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ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS

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1.1 Introduction
1.2 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
1.3 Block diagram of CRO
1.4 Cathode Ray Tube
1.5 Focusing systems
1.6 Deflection system
1.7 Time Base Generator
1.8 Display of waveforms
1.9 Front panel controls of CRO
1.10 Applications of CRO
1.11 Types of CRO
1.12 Function Generator
1.13 Digital Multimeter.
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1.1 Introduction
Instrumentation is the branch of electronics in which we are going to study different
types of instruments, their working, advantages, disadvantages and their applications.
Instruments are the essential part of electronics laboratories. Measuring instruments
are used to measure voltage, current, resistance, frequency, and physical parameters such
as temperature, pressure, intensity of light etc. CRO is the versatile instrument used to
measure all above parameters and it can give visual display of input signal. Function
generator is the instrument which can provide sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal type of
waveforms whose frequency can be adjusted over wide range. Multimeter is one of the
measuring instrument widely used in laboratories for measurement of voltage, current,
resistance etc… but instead of analog multimeter digital meter is widely used because of
greater accuracy
1.2 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
CRO is the most versatile instrument used in electronic industry. It is used to observe
high speed operation and display them properly to analyze the circuit.
CRO is defined as ‘an extremely fast X-Y plotter capable of plotting an input signal
versus another signal or versus time’. CRO is used for number of purposes such as
measurement of voltage, current, frequency, time, phase of alternating signal, study of
different types of components, study of different types of waveforms, as an indicator in
RADAR and medical instruments.
 1.2

1.3 Block Diagram

CRO consist of following blocks

A) Vertical amplifier: - Signal which is to be observed is feed to vertical amplifier to

increase the strength of signal to a level that will provide sufficient vertical deflection of
electron beam. The gain of this amplifier is adjusted by a calibrated input attenuator
marked as Volts / Div. The push pull output of this amplifier is feed to vertical deflecting
plates through delay line.
B) Delay line:-The purpose of delay line is to retard (slow down) the arrival of input
signal at vertical defecting plate until trigger circuit and saw tooth generator have chance to
start sweep of beam. The delay time is approximately 20nS to 80nS
There are basically two types of delay lines are used i.e.1) Lumped parameter,
2) Distributed parameter.
In lumped parameter delay line consist of number of cascaded symmetrical LC network
known as T section, while distributed parameter delay line consist of specially
manufactured coaxial cable with high value of inductance per unit length. Delay time of
this system is 180ns/m. Co axial delay line is widely used because it does not require the
careful adjustment and it occupies much less space.

C) Trigger circuit:-The sample of input signal is feed to trigger circuit which produces
trigger pulse at some selected points. This trigger pulse is used to start the time base
generator.
D) Time base generator: - It is a circuit which generates horizontal deflecting signal
which causes electron beam to move along X axis. As this axis is known as time axis and
line display is known as base line this generator is known as time base generator. It is also
known as saw tooth generator because the shape of signal generated is similar to saw tooth.
Uni junction transistor is used to generate saw tooth signal, the positive going part of
saw tooth is linear and its rise time is adjusted by the front panel control knob marked as
Time / Div. Basically it connects different values of capacitor in the circuit.
E) Horizontal amplifier: - The output of time base generator is feed to horizontal
amplifier to increase the strength of signal. This amplifier includes phase inverter (splitter)
which produces two simultaneous outputs. Positive going output (run up) is applied to right
 1.3

hand side deflecting plate while negative going (run down) is applied to left hand side
deflecting plate.
The external horizontal input is directly applied s to this amplifier.
F) Power supply:- Power supply consist two sections, high voltage section provides high
output voltage which is feed to CRT while low voltage section provides low output voltage
which is applied to other circuitry.
G) Cathode ray tube: - It is the main part of CRO which is basically vacuum tube gives
visual indication of input signal.
CRT makes available plenty of electrons which are accelerated to high velocity and
brought to focus on fluorescent screen. The electron beam produces spot of light at the
point of impact. This electron beam is deflected on its journey in response of electric signal
under study.
CRT consist of following parts
1) Electron gun assembly, (2) Deflecting system, (3) Screen, (4) Glass envelope.
H) Blanking circuit: - It is a circuit which is used to blank out the retrace part on the
screen which will appears due to discharging of capacitor of time base generator. A high
negative voltage is applied to control grid during fly back period (retrace part).
1.4 Cathode Ray Tube
CRT is the main part of CRO hence it is also known as heart of CRO. Basically it is
vaccum tube which converts electrical signal into visual signal. CRT makes available of
plenty of electrons which are accelrated to very high velocity and are brought to focus on
fluroscent screen. The electron beam is deflected on its journey in response of electric
signal under study and produces spot of light at the point of impact.

