AC FUNDAMENTALS
Voltage And Current
Sl. Differentiating Voltage Current
No. Property
1 Definition Voltage, also called Current is just the rate of flow
electromotive force is simply of electric charge. In simple
the energy per unit charge. In words, the current is the rate at
other words, voltage is the which electric charge flows in a
difference in electric potential circuit at a particular point.
between two points.
2 Unit The SI unit of voltage is Volts The SI unit of current is Ampere
(V). (A).
Note: 1 Volt= 1 Note: 1 Ampere = 1
Joule/coulomb. coulomb/second.
3 Denotation Voltage is denoted by “V”. Current is denoted by “I”.
4 Measuring Voltage can be measured by Current can be measured by
Instrument using a Voltmeter. using an Ammeter.
5 Inter-relation Voltage is the cause of the Current is the effect of the
current. voltage i.e. current cannot flow
without voltage.
6 Formula One of the formulas to One of the formulas to calculate
calculate voltage is: current is:
V= Work done/Charge I= Charge/ Time
7 Loss The loss of voltage occurs due The loss of current occurs due
to impedance. to the passive elements.
8 Field Created Voltage creates an electrostatic Current creates a magnetic
field. field.
9 Change in a In a series connection, voltage In a series connection, the
Series changes i.e. it gets distributed current remains the same
Connection over all the components. through all the components.
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10 Change in a In a parallel connection, the In a parallel connection, current
Parallel voltage remains the same changes i.e. it gets distributed
Connection across all the components. over all components.
Difference Between AC And DC
As we all know that electric current flows in two ways, AC and DC. So, we will study
the difference between AC and DC over here. AC stands for Alternating Current while DC stands
for Direct Current. When we talk about alternating current, we see that in here the current keeps
switching from time to time. In other words, forward and backwards. On the other hand, the
current flows in a single direction in a steady manner in direct current. Thus, you can say you can
differentiate them on the basis of the direction of flowing electrons. In other words, electrons flow
in a steady manner in one direction in DC while in AC, they switch their directions constantly.
Definition of AC
AC which means Alternating Current is one of the most universally used and preferred electric
power. You will find it in household appliances, offices, buildings and more. We can identify it
in waveform referred to as a sine wave. You can call it a curved line. These lines represent electric
cycles and we measure them per second. Thus, we read it as Hertz or Hz. The use of AC happens
for powering houses, buildings and more. It is because it is easier to produce and transport AC
across long distances. Moreover, it also comes in use to power electric motors in washing
machines, fridges and more.
Definition of DC
In DC, which means Direct Current, the flow of current will not keep changing occasionally.
Instead, you will find the current electricity flowing in one direction that too at a steady voltage.
We make use of DC for mainly supplying power to electrical devices as well as charging batteries.
For instance, flashlights, mobile batteries, flat-screen TV sets, hybrid, electric vehicles and more.
In other words, everything running on a battery and using an AC adapter when plugged in a wall
or USB is relying on DC.
Difference between AC and DC
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Important Difference Between AC And DC
Basis of Comparison AC DC
In AC, the direction of the
The direction of the current
Definition current keeps reversing
remains the same in DC.
periodically.
AC’s load is resistive, DC’s load is generally
Load Type
inductive or capacitive. resistive in nature.
Frequency 50 or 60 Hz Zero
Polarity AC has a polarity (+, -) It does not have polarity
The direction of flow of
The direction of In DC, the flowing electrons
electrons in AC is
flowing electrons are unidirectional
bidirectional
Generators, battery, solar cell
Attained from Alternators
and more.
Power Factor It lies between 0 and 1 It always remains 1
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Passive Parameter Impedance Resistance
We can transmit it over long We can transmit it over long
Transmission
distance with a few losses distance with negligible losses
Used in electroplating,
Used in factories, industries,
Purpose electrolysis, electronic
households
equipment, and more
Details about AC
AC was first tested, based on the principles of Michael Faraday in 1832 through the use of a
Dynamo Electric Generator. Moreover, the magnitude and polarity keep changing over time.
Thus, in these current, the free electrons move in both directions.
We can easily convert the alternating current from the high value to low value and vice versa. A
transformer will help in doing so. Therefore, it comes in use for transmitting and distributing
mainly.
