyclone.

Examples of Passive Voice:

1. All the plants were watered by Deepa.
 2. My pet dog is taken care of.
3. A letter is written by him.
4. Beautiful poems are written by her.
5. My breakfast is being eaten.

[A] Rules for changing Active voice to

Passive voice:
(a) Change of subject and object:
The object of A voice becomes the subject of a
passive voice.
e.g. Ram kicked the ball. (AV) (Ram- subject, kicked-
verb, the ball- object)
PV => The ball was kicked by Ram.
(b) Change of verb form:
The verb in the active voice is changed into a form of
=> be + past participle (v3)
e.g. I wrote a letter.
=> A letter was written by me.
Present Participle:
e.g. (AV) Reema is cooking the food in the kitchen.
=> (PV) The food is being cooked in the kitchen by
Reema.
Or
The food is being cooked by Reema in the kitchen.

[B]Changing eight forms of the verbs

from active voice to passive voice.

1. Simple Present Tense:

Rules:
2. Active Voice: Subject (doer) + V1 (s/es)
Passive Voice: Subject (object) + (am/ is/ are) +
V3 + Doer
e.g. I don’t speak French. (AV)/
=> French is not spoken by me.
e.g. He writes novels. (AV)
=> Novels are written by him. (PV)
2. Present Continuous Tense:
Rules:
(AV) => Subject (doer) + (am/ is/ are) + V1+ ing +
object.
(PV) => Subject (object) + (am/is/are) + being+ v3
+ doer.
 e.g. He is teaching me grammar. (AV)
=> I am being taught grammar by him. (PV)
e.g. She is not doing her homework. (AV)
=> Her homework is not being done. (PV)

3. Present Perfect Tense:

Rules:
(AV) => Subject (doer) + (have/ has) + V3 +
Object.
(PV) => Subject (object) + (have been/ has been)
+ V3 + Object.
e.g. She has folded her clothes. (AV)
=> Her clothes have been folded. (PV)
e.g. Someone has stolen my bag. (AV)
=> My bag has been stolen by someone. (PV)

4. Simple Past Tense:

Rules:
(AV) => Subject (doer) + V2 + Object.
PV => Subject (object) + (was/were) + V3 + Doer.
e.g. She ate the whole cake.
 => The whole cake was eaten by her.
e.g. Whom did your mother invite to the party?
=> Who was invited to the party by your mother?

5. Past Continuous Tense:

Rules:
(AV) => Subject (doer) + (was/were) + V1 + ing +
Object.
(PV) => Subject (object) + (was/ were) + being +
V3 + Doer.
e.g. We were playing badminton when it rained.
(AV)
=> Badminton was being played when it rained.
(PV)
e.g. Children were helping their parents.
=> Parents were being helped by their children.

6. Past Perfect Tense:

Rules:
(AV) => Subject (doer) + had + V3 + Object.
(PV) => Subject (object) + had been + V3 + Doer.
e.g. She had already completed the project. (AV)
 => The project had already been completed by
her. (PV)

e.g. Who had beaten that little child? (AV)

=> By whom had been that child beaten? (PV)

7. Simple Future Tense:

Rules:
(AV) => Subject (doer) + (shall/ will) + V1 +
Object.
(PV) => Subject (object) + (shall be/ will be) + V3
+ doer.
e.g. I shall not tolerate this. (AV)
=> This will not be tolerated by me. (PV)
e.g. Shall we ever forget his sacrifice? (AV)
=> Will his sacrifice ever be forgotten by us? (PV)

8. Future Perfect Tense:

Rules:
(AV) => Subject (doer) + (shall/ have/ will have) +
V3 + Object.
 (PV) => Subject (object) + (shall have been/ will
have been) + V3 + doer.
e.g. They will have dug the well. (AV)
=> The well will have been dug by them.
e.g. The farmers will have harvested the crops.
=> The crops will have been harvested by the
farmers.