CRT consist of following basic parts.

1) Electron gun assembly, (2) Deflecting system, (3)Screen, (4) Glass enevlope.
1) Electron gun assembly: - An arrangement of electrodes which produces a focused
beam of electron is known as electron gun. It consist of indirectly heated cathode, control
grid, preaccelerating anode, focusing anode, accelerating anode. The control grid is held at
negative potential with respect to cathode while anodes are maintained at high positive
potential.
Cathode is usually a cylinder of nickel with coating of Barium Oxide. It is indirectly
heated by tungsten filament and provides plenty of electrons.
Control grid enclosed the cathode and consists of metal cylinder with small circular
opening at the center; this opening is used to keep electron beam smaller in size.
The preaccelerating anode is hollow cylinder which is kept at high positive potential. The
electron beam is accelerated due to this electrode.
Focusing anode is mounted just ahead of preaccelerating anode which is used to focus
electron beam into sharp pin point by controlling positive potential applied to it.
Accelerating anode is last electrode of the system. The positive potential applied to this
electrode is much higher than focusing anode approximately five times focusing anode. Due
to high potential this anode accelerates narrow bam of electrons with high velocity.
2) Deflecting system: - Deflecting system consist of two set of deflecting plates one is
horizontal deflecting set and other one is vertical deflecting set.
 1.4

The vertical deflecting plates are mounted horizontally hence they are also known as
horizontal plates. By applying potential to this plates electron beam can be made to move
up and down vertically along Y axis.
The horizontal deflecting plates are mounted vertically hence these plates are known as
vertical plates. These plates deflect the electron beam from left to right along X axis.
3) Screen: - The screen is the inside face of tube which is coated with fluorescent
material like Phosphorous, Zinc Oxide, Zinc Orthosilicate. When high velocity electron beam
strikes on the screen kinetic energy of beam is converted into light emission and produces
spot of light at the point of impact.
Different types of phosphor are used to get different colour which is given in the following
table.
Phosphor type Fluorescence Phosphorescence
P1 Yellow – Green Yellow – Green
P2 Blue – Green Blue – Green
P4 White White
P7 Blue Yellow – Green
P11 Purple – Blue Purple – Blue
P31 Yellow - Green Yellow – Green

4) Glass envelope: - All this elements are enclosed in highly evacuated funnel shaped
glass tube. The inner wall of CRT is coated with conducting material known as aquadag
coating. This coating is electrically connected to accelerating anode so that electrons which
are strikes on the wall of CRT are returned back to anode and prevents the wall from
charging to high negative potential.
1.5 Focusing Systems
Electron beam has tendency to spread because of mutual repulsion between electrons,
hence some focusing system are required to bring the electron beam to a sharp focus at the
screen. There are two types of focusing system used in CRT i.e.
1) Electrostatic focusing system.

In electrostatic focusing system final two electrodes of electron gun provides an electron
lens system. Both this anodes are kept at high positive potential with respect to cathode.
Second anode is more positive than first anode. It has hole at the center which permits well
defined beam to pass through it. It also determines the velocity of beam.
Two electrostatic focusing systems usually known as electron lens. The diameter of the
electrodes and their voltage are adjusted so that electrons are emitted from cathode covers
small area located in front of cathode. The control grid is held at negative potential with
respect to cathode which affects the cathode in such a way that effective area becomes very
small.
The first lens system is formed between preaccelerating anode and first anode (focusing
anode)
Usually second anode and preaccelerating anode potential are kept fixed. While the
potential applied to first anode (focusing anode) is varied to provide necessary focusing. The
second anode potential and first anode potential is 5:1. The second anode potential is
approximately 2000V.
 1.5

The size of focused spot depends upon the size of cross over section and magnification of
second lens system.
Actually there are three types of electrons in electron beam; they are axial, paraxial and
non-paraxial. Axial electron suffers little change in their direction. The paraxial electrons
travels at small angle and brought to nearly correct focus by using focusing system. Non
paraxial electrons travel at the large angle with axis. These electrons are subjected to less
perfect focusing and strikes on the wall of CRT
2) Magneto static Focusing system.

Magneto static focusing may be achieved either by permanent magnet or by passing

current through the coil (electromagnet). The axis of coil coincides with axis of electron
beam. The lines of magnetic field are uniformly distributed and parallel to direction of
motion of electrons.
The electron experiences a force from magnetic field only if its motion is at an angle to
the lines of magnetic force. If the line of motion is at an angle to the lines of magnetic force.
If the line of motion of electrons and magnetic line of force are parallel the electrons are
urged to move only by the force of accelerating anode. If the electrons leave the cathode at
an angle to the axis of the system the magneto static force is exerted on it. The force causes
electrons to move in a spiral path and urge forward by the anode.
In practice electrons leaves cathode with different angles and different initial velocities.
But time required for any electron to complete the projected circle depends only on the
strength of magnetic field and charge to mass ratio of electrons. The strength of magnetic
field is determined by the amount of current flowing through the focusing coil and by the
number of turns on the coil. The amount of current flowing is adjusted by the front panel
control known as focus control.
1.6 Deflecting System
Two different types of deflecting systems are used in CRT i.e.1) Electrostatic deflecting
system, (2) Magneto static deflecting system.
1) Electrostatic deflecting system:-
In this system two pairs of deflecting
plates are used. These plates are
kept ahead of focusing system, one set
is kept horizontally and other set is
kept vertically. The deflecting voltage is
applied between the two set of plates

If horizontal deflection is required voltage must be applied to vertical plates i.e. horizontal
deflecting plate. If vertical deflection is required voltage must be applied to horizontal plates
i.e. vertical deflecting plates.
The electrons which are moving towards the screen are attracted towards positive plates
and moves in that direction. The beam then strikes the screen and it gives displacement on
the screen either in horizontal direction or vertical direction as per the input signal.
 1.6

2) Magneto static deflecting system: -

In this case magnetic field is set up by passing current through the coil. The axis of coil
is perpendicular to the direction of electron beam. The magnetic field exerts a force on
electron urging them to move in direction at right angle to both magnetic field and direction
of motion of electron beam.
In this system deflection is directly proportional to magnetic flux density, length of field
and the distance between the field and screen. In this type coils are kept outside the CRT.
The magneto static deflecting system is widely used for CRT in RADAR and TV.
Deflection Sensitivity: - Deflection sensitivity of CRT is defined as deflection of spot on the
screen per unit deflection voltage. The unit of sensitivity is cm/volt.
1.7 Time Base Generator
Time base generator is needed to represent time on X axis which will cause movement of
electron beam from right to left. As deflection of spot is proportional to time and it is along
the X axis which is known as base line, hence it is known as Time Base. This time base
voltage is also known as saw tooth voltage because the shape of wave form generated is
similar to saw tooth.
Time base generator or saw tooth generator is a
circuit which is used for charging of capacitor with
time. During charging spot moves from left to right
and it is known as trace or ramp and during
discharging spot moves from right to left and it
known as retrace or fly back. Charging and
discharging of capacitor is performed by using
electronic switching device like Uni junction transistor. Uni junction transistor is used to
generate saw tooth signal, the positive going part of saw tooth is linear and its rise time is
adjusted by the front panel control knob marked as Time / Div. Basically it connects
different values of capacitor in the circuit.
In this circuit base2 (B2) terminals is
connected to +VBB through resistor R1 while base1 (B1)
is grounded through resistor R2. Different values of
capacitors are connected to emitter circuit and they
are charged to +VBB through resistor RE. Output of
trigger circuit is connected base2. The saw tooth
waveform i.e. output signal is taken out from emitter
circuit.
When power supply is switched on at the initial
stage capacitor voltage (emitter voltage) is zero and
hence UJT is in off state, due to which capacitor
charges through RE towards +VBB. Now emitter voltage
increases and when it reaches to intrinsic standoff
voltage of UJT emitter to base one becomes forward
bias. UJT is now triggered on and it provides low
reactance path between emitter to base one, due to
which capacitor now start discharging through this path.
 1.7

The discharging of capacitor is very fast process and it continues till capacitor voltage
decreases below minimum level. At this instant emitter to base one junction becomes
reverse biased and capacitor start recharging.
This process is repeated again and again and produces saw tooth wave form.18 to 20
different values of capacitors are connected in steps to provide the different frequency range
marked as Time / Div on front panel.
1.8 Display of Waveform
a) If DC voltage is applied to the horizontal deflecting plates spot moves either to the left
or right direction depends upon the charge of plate. If plate has positive charge spot moves
in that direction which is shown in the following diagram.
If AC voltage is applied to the horizontal deflecting plates spot moves in left to right
direction with very high speed ( 50 times per second). Due to persistence of vision we
observe solid line on the screen.

If we apply sine wave signal to vertical deflecting plates and time base signal (saw tooth
signal) to horizontal deflecting plates the following pattern display on the screen.
If frequency and amplitude of both signal is same then we get, at point `a` sine voltage is
zero and saw tooth voltage is negative there is no deflection of beam along Y axis (vertical
direction) and spot moves to extreme left. At point `b` as sine voltage has positive peak spot
moves in upward direction at the same time it moves in the right direction because saw
tooth voltage is less negative. At point `c` both saw tooth and sine voltage have zero
magnitude spot is at the center of screen. Thus we moves towards next point the resultant
wave will display on the screen.
If frequency of saw tooth signal is decreases the more number of cycles can be viewed on
the screen.
 1.8

1.9 Front panel controls of CRO

a) Intensity: - It is used to control the brightness of electron beam by adjusting the

negative potential applied to control grid of CRT.
b) Focus: - It is used to adjust the sharpness of electron beam by controlling positive
potential applied to focusing anode of CRT.
c) Volts/Div: - It is used to adjust the height of electron beam ( waveform) to get
sufficient display of waveform. This knob actually adjusts the gain of vertical amplifier.
d) INT /EXT: - When only Y input is applied to CRO This knob is kept at INT mode. In
INT mode internal sweep generator is connected to horizontal amplifier.
In EXT mode external X input is directly applied to horizontal amplifier.
e) Time /Div: - 18 to 20 position switch is used to adjust the frequency of saw tooth
wave form by connecting different values of capacitor to the emitter circuit due to which
width of waveform (divisions along X axis) can be adjusted in such a way that1 or 2
complete cycles can be displayed on CRT screen.
f) AC-GND-DC:-It selects the input coupling as per the input. If it is at ground mode the
input signal gets grounded through the CRO and as there is no input signal to CRT we get
only horizontal straight line.
g) Y input: - The actual input signal which is to be studied is applied through this
terminal as Y-input.
h) X-input: - A standard frequency signal is applied to horizontal amplifier of CRO
through this terminal. When input signal is applied to this terminal output of time base
generator is not connected to amplifier and INT / EXT knob is kept on EXT mode.
i) Vertical position: -It controls the vertical position of display by shifting the wave form
along Y axis.
j) Horizontal position: - It controls the horizontal position of display by shifting the
wave form along X axis.
k) Calibration (X & Y): -Selected sweep voltage holds the indicated calibration.
l) Level: - Automatic base line is provided with no input signal.
m) Slope: - The negative position of slope gives inversion of input signal hence CRT gives
mirror image of actual signal.
n) TVF – Auto – Normal: - If input frequency is very small this knob should be kept at
TVF mode.
o) CT: - It converts CRO into component tester so that components should be used in
the circuit can be tested before assembling.
 1.9

p) .2V/1KHz:- 200m volt peak to peak voltage with frequency of 1KHz is used for
calibration of CRO.
1.10 Applications of CRO
A) Electronic Laboratory: - CRO is used in electronic laboratory for measurement of AC
and DC voltage, measurement of frequency, phase difference between two signals, study of
different components, study of different waveforms, study of physical parameters etc..
1) Voltage measurement: - CRO is used to measure AC and DC voltage
a) AC voltage measurement: - The procedure for AC voltage measurement is
1) First keep selector switch on AC mode.
2) Apply unknown AC voltage to Y input terminal of CRO.
3) Adjust TIME/ DIV knob and VOLTS / DIV knob (b) in such a way that at least one or
two cycles with sufficient height are displayed on the screen.
4) Measure the vertical divisions from negative peak to positive peak along Y axis.
(Height of waveform) (a)
5) Find out position of Volts / div. (b)
6) Product of vertical divisions (a) and Volts/div (b) gives actual peak to peak voltage.
7) Calculate peak voltage by dividing VPP by 2 (VP = VPP /2)
8) The actual input voltage is RMS value which is find out by using formulae
VRMS = 0.707  VP
For example
If volts/ div is at 2V/cm then
we get
VPP = number of division on Y
axis  Volts / div
VPP = 6 cm  2V/cm
VPP = 12V
VP = VPP /2
VP= 12/2 = 6V
Vrms = 0.707  VP
Vrms = 0.707  6 = 4.242V

The actual input AC potential is 4.242V.

b) DC Voltage measurement: - The procedure for DC voltage measurement is
1) Keep selector knob on DC mode.
2) Adjust Time / Div knob in such a way that steady horizontal line
is obtained on the screen.
3) By using vertical position control adjust horizontal line on X axis,
so that it can be considered as base line.
4) Apply unknown DC potential to Y- input terminal of CRO.
5) Now original line is shifted either in upward direction or in downward direction.
Measure number of divisions of shifted line from base line (a).
6) Find out the position of Volts/ Div (b) knob.
7) Product of the division (a) and Volts / Div (b) gives the actual value of applied
unknown DC potential.
For example
If volts/div is at 5V/cm then we get
VDC = 3cm  5V/cm
VDC = 15V
As line is shifted in upward direction
applied voltage is positive.
 1.10

2) Frequency measurement: - There are two methods of frequency measurement

A) Direct method:- Procedure is
1) Keep input selector at AC mode
2) Apply unknown frequency signal to Y input terminal of CRO.
3) Adjust Volts/div and Time/div in such a way that at least one or two
complete cycle can be viewed on CRT screen.
4) Measure horizontal spread (divisions) of one complete cycle along X axis.
5) Find the position of Time/div knob.
6) Product of Time/div and horizontal divisions gives actual time required to
complete one cycle.
7) Find out reciprocal of time to get the frequency of input signal.
For example:-
If Time / div is at 20μs/div and horizontal
spread of one cycle is 4cm, then total time is
given by
T = one cycle spread  Time/Div
T = 20μs/cm  4cm = 80 μs
1 1
F= = = 0.0125  106
T 80 μs
 F = 12.5 kHz

B) Indirect method: - This method is also known as lissajous methods In this method
standard input signal is applied to horizontal deflecting plates through horizontal amplifier
as X input while unknown frequency signal is applied to vertical deflecting plates as Y
input. The resulting pattern obtained on the screen depends upon phase relationship
between two signals.
The procedure is
1) Keep INT /EXT knob on EXT mode.
2) Apply standard frequency signal to X input and unknown frequency signal to Y input.
3) Adjust standard input signal until sufficient loop are obtained on the screen.
4) Number of loops cut by horizontal line gives frequency of vertical plates while number
of loops cut by vertical lines gives frequency of horizontal plates.
FV Number of loops cut by horizontal line
=
FH Number of loops cut by vertical line
For example:-
In this figure no. of loops cut by
horizontal line are three while no. loops cut
by vertical line are two
If standard frequency of 1kHz is applied
to X input terminal
We get
FV 3
=
FH 2
FV = 1.5 FH
FV = 1.5  1
FV = 1.5 kHz
3) Study of Lissajous figures: - When sinusoidal voltages are applied to both input
terminals i.e. X and Y terminals the resulting pattern display on CRO is known as lissajous
pattern. The pattern of the lissajous figures depends upon phase, amplitude and frequency
of two signals.
 1.11

 = 00  = 300 or 3300  = 600 or 3000  = 900 or 2700

 = 1200 or 2400  = 1500 or 2100  =1800

A circle can be obtained only when amplitude of both signals is same and phase
difference is 900 or 2700
If amplitudes are unequal ellipse is formed with phase difference of 300 or 3300, 600 or
3000, 1200 or 2400, 1500 or 2100
Line is display when phase difference is 00 or 1800
A phase difference between two input signals is calculated by applying one signal to X
input terminal and other signal to Y input terminal. In this case EXT – INT is kept at EXT
mode. The time / div is adjusted in such a way that an sufficient division displayed on the
screen
The phase difference is calculated by using formula.
A
 = Sin-1
B
For example: - If A = 4 and B = 6 then  =
 = Sin -1 4/6 = 41048`

4) Current measurement: - CRO is also used to measure current flowing through the
circuit, but unfortunately there is no direct provision for current measurement hence the
potential drop across known resistance is measured by using CRO, then by using ohms law
the amount of current flowing through the circuit is calculated.
5) Component testing: - Some electronic components are also tested by using CRO.
When the leads of components are inserted in the input terminal various patterns are
displayed on the screen this patterns are compared with standard pattern given by
manufacturer. If these patterns are matched then the components are in working condition.
6) Study of physical parameters: - Physical parameters are also studied by using CRO.
But for the measurement of physical parameter a special electronic device is required to
convert physical parameter into electrical parameter known as transducer. The output of
transducer is electrical signal which is measured by using CRO. These readings are
substituted in a specified formula to find out the reading of original physical parameter.
B) Medical laboratories: - In medical field CRO is mainly used as indicator. Transducer
is used along with CRO which converts physical signal into electrical signal which then
applied to CRO for study. CRO as monitor is used to study the action of human organ such
as heart, brain, retina, muscle, etc. as ECG, EEG, EOG, EMG. It can be also used in CT
SCAN, Sonographer machine, ENDOSCOPY machine, etc...
C) RADAR system: - In radar system CRO is used as monitor which gives indication of
targets such as air craft’s, submarines, ships, missiles, etc… Mostly plan position indicator
is used in radar in which CRT is used.
D) Television: - CRT along with associated sweep circuit is used for recreation of image.
 1.12

E) Industry: - In industry CRO is used for measurement electrical and physical

parameters. It is one of the famous instrument used for research purpose.
1.11 Types of CRO
Following types of CRO is used in electronics laboratories and industries.
1) Single trace CRO
2) Dual trace CRO
3) Dual beam CRO
4) Storage type CRO
5) Sampling CRO
6) Digital read out CRO
7) Digital CRO
8) PC Scope
1.12 Function Generator
It is an electronic instrument which basically produces three types of waveforms
simultaneously i.e. triangular waveform, square waveform, sine wave form.
Front panel controls:-

1) Frequency control: - It used to control frequency in different range from 0.1Hz to

10Hz.
2) Frequency multiplier: - It select the multiplier range from 1Hz to 1MHz. Product of
this range and frequency control gives actual output frequency of function generator.
3) Sine wave amplitude control: - It select the amplitude of sine wave. There are three
preset values i.e.0.3V, 3V, and 30V.
4) Sine / Square wave selector: - It is used to select either sine wave or square wave
signal as output.
5) Sine wave output terminal: - This terminal delivers sine wave output signal.
6) Square wave amplitude control: - This terminal is used to control amplitude of
square wave signal.
7) Symmetry control: - It is used to adjust symmetry of waveform by adjusting T on and
Toff period of square wave signal without changing the total time.
8) Square wave output: - This terminal delivers square wave output signal.
9) On / off control: - It is used to make instrument on or off.
Block Diagram:-
 1.13

It consist of 1) Frequency control network, (2) Upper current source, (3) Lower current
source, (4) Integrator, (5) Voltage comparator, (6) Resistor diode shaping circuit,
(7) Amplifier.
The frequency control network is governed by frequency control knob which is on front
panel. Frequency control voltage regulates the two current sources i.e. upper current
source (UCS) and lower current source (LCS).Upper current source supplies constant
current to integrator whose output increases linearly with time. The output voltage is given
by
VO/P = -1/C ∫ Idt.
An increase or decrease in current supplied by UCS increase or decrease the slope of
output waveform (triangular wave).Voltage comparator changes state at predetermined level
of positive slope. This change of state cut off UCS and switch on LCS.
Lower current source supplies reverse current to integrator due to which output voltage
decreases linearly with time. When output voltage reaches to predetermine level of negative
slope voltage comparator again switches and cut off LCS and USC switched on.
The voltage at output terminal of integrator is triangular wave whose frequency is
determined by magnitude of current source.
Comparator i.e. multivibrator delivers square wave output having same frequency.
The third output wave form is delivered by resistor diode shaping circuit which
synthesized triangular wave into sine wave.
The output circuitry consists of output amplifier which provides two simultaneous
individually selected output of any one of wave form.
1.13 Digital Multimeter.
A multimeter is the instrument which is used to measure electrical parameters such as
voltage, current, resistance, inductance, capacitance,  factor of transistors. It is also used
to measure some physical parameter like temperature.
There are two types of multimeter used in electronics laboratories.1) Analog multimeter,
2) Digital multimeter.
Due to following advantages digital multimeter is widely used in electronic laboratories.
1) It has very high input impedance due to which loading effect is minimized.
2) It has wide range of measurement.
3) It is more accurate
4) It is highly sensitive.
5) It displays the measurement in discrete numerical form due to which it is very
convenient to take readings.
6) It eliminates parallax error.
7) It eliminates reverse polarity error.
8) It has automatic range selection.
9) It has over range indication.
Block diagram of DMM:-
 1.14

Working: - All digital multimeters uses analog to digital converter. Mostly counter type ADC
is used in digital multimeter. In this type of ADC reference voltage is variable and it is
known as ramp voltage. This ramp voltage increases from zero to predetermined level in
predetermined time. It simply measures time it required to reach from zero to applied
voltage. This time interval is measured by using counter and displayed by using LCD or
LED.
For DC voltage measurement selector switch is connected to DC voltage under
measurement. This DC voltage is applied to A to D converter through DC attenuator.
Convertor converts analog voltage into pulses proportional to input voltage. These pulses
are counted by using counter and then fed to display for read out.
For AC voltage measurement selector switch connects AC voltage to rectifier circuit
through AC attenuator. The output of rectifier i.e. DC voltage is applied to ADC, counter
and display for read out.
For current measurement the applied current passes through current to voltage
convertor. The Op-Amp circuit is used to convert applied current into proportional DC
potential. The current which is to be measured is applied to inverting terminal of Op-Amp.
As input impedance of Op-Amp is very high applied current passes through feedback
resistors which produces potential drop which is proportional to applied current. This
potential drop which is output potential is then applied to ADC and display

For resistance measurement known value of current is passes through resistor by using
constant current source. Due to this current DC potential is developed across resistor, this
DC potential is then applied to ADC, counter and display for read out.
Ex1.1) When 20V DC is applied to vertical deflection plates of CRO, the spot moves 4cms
away from the center. If 20V AC is applied what will be the displacement of spot.
(M08)
(3 Marks = 1mark for Formula, 1 marks for Calculation, 1 Mark for answer)
Ans: -Data:- Deflection of spot = 4cm, Applied voltage = 20VDC
Applied voltage = 20VAC, Deflection of spot:-?
Solution:-Deflection sensitivity of CRO is given by
Displacement of spot
Deflection sensitivity =
Applied voltage
4cm
Deflection sensitivity = = 0.2cm/v
20V
Applied AC voltage is rms value hence it peak voltage is
VP = 1.414 x V = 1.414 x 20 = 28.28V
Now peak to peak voltage is
VPP = 2 x VP = 2 x 28.28 =56.56 V
Now displacement of spot = Applied voltage x Deflection sensitivity.
Displacement of spot= 56.56 V x 0.2cm /V
Displacement of spot= 11.31cm
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Ex1.2) The spot in CRO is shifted 4cm upward when 10V D.C. is applied to its vertical
input. Find maximum displacement of spot when 7 volt A.C. is applied to vertical input.
(3 Marks = 1mark for Formula, 1 marks for Calculation, 1 Mark for answer)
Ans: -Data:- Deflection of spot = 4cm, Applied voltage = 10VDC
Applied voltage = 7VAC, Deflection of spot:-?
Solution:-Deflection sensitivity of CRO is given by
Displacement of spot
Deflection sensitivity =
Applied voltage
4cm
Deflection sensitivity = = 0.4cm/v
10V
Applied AC voltage is rms value hence it peak voltage is
VP = 1.414 x V = 1.414 x 7 = 9.898V
Now peak to peak voltage is
VPP = 2 x VP = 2 x 9.898 =19.796 V
Now displacement of spot = Applied voltage x Deflection sensitivity.
Displacement of spot= 19.796 V x 0.4cm /V = 7.9184 cm
Displacement of spot= 7.9184cm
Ex1.3) A unknown AC voltage is applied to Y input terminal of CRO, the horizontal spread
of wave form is 4cm find out the frequency of signal if Time/base is kept on 2µs/cm to
obtain steady pattern.
(3 Marks = 1mark for Formula, 1 marks for Calculation, 1 Mark for answer)
Ans: -Data:- Time/Div = 2µs/cm, Deflection = 4cm, Frequency of signal =?
Sol: -Time require to complete one cycle is given by
T = Deflection of spot × Time/ Div
T = 4cm × 2µs/cm
= 8 µs = 8 × 10-6 s
Frequency = 1/T
 F = 1/ 8 µs = .125 × 106
 F = 125KHz

1) Give the function of the following front panel controls of CRO. (Oct 04, 06, Mar01, 04, 05)
a) Intensity, (b) Focus, (c) Volts/ div, d) INT/EXT
2) Draw neat block diagram of CRO and explain the function of each block.
(Oct05, 06, 07, Mar01, 04, 11, 13)
3) Draw labeled diagram of CRT and explain the function of each electrode.
(Oct03, 04, 05, Mar03.05, 07, 12)
4) Explain necessity of saw tooth generator in CRO. (Mar 03, 07, Oct 07)
5) What is time base signal? Explain its necessity in CRO
6) Explain the working of time base generator in CRO with suitable circuit diagram.
(Oct04, Mar01, 05, 06, 07)
7) Explain electrostatic focusing system in CRO. (Oct03, Mar08, 11)
8) Draw neat labeled diagram of CRT and explain Electrostatic focusing. (Mar 13)
9) Why delay line is used in CRO. (Oct03, Mar 03, 08, 13)
10) Explain the function of delay line and blanking circuit in CRO. (Mar09)
11) List type of deflection systems of CRT and explain any one. (Mar04)
12) Explain the working of Time base generator using UJT. Draw the waveform and state
the equation of its frequency. (Oct08)
13) Compare electromagnetic and electrostatic type deflection system.
14) Give function of screen in CRT and explain Phosphorescence. (Oct.02, Mar 13)
15) Explain the use of CRO in measurement of (a) Unknown frequency, (b) Phase difference
between two signals. (Oct05, Mar 02, 07, 11, 12)
16) Explain use of CRO to measure phase difference using Lissajous pattern. (Mar 04, 05)
 1.16

17) Explain any two/four application of CRO (Oct07, 08, Mar09)

18) Explain how CRO displays the waveform. (Oct05, Mar06, 08)
19) Write three advantages of digital multimeter over analog multimeter. (Mar04)
20) Draw a neat block of digital multimeter and explain the function of each block.
(Mar01, 02, 07, 09, 12, Oct03, 04, 07, 08)
21) Explain various blocks used in function generator. (Oct03, 06, 08, Mar03, 05, 07, 09, 11,
12)
22) How AC and DC voltage measurement is done in DMM? (M 13)
23) When 20V DC is applied to vertical deflection plates of CRO, the spot moves 4cms away
from the center. If 20V AC is applied what will be the displacement of spot. (Mar08)
24) Explain how ellipse is display on screen of CRO and how it is used to measure phase
shift.
25) Define the terms 1) Deflection sensitivity, 2) Phosphorescence, 3) Fluorescence.
26) What is the function of aquadag coating?
27) Explain how CRO Displays waveform.
28) Explain how sweep voltage is obtained in time base generator.
29) Explain with circuit diagram current to voltage converter used in DMM.
30) Length of vertical line shown on CRO with sine wave voltage at Y input terminal is 6 cm.
If sensitivity is 10mV/cm, find rms value of ac voltage.
31) The vertical gain control of CRO is set at deflection sensitivity of 20V/cm. An unknown
AC voltage is applied at y input. A 5 cm long vertical straight line trace is obtained on the
screen. Calculate applied AC voltage.
32) Objective questions
1) The calibration signal usually available from CRO is of ------- Square wave signal.
2) The colour of bright spot on the screen of CRO is the characteristic of ---- The coating of
material of the screen.
3) Lissajous pattern obtained on the CRO screen can be used to determine --- Phase shift /
Frequency.
4) The purpose of SYNC control in CRO is to ----- Lock the display of the screen
5) The length of the trace on CRT screen is controlled by --- Horizontal gain control.
6) If retrace is visible on the CRO screen the trouble may be ---- Blanking circuit is not
working properly.
7) The time base of an oscilloscope is developed by ----- Saw tooth generator / Time base
generator.
8) To prevent loading of circuit under test, the input impedance of CRO must be --- High.
9) The maximum frequency applied to CRO is limited by ---- The vertical amplifier.
10) The signal to be observed on the screen of CRO is applied ---- Across Y plates /
vertical deflecting plates.
11) The deflection sensitivity of CRO is inversely proportional to --- Separation between Y
plates.
12) Two complete signal cycles would be displayed on the CRO screen when the time period
of the generator is ---- the signal time period. Twice.
13) The voltage applied across X plates of CRO is ---- voltage. Ramp.
14) The input impedance of CRO is ----- Very high.
15) Time base of an oscilloscope is developed by ---- Saw tooth signal.
16) The pattern produce on CRO represents ---- Two-dimensional display.
17) In CRO saw tooth voltage developed by the time base generator is applied to ---
Horizontal deflecting plates / Horizontal amplifier.
18) The screen of CRO is coated with----- Phosphor.
19) The aquadag coating helps to --- Remove secondary electrons.
20) Control grid is used to ----- Change the numbers of electrons.
21) Saw tooth voltage is applied at ---- X- deflecting plates.
22) Circle is obtained on the screen if phase difference between the two sine waves is ----
900. (Mar01)
23) The colour of light obtained on the screen depends on ----- Composition of phosphor
material.
 1.17

24) Due to limited slew rate very high frequency sine wave voltage appears as ---
Triangular wave.
25) Colour of light obtained on the screen depends on ----- Composition of phosphor
material.
26) In function generator for the generation of triangular wave ---- circuit is used.
Integrator. (M 04)
27) IN CRT ---- anode has variable positive voltage Focusing anode (O 08)
28) Deflection sensitivity of CRT is measured in ----- mm / volt (M 03)
29) DMM measures -----values of AC voltage. RMS (O 05)
30) If lissajous pattern like 8 is obtained then frequency to vertical input F y and frequency
to horizontal input Fx are related by the equation---- Fx = 2Fy (M 06)
31) In DMM 1 is display to indicate ----- Over range / out of range
32) In CRO colour of beam is depends upon ------------ Fluorescent material used.
33) CRO measures ----- value of AC voltage peak (M 12)

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