Introduction to CRO Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

The cathode ray oscilloscope is an extremely useful and versatile

laboratory instrument used for studying wave shapes of alternating currents
and voltages as well as for measurement of voltage, current, power and
frequency, in fact, almost any quantity that involves amplitude and
waveform. It allows the user to see the amplitude of electrical signals as a
function of time on the screen. It is widely used for trouble shooting radio
and TV receivers as well as laboratory work involving research and design.
It can also be employed for studying the wave shape of a signal with respect
to amplitude distortion and deviation from the normal. In true sense the
cathode ray oscilloscope has been one of the most important tools in the
design and development of modern electronic circuits.
Block Diagram of a CRO

CRO Block Diagram

The instrument employs a cathode ray tube (CRT), which is the heart of the
oscilloscope. It generates the electron beam, accelerates the beam to a high
velocity, deflects the beam to create the image, and contains a phosphor
screen where the electron beam eventually becomes visible. For
accomplishing these tasks various electrical
signals and voltages are
required, which are provided by the power supply circuit of the oscilloscope.
Low voltage supply is required for the heater of the electron gun for generation of electron beam and high voltage, of the order of few thousand
volts, is required for cathode ray tube to accelerate the beam. Normal
voltage supply, say a few hundred volts, is required for other control circuits
of the oscilloscope.
Horizontal and vertical deflection plates are fitted between electron gun and
screen to deflect the beam according to input signal. Electron beam strikes
the screen and creates a visible spot. This spot is deflected on the screen in
horizontal direction (X-axis) with constant time dependent rate. This is
accomplished by a time base circuit provided in the oscilloscope. The signal
to be viewed is supplied to the vertical deflection plates through the vertical

amplifier, which raises the potential of the input signal to a level that will
provide usable deflection of the electron beam. Now electron beam deflects
in two directions, horizontal on X-axis and vertical on Y-axis. A triggering
circuit is provided for synchronizing two types of deflections so that
horizontal deflection starts at the same point of the input vertical signal each
time it sweeps. A basic block diagram of a general purpose oscilloscope is
shown in figure.

Time Base Generator

The TBG or time base generator in CRO is the heart of its display
mechanism. It controls the movement of electron beam, in horizontal
direction i.e. along x-axis of the screen. The fundamental approach of TBG is
given in the following sawtooth oscillator circuit.
It consists of a UJT i.e. a Uni Junction Transistor1. The circuit produces saw
tooth wave, which are used to sweep the electron beam on screen. The
circuit works as follows. When CRO is switched on, the circuit gets the DC
voltage from LV power supply of CRO. But the circuit remains inactive, unless
it receives trigger pulse from trigger circuit.

When a signal is connected at y-input of CRO, the circuit is triggered through

the trigger circuit. Now the capacitor (C) starts charging through variable
resistor (R). So the emitter voltage (Ve) of UJT rises towards the supply
voltage. When Ve = Vp, the capacitor quickly discharges through R 2. The
value of R2 >> R. So the charging time T S of the capacitor is more than the
discharging time TB. Thus, we get saw tooth wave across the capacitor. When
it charges, rising edge of saw tooth wave is obtained and when it discharges,
the falling edge is obtained, as shown in the waveform.
The value of Vp for the UJT is given by

The frequency of saw tooth wave can be adjusted by changing the resistance
of variable resistor R and the value of capacitor C marked as Time/div knob.
These edges of sawtooth wave are synchronised with the horizontal
movement of e-beam. As you must know, there are four deflection plates

inside the CRT: two of them are H-plate and the other two are V-plates. The
H-plates are connected with this sawtooth voltage.
Now imagine that you are standing in-front of the screen of CRO. Then the
two H-plates will be like this: | |. During starting of rising edge, the left plate
starts becoming negative and the right plate becomes more and more
positive. So the electron beam is slowly attracted towards the right plate.
When rising edge reaches its peak value the e-beam has already reached the
right end point of the screen. Now at this very moment, the blanking circuit
dumps the cathode emission by applying a strong negative voltage on
control grid. So e-beam is cut off momentarily.
Now the falling edge starts. It has a short duration, and during this span, the
left plate becomes positive and right plate becomes negative. At this instant,
the blanking circuit takes off its negative voltage on control grid. So the ebeam rushes out, but now strikes at left end of the screen. Then again and
again the same process repeats as explained above and thus the horizontal
motion of e-beam is controlled.