Details about DC
Direct current is when the electric charge inside the conductor is flowing in a single direction.
Thus, instead of oscillating back and forth, it offers a constant voltage. The magnitude of the direct
current is always constant while the frequency is zero.
The most common use of DC is in cell phones, electronic equipment, electric vehicles, welding
and more. It has the combination of plus and minus sign, a dotted or straight line.
Direct Current or D.C. as it is more commonly called, is a form of electrical current or voltage
that flows around an electrical circuit in one direction only, making it a “Uni-directional”
supply.
Generally, both DC currents and voltages are produced by power supplies, batteries, dynamos
and solar cells to name a few. A DC voltage or current has a fixed magnitude (amplitude) and
a definite direction associated with it. For example, +12V represents 12 volts in the positive
direction, or -5V represents 5 volts in the negative direction.
We also know that DC power supplies do not change their value with regards to time, they are
a constant value flowing in a continuous steady state direction. In other words, DC maintains
the same value for all times and a constant uni-directional DC supply never changes or becomes
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negative unless its connections are physically reversed. An example of a simple DC or direct
current circuit is shown below.
DC Circuit and Waveform
An alternating function or AC Waveform on the other hand is defined as one that varies in
both magnitude and direction in more or less an even manner with respect to time making it a
“Bi-directional” waveform. An AC function can represent either a power source or a signal
source with the shape of an AC waveform generally following that of a mathematical sinusoid
being defined as: A(t) = Amax*sin(2πƒt).
The term AC or to give it its full description of Alternating Current, generally refers to a time-
varying waveform with the most common of all being called a Sinusoid better known as
a Sinusoidal Waveform. Sinusoidal waveforms are more generally called by their short
description as Sine Waves. Sine waves are by far one of the most important types of AC
waveform used in electrical engineering.
The shape obtained by plotting the instantaneous ordinate values of either voltage or current
against time is called an AC Waveform. An AC waveform is constantly changing its polarity
every half cycle alternating between a positive maximum value and a negative maximum value
respectively with regards to time with a common example of this being the domestic mains
voltage supply we use in our homes.
This means then that the AC Waveform is a “time-dependent signal” with the most common
type of time-dependant signal being that of the Periodic Waveform. The periodic or AC
waveform is the resulting product of a rotating electrical generator. Generally, the shape of any
periodic waveform can be generated using a fundamental frequency and superimposing it with
harmonic signals of varying frequencies and amplitudes but that’s for another tutorial.
Alternating voltages and currents can not be stored in batteries or cells like direct current (DC)
can, it is much easier and cheaper to generate these quantities using alternators or waveform
generators when they are needed. The type and shape of an AC waveform depends upon the
generator or device producing them, but all AC waveforms consist of a zero voltage line that
divides the waveform into two symmetrical halves. The main characteristics of an AC
Waveform are defined as:
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AC Waveform Characteristics
• • The Period, (T) is the length of time in seconds that the waveform takes to
repeat itself from start to finish. This can also be called the Periodic Time of the
waveform for sine waves, or the Pulse Width for square waves.
• • The Frequency, (ƒ) is the number of times the waveform repeats itself within a
one second time period. Frequency is the reciprocal of the time period, ( ƒ = 1/T )
with the unit of frequency being the Hertz, (Hz).
• • The Amplitude (A) is the magnitude or intensity of the signal waveform
measured in volts or amps.
In our tutorial about Waveforms ,we looked at different types of waveforms and said that
“Waveforms are basically a visual representation of the variation of a voltage or current
plotted to a base of time”. Generally, for AC waveforms this horizontal base line represents a
zero condition of either voltage or current. Any part of an AC type waveform which lies above
the horizontal zero axis represents a voltage or current flowing in one direction.
Likewise, any part of the waveform which lies below the horizontal zero axis represents a
voltage or current flowing in the opposite direction to the first. Generally for sinusoidal AC
waveforms the shape of the waveform above the zero axis is the same as the shape below it.
However, for most non-power AC signals including audio waveforms this is not always the
case.
The most common periodic signal waveforms that are used in Electrical and Electronic
Engineering are the Sinusoidal Waveforms. However, an alternating AC waveform may not
always take the shape of a smooth shape based around the trigonometric sine or cosine function.
AC waveforms can also take the shape of either Complex Waves, Square Waves or Triangular
Waves and these are shown below.
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Types of Periodic Waveform
The time taken for an AC Waveform to complete one full pattern from its positive half to its
negative half and back to its zero baseline again is called a Cycle and one complete cycle
contains both a positive half-cycle and a negative half-cycle. The time taken by the waveform
to complete one full cycle is called the Periodic Time of the waveform, and is given the symbol
“T”.
The number of complete cycles that are produced within one second (cycles/second) is called
the Frequency, symbol ƒ of the alternating waveform. Frequency is measured in Hertz, ( Hz )
named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz.
Then we can see that a relationship exists between cycles (oscillations), periodic time and
frequency (cycles per second), so if there are ƒ number of cycles in one second, each individual
cycle must take 1/ƒ seconds to complete.
Relationship Between Frequency and Periodic Time
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RMS Value of AC
In a DC system, the voltage and current are constant, therefore, there is no problem in
specifying their magnitude. But in the case of an AC system, an alternating voltage varies from
instant to instant and so poses a problem in specifying the magnitude.
So to express the AC quantities in an easy and understandable form, the concept of RMS value
has been developed. They also can be expressed in terms of peak value or average value but
these values don’t express the effectiveness of AC quantity.
Effective or RMS value of AC Current
The RMS value of AC current is equal to that amount of DC current which produces the
same heating effect flowing through the same resistance for the same time.
The term RMS stands for the (square) root of the mean of the squares of instantaneous current
values. The RMS value of AC current or voltage can be calculated from the following relation:
IRMS = 0.707 x peak value of current
VRMS = 0.707 x peak value of voltage
It is the actual value of an alternating quantity that tells us the energy transfer capability
of an AC source. For example, if we say that 5A alternating current is flowing through a
circuit, it means the RMS value of AC current flowing through the circuit is 5A. And it will
produce the same amount of heat (energy) as will be produced by 5A DC current.
All the AC ammeters and voltmeters show the RMS values of alternating current and
voltage respectively. All the electrical appliances are rated in the terms of RMS value. In India,
the domestic single-phase AC supply is 230 V, 50 Hz. Here, 230 V is the RMS value of the
supply voltage.
The RMS value of AC is always greater than the average value except for a rectangular wave
when these are equal. Its value can never be negative.
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Let i1, i2, i3 ……….in be the mid-ordinates.
Then, heat produced in first interval = i12Rt/n joules
Second interval = i22Rt/n joules
Third interval = i32Rt/n joules
nth interval = in2Rt/n joules
Total heat produced in time t
= Rt[(i12 + i22 + i32 + ……+ in2)/n] …..(1)
Since Ieff is considered as the effective value of this current.
Then heat produced by this current in time t = Ieff2Rt …….(2)
By definition, equations (1) and (2) are equal. Therefore,
Ieff2Rt = Rt[(i12 + i22 + i32 + ……+ in2)/n]
Or Ieff2 = [(i12 + i22 + i32 + ……+ in2)/n]
Or Ieff = [(i12 + i22 + i32 + ……+ in2)/n]1/2
Or Ieff = IRMS = square root of the mean of the squares of the instantaneous current.
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Important Terms Related to RMS Value of AC
Peak Value (Im): The maximum value attained by an alternating current during a complete
cycle is called its peak value. A sinusoidal alternating current attains its maximum positive
value at 90o.
Form Factor (Kf): It is the ratio of the RMS value to the average value of alternating
quantity.
Kf = RMS value/ Average value
For a sinusoidal wave, it is 1.11. We can find the RMS value from the average value and
vice-versa with the help of the Form factor.
This factor shows the “peakiness” of the waveform. A square wave that is flatter than a sine
wave, has a form factor of 1.0. On the other hand, a triangular wave is more “peaky” than a
sine wave and has a form factor of 1.15.
Peak Factor (Kp): It the ratio of the peak or maximum value to the RMS value of an
alternating quantity.
Kp = Peak value / RMS value
For a sinusoidal wave, it is 1.414. It is very significant in dielectric insulation testing because
the dielectric stress on the insulation material depends upon the peak value of the applied
voltage. It is also important while measuring the iron losses because these losses depend on
the value of maximum flux.
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