[C] Change of Pronoun:

Nominative case or Accusative case or
Subjective case Objective case
I Me
You You
We Us
He Him
She Her
It It
They Them

[D] Addition of the word ‘by’:

 The passive verb is followed by ‘by + doer’
 If the doer is not known or irrelevant, it is omitted
in the passive voice.
e.g. Mohini feeds stray dogs every evening. (AV)
=> Stray dogs are fed by Mohini every evening.
 e.g. Someone has cut my pocket. (AV)
=> My pocket has been cut. (object + not
required)

[E] Two Objects:

 When there are two objects in an active
sentence, there are two possible passive
sentences.
e.g. The lady gave some bread and fruit to the
beggar.
=> Some bread and fruit were given by the lady
to the beggar.
Or
=> The beggar was given some bread and fruit
by the lady.

[F] Changing interrogative sentences

into passive voice:
1. The primary auxiliary verbs ‘do, does or did’ do
not appear in the passive firm. They get
converted to the form of ‘to be’
e.g. Does Rani like hiking? (AV)
=> Is hiking liked by Rani? (PV)
2. The verbs ‘has, have, had, will, shall, can, may,
etc.’ do not change their position at the beginning
of the sentence when changed to PV.
 e.g. Has she eaten something (AV)
=> Has something been eaten by her? (PV)
e.g. Will John eat the cake? (AV)
=> Will the cake be eaten by John? (PV)
3. The question words ‘when, why, where, how or
what’ do not change their position at the
beginning of the sentence when changed to
passive voice.
*Note: ‘Who’ changes to ‘By whom’.
‘Whom’ changes to ‘Who’.
e.g. Whom did you meet at the mall?
=> Who were met by you at the mall?

[G]Changing imperative into passive

voice:
 Imperative are the sentences which express –
advice, suggestion, request, command.
 Generally, sentences containing request have the
word ‘please’ in it. Such sentences start with ‘You
are requested to’ in PV.
e.g. Please bring me some water. (AV)
=> You are requested to bring some water.
 Imperative sentences containing advice start with
‘You are advised to’ in PV.
e.g. Eat your food on time. (AV)
 => You are advised to eat your food on time.
(PV)
e.g. Do not drink and drive. (AV)
=> You are advised not to drink and drive. (PV)

Note: Don’t in Active voice changes to ‘Not to’ in

Passive voice
 Imperative sentences containing ‘command’ or
‘order’
=> generally start with ‘Let’ in the passive voice.
e.g. Bring in the prisoners. (AV)
=> Let the prisoners be brought in.

 e.g. Drink the milk.

=> Let the milk be drunk.

 Command or Order sentences can also be

changed to passive voice by using ‘You are
ordered to’ or ‘You are commanded to’
 Imperative sentences containing suggestions are
changed to passive voice by adding the modal
verb ‘should’ => suggesting correctness and
obligation.
e.g. Respect your teachers. (AV)
=> Your teachers should be respected. (PV)
e.g. Follow your routine. (AV)
=> Your routine should be followed. (PV)
[H] Preposition sentences:
 Preposition in Active Voice do not change their
place in passive voice.
e.g. Teachers object to students copying in the
exams. (AV)
=> Students copying in the exams are objected to
by the teachers.

[I] Modals:
 Can, could, shall, should, will, would, ought to,
used to, dare to, etc. do not change when
changing from Active voice to Passive voice.
e.g. The elders should guide the young. (AV)
=> The young should be guided by the elders.
(PV)

 e.g. Students ought to listen to their teachers.

(AV)
=> Teachers ought to be listened by the students.
(PV)

[J] Only transitive verbs can be changed

into passive voice:
 Intransitive verbs remain in the Active voice only.
e.g. I baked a cake. (object) (AV)
=> A cake was baked by me. (PV)
 e.g. Varun hit the ball. (AV)
=> The ball was hit by Varun.
 Intransitive verbs are action verbs that do not
have an object to receive the action.
e.g. The sun rises in the east.
=> (No passive voice for this type of sentence)
e.g. Water flows under the bridge.
=> (No passive voice for this type of sentence)

Passive voice
 While changing from active voice to passive
voice.
1. Reverse the position of the subject and the
object.
2. You can identify the doer by locating the ‘by
the’ phrase.
3. Appropriate changes in the form of the verb
must be made.
4. At times, the doer is not identified.
In such cases you have to presume (think,
imagine) a doer from the context of the
sentence.

Exercise. I. Change to Passive voice:

1. Sita loves Savitri.
=> Savitri is loved by Sita.
2. The mason is building the wall.
=> The wall is being built by the Mason.
3. The peon opened the gate.
=> The gate was opened by the peon.
4. Some boys were helping the wounded man.
=> The wounded man was being helped by some
boys.
5. He will finish the work in a fortnight.
=> The work will be finished by him in a fortnight.
6. Who did this?
=> By whom was this done?
7. Why did your brother write such a letter?
=> Why was such as letter written by your
brother?
8. My pen has been stolen. [No subject]
=> Someone has stolen my pen.
9. I was asked my name.
=> They asked me my name.
10. English is spoken all over the world.
=> People speak English all over the world.
11. I have been invited to the party.
=> Someone has invited me to the party.
12. All orders will be followed promptly.
=> We will follow all orders promptly.
13. The young man made a disturbance at the
meeting.
=> A disturbance at the meeting was made by the
young man.
14. We compelled the army to surrender.
 => The army was compelled to surrender by us.
15. The boy made a kite.
=> A kite was made by the boy.
16. The police arrested him. [Omit the agent ‘by’]
=> He was arrested.
17. He kept me waiting. [Omit the agent ‘by’]
=> I was kept waiting.
18. My cousin has drawn this picture.
=> This picture has been drawn by my cousin.
19. Mr. Krishnaji teaches us grammar. [us-
object, grammar- direct object]
Note: [when there are 2 objects then either object
may become the subject, while the other is
retained.]
=> Grammar is taught to us by Mr. Krishnaji.
Or
=> We are taught Grammar by Mr. Krishnaji.
20. Who taught you French?
=> By whom was French taught to you?
21. He handed her a cheque.
=> A cheque was handed to her by him.
22. The dog was hit by a stick
=> Somebody hit the dog with a stick.
23. The boy hit the dog.
=> The dog was hit by the boy.
24. All his friends laughed at him.
=> He was laughed at by all his friends.
25. Someone has picked my pocket.
=> My pocket has been picked.
Exercise. II. Change to Passive voice:

1. The people will make him king.

=> He will be made king by the people.
2. The king gave him a reward.
=> A reward was given to him by the King.
Or
=> He was given a reward by the King.
3. By whom was this done?
=> Who did this?
4. One should keep one’s promises.
=> Promises should be kept.
5. Give the order.
=> Let the order be given.
6. His behavior vexes (irritates) me sometimes.
=> Sometimes, I am vexed by his behavior.
7. It is time to shut down the shops.
=> The shops should be shut down by this time.
8. The audience loudly cheered the mayor’s
speech.
=> The mayor’s speech was loudly cheered by
the audience.
9. The enemy has defeated our army.
=> Our army has been defeated by the enemy.
10. We admire the brave.
=> The brave are admired by us.
11. They enjoy bathing.
=> Bathing is enjoyed by them.
 12. The master appointed him.
=> He was appointed by the master.
13. Who taught you such tricks?
=> By whom were you taught such tricks?
14. The boy is climbing the cliff.
=> The cliff is being climbed by the boy.
15. He taught me to read Persian.
=> I was taught to read Persian by him.
16. They have pulled down the old house.
=> The old house has been pulled down by them.
17. I offered him a chair.
=> A chair was offered to him by me.

Practice Exercises:
1. I take care of my pet dog.
2. He writes a letter.
3. Rahul often scolds me for no reason.
4. I don’t speak Tamil.
5. Who teaches you English?
6. Why do you do this?
7. Can you ever forget him?
8. He laughs at me.
9. Why do you throw the empty bottles on the
roadside?
10. I take my family to church every Sunday.
11. My friend encourages me to pursue my
dreams of becoming a journalist.
12. He does not understand Hindi.
13. Can he forgive him?
14. Who drops you off to school?
15. God loves everyone equally.
16. The sun gives us light and heat.
17. Can I say a word?
18. She hates arrogant people.
19. He is teaching me mathematics.
20. They are playing hide and seek.
21. She is not doing her homework.
22. Who is knocking at the door?
23. Are the boys cutting the grass in the lawn?
24. What is Rani doing in that room?
25. We are expecting a very good result this
year.
26. Snow is covering the rooftops.
27. What are the boys writing?
28. I am inviting you to my birthday party?
29. Is your brother studying law?
30. Are you not doing your classwork?
31. Her cousins are sending her a charm
bracelet.
32. Is he following the instructions?
33. My father is talking to an old man.
34. They have helped me to cut the lawn.
35. We have elected him Captain of our team.
36. Has she cooked anything for us?
37. What have I done to you that you hate me so
much?
38. Have you never told a lie?
 39. Sonia has told me about your injury.
40. Jack and Nick have joined the Air force.
41. Someone has broken the glass tumbler.
42. Many people have admired your work.
43. Have you ever seen this man before?
44. Our family has known you for a long time.
45. We have requested the head of the
department to look into the matter at the earliest.
46. Her necklace has been stolen.
47. Her books have been taken away.
48. The water has flooded the entire village.
49. Who has left the door open?
50. What have you done?
51. He wrote me a letter.
52. She ate the whole cake.
53. He didn’t laugh at anyone.
54. Did you find that book on the table?
55. Where did you buy such a beautiful dress
from?
56. Did you carry your bags yourself?
57. Whom did your mother invite to the party?
58. He had written a book.
59. He will write an essay.

Exercise: Change to Active Voice

1. Let the work be done by you.

=> Do your work.
2. She shouldn’t have been scolded by me.
 => I shouldn’t have scolded her.
3. Her reading could not be heard by anyone.
=> No one can hear her reading.
4. The wicket could have been easily taken by you.
=> You could have easily taken the wicket.
5. How will the car have been driven by her?
=> How will she have driven the car?
6. The farmer will saw the seeds.
=> The seeds will be sown by the farmer.
7. A car will be bought by my father next year.
=> My father will buy a car next year.
8. The novel had not been bought by me.
=> I had not bought the novel.
9. The paper was being read by his father.
=> His father was reading a paper.
10. Something was being hidden by him.
=> He was hiding something.
11. By whom were the drums being beaten?
=> Who were beating the drums?
12. Was that book on the table found by you?
=> Did you find that book on the table?
13. Gifts were brought by the guests.
=> The guests brought the gift.
14. The Germans were defeated by the English.
=> The English defeated the Germans.
15. Phone calls are being answered by the
secretary.
=> The secretary is answering the phone calls.
Practice Exercises
Change to Active Voice:

1. He was praised by his father.

2. The first railway was built by George Stepenson.
3. The horse was frightened by the noise.
4. Not a word was spoken by Latif.
5. The teacher was pleased with the boy’s work.
6. He was taken to the hospital by his father.
7. The town was destroyed by an earthquake.
8. The road was lined with people.
9. The president was welcomed by the people.
10. Shakuntala was written by Kalidas.
11. The building was damaged by the fire.
12. I was struck by his singular appearance.
13. The French fleet was defeated by Nelson.
14. The street was thronged with spectators.
15. The trees were blown down by the wind.
16. We shall be blamed by everyone.
17. The child was knocked down by a car.
18. Alice was not much surprised at this.
19. He was refused the entry by the peon.
20. You are watched very carefully be me.