The cathode ray oscilloscope is a versatile laboratory instrument. If a

laboratory has only CRO in it, other measuring instruments may not be
required. This is the importance of CRO in scientific laboratories. With it we
can measure, AC/DC voltage, AC/DC current, resistance, phase and phase
difference between two or more waveforms, relative frequency of a
waveform, observe the amount of noise present on a signal, etc.
In addition, CRO is also useful to observe the shape of waveform or signal
and observe its real time progression on time axis. The waveform displayed
on it, is observed with respect to x-y axes or co-ordinate system. The screen
of CRO is plotted in terms of a measuring scale, known as graticule. Using
this scale, the amplitude and wavelength of waveform can be accurately
measured in centimetres and then converted into required unit. Learn some
important terms before going into the details of functional block diagram
of CRO.
Y-input: It is the main input of CRO, to which the input signal is connected.
The waveform of this input signal is displayed on the screen of CRT.
Vertical attenuator1: It consists of RC voltage divider, which is marked on
the CRO front panel as Volt/div control knob. Thus the gain of CRO can be
controlled with Volt/div knob.
Vertical amplifier: It is a set of preamplifier and main vertical amplifier. The
input attenuator sets up the gain of vertical amplifier.

Delay line: The delay line delays the striking of electron beam on the
screen. It synchronizes the arrival of the beam on screen when time base
generator signal starts sweeping the beam horizontally. The propagation
delay2 produced is about 0.25msec.
Trigger circuit: It takes the sample of input voltage connected at y-input of
CRO and feeds it to the input of time base generator. So the TBG starts only
when input signal is present at y-input.
Time base generator: It produces a saw tooth wave. The waveform is used
to sweep (move) the electron beam horizontally on the screen. The rate of
rise of positive going edge of saw tooth waveform is controlled by Time/div
control knob. Thus, the saw tooth wave controls the horizontal deflection of
electron beam along x-axis.
A switch known as INT/EXT is also connected after the output of TBG. When
the switch is in INT position, the output of TBG is connected to H-plates
through horizontal amplifier. When it is in EXT position, internal saw tooth is
cut-off and some external signal can be connected to horizontal plates.
Horizontal amplifier: It amplifies the saw tooth waveform coming from
TBG. It contains phase inverter circuit also. Due to this circuit, two outputs
are produced. One output produces positive going saw tooth and other
output produces negative going saw tooth. The first output is connected to
right side H-plate and the second output is connected to left side H-plate. So
the electron beam moves properly from left to right of the screen.
Blanking circuit: It is necessary to eliminate the retrace, which would
produce when the spot on screen moves from right to left. This retrace can
produce confusion with the original wave. So when the electron beam
reaches right end of screen, the negative blanking voltage is produced by
TBG. It is fed to control grid of CRT, to stop the electron beam completely.

HV/LV power supply: The high voltage section is used to power the
electrodes of CRT and the low voltage section is used to power the electronic
circuits of the CRO.

Basic Controls of a CRO

CRO-Block Diagram
Number of controls are required to be provided on a panel of CRO to
facilitate its proper functioning. Intensity control is provided for adjustment
of brightness of the spot on the screen. It is accomplished by varying the
voltage between the first and second anodes. The horizontal and vertical
position controls are provided for moving the beam on any part of the
screen. It is accomplished by applying a dc voltage to horizontal or vertical
deflection plates. Similarly there are other numerous controls in a CRO,
which will be discussed, in detail, here.

Vertical Deflection System.

The function of vertical deflection system is to provide an amplified signal of

the proper level to drive the vertical deflection plates without introducing
any appreciable distortion into the system.
The input sensitivity of Many CROs is of the order of a few milli-volts per
division and the voltage required for deflecting the electron beam varies
from approximately 100 V (peak to peak) to 500 V depending on the
accelerating voltage and the construction of the i tube. Thus the vertical
amplifier is required to provide this desired gain from milli-volt input to
several hundred volt (peak to peak) output. Also the vertical amplifier should
not distort the input waveform and should have good response for entire
band of frequencies to be measured.The deflection plates of CRO act as
plates of a capacitor and when the input signal frequency exceeds over 1
MHz, the current required for charging and discharging of the capacitor
formed by the deflection plates increases. So the vertical amplifier should be
capable of supplying current enough to charge and discharge the deflection
plate capacitor.
As we know that electrical signal is delayed by a certain amount of time
when transmitted through an electronic circuitry. In CRO, output signal
voltage of the vertical amplifier is fed to the vertical plates of CRT and some
of its portion is used for triggering the time base generator circuit, whose
output is supplied to the horizontal deflection plates through horizontal
amplifier. The whole process, which includes generating and shaping of a
trigger pulse and starting of a time-base generator and then its amplification,
takes time of the order of 100 ns or so. So the input signal of the vertical
deflection plates of a CRT is to be delayed by at least the same or little more
amount of time to allow the operator to see the leading edge of the signal
waveform under study on the screen. For this purpose, delay line circuit is
introduced between vertical amplifier and the plates of CRT, as shown in
figure.

Horizontal Deflection System.

External signal is applied to horizontal deflection plates through the
horizontal amplifier at the sweep selector switch in EXT position, as shown in
figure. The horizontal amplifier, similar to the vertical amplifier, increases the
amplitude of the input signal to the level required by the horizontal
deflection plates of CRT. When the function of time is required to be
displayed on the screen of CRT, INT position of sweep selector switch is used.
Before going further we should make ourselves clear first about the linear
time base pattern. Assume that we supply an ideal saw-tooth signal voltage
to the horizontal deflection plates, keeping vertical deflection plates at zero
potential, as shown in figure.
At the starting point A in time, signal voltage is maximum but negative so
the spot on the screen of CRO is at the extreme left position. Further at point
B in time, signal voltage applied to the horizontal plates is zero so the spot is
in the centre position on the screen. Now when voltage increases in + ve
direction and becomes maximum just before the point C, the spot on the
screen is at the extreme right side of the screen. Just after the point C, next
cycle of saw-tooth voltage signal starts and again voltage becomes
maximum negative so the spot goes back to the extreme left position of the
screen from right position in no time.
From the above discussions we may conclude that
(i) The spot moves from left to right over the same path again for every cycle
of sawtooth voltage applied to the horizontal deflection plates, so a
horizontal line appears on the screen of CRO. (it) The spot moves from left to
right on the screen with the uniform speed. Thus it produces a linear time
base to display function of time on the screen of CRO.
For making idea of time base more clear let us discuss an application.
Suppose a sine-wave voltage signal y of time period T is applied to the
vertical deflection plates and a saw-tooth voltage signal v h of time period T is
applied to horizontal deflection plates, as shown in figure.
At zero time, the spot is at extreme left vertically central position on the
screen. Because of zero value of VV and maximum negative values of Vh. At
time T/4, the spot is at one-fourth way on the screen in horizontal direction
and at maximum positive deflection above the centre line in vertical
direction because of maximum positive value of V V. At time T/2, values of

both VV and Vh are zero, so the spot is at the central position of the screen. At
time 3T/4, the spot is the three-fourth way on the screen in horizontal
direction and at the maximum negative deflection in vertical direction.
Finally, at the end of time T, the spot is at extreme right vertically central
position of the screen and then it moves back to begin a new trace. In this
way, sine-wave voltage applied to the vertical deflection system appears on
the screen. If the period of sine-wave is reduced to half then two sine-wave
cycle appears on the screen.
From the above discussion, it is obvious that the following conditions are to
be satisfied in order to have a waveform of the input signal applied to
vertical deflection system as a stationary pattern on the screen of CRO.
(i) Both horizontal and vertical signals must start at the same
instant.
(ii) Ratio of frequency of horizontal and vertical signals should be a
rational or fractional number.
For satisfying the above conditions, sawtooth-wave is generated and
synchronised with the vertical input signal by the trigger circuit and time
base generator, as shown in figure and explained above.
In the INT position of sweep selector switch, horizontal amplifier receives an
input from the time base generator,which provides a time base, and controls
the rate at which the beam is scanned across the face of the CRT. Time base
generator is triggered or initiated by a trigger circuit which ensures that the
horizontal sweep starts at the same point of the vertical input signal. As
explained earlier, it is necessary to synchronize the sweep with the signal
under measurement in order to obtain stationary pattern. Ratio of frequency
of the time base and of the signal under measurement should be a rational
number, otherwise pattern on the screen will not be stationary. A
synchronous selector switch is used, as shown in figure, to select the type of
synchronization. In the internal mode of switch the trigger is obtained from
the vertical amplifier, input of which is signal under measurement.
In the external position of switch, the trigger is obtained from the external
source. In the third position of switch i.e. line, trigger is obtained from the
power supply i.e. 230 V and 50 Hz.

Two types of sweep generators are usually used. In the first one sawtooth
signal of constant frequency is generated whether there is any input signal
for vertical signal or not. That is why it is called free running type. In this it is
essential to adjust the frequency of the sawtooth to get stationary pattern. In
the second type of sweep generator, sweep is triggered by the signal under
measurement so there is no need for any adjustment for synchronization.

Signal output on CRO

Sometimes, non-sawtooth sweep is also used in CRO for some special
applications.

Position Controls.
There are two knobs one for controlling the horizontal position and
another for controlling the vertical position. The spot can be moved to left or
right i.e. horizontally with the help of a knob, which regulates the dc
potential applied to the horizontal deflection plates, in addition to the usual
sawtooth-wave. Similarly the spot can be moved up and down i.e. vertically
with the help of another knob, which regulates the dc potential applied to the
vertical deflection plates in addition to the signal.

Intensity Control.
The potential of the control grid with respect to cathode is controlled with the
help of potentiometer in order to control the intensity of brightness of the
spot.

Focus Control.

In the electron gun of a CRT, middle anode is kept at lower potential with
respect to other two anodes and it acts like an electrostatic lens and focal
length of this lens can be varied by varying the potential of the middle anode
with respect to other two anodes. So focusing of an electron beam is done by
varying the potential of middle anode with the help of a potentiometer, as
shown in figure. By increasing the positive potential applied to the focusing
anode the electron beam can be narrowed and the spot on the screen can be
made a pin point.

Astigmatism.
This is an additional focusing control and is analogous to astigmatism in
optical lenses. A beam that is focused at the centre of the screen would be
defocused at the edges of the screen because the lengths of the electron
paths are different for the centre and the edges. Adjustment of this control
gives a sharp focus over the entire screen. This control is affected by varying
the potential of deflection plates and accelerating anodes.

Blanking Circuit.
Sawtooth sweep voltage is applied to horizontal deflection plates of CRT
which moves the spot on the screen following a straight horizontal line from
left to right during the sweep period. When the spot moves slowly so that its
rate of movement exceeds the threshold of persistence vision, the spot
appears as a solid line. Below this threshold limit, only spot or some portion
of line after the spot appears. If the movement of the spot is fast, it appears
as thin and dim horizontal line or may be invisible.

Calibration Circuit
Normally an oscillator, which generates a known and fixed voltage in square
waveform is fitted in the CRO for calibration purpose.
Q. How do you differentiate between dual beam and dual trace oscilloscope?
Sol. There are two separate vertical input channels A, B and these use
separate attenuator and preamplifier stages. Therefore the amplitude of
each input, as viewed on the oscilloscope, can be individually controlled.
After pre-amplification the two channels meet at an electronic switch, this
has the ability to pass one channel at a time into the vertical amplifier, via
the delay line.

There are two common operating modes for the electronic switch, called
alternate and chop and these are selected from the instrument's front panel.
The alternate mode is illustrated.
In this, the electronic switch alternates between channels A and B, letting
each through for one cycle of the horizontal sweep. The display is blanked
during the fly back and hold-off periods, as in conventional oscilloscope
provided the sweep speed is much greater than the decay time of the CRT
phosphor; the screen will show a stable display of both the waveform at
channels A and B. The alternate mode cannot be used for displaying very low
frequency signals.
In this mode, the electronic switch free runs at a high frequency of the order
of 100 kHz to 500 kHz. The result is that small segments from channels A
and B are connected alternately to the vertical amplifier and displayed on
the screen. Provided the chopping rate is much faster than the horizontal
sweep rate, the display will show a continuous line for each channel. If the
sweep rate approaches the chopping rate then the individual segments will
be visible and the alternate mode should now be used.
Switch allows the circuit to be trigged on either the A or B channel
waveforms, or on line frequency or on an external signal. The horizontal
amplifier can be fed from the sweep generator or the B channel via switch S.
This is the X-Y mode and the oscilloscope operates from channel A as the
vertical signal and channel B as the horizontal signal, giving very accurate XY measurements. Several operating modes can be selected from the front
panel for display, such as channel A only, channel B only, channels A and B
as two traces and signals A+B, A-B, B-A or (A+B) as a single trace.
Dual Beam CRO: The dual trace oscilloscope can not capture two fast
transient events, as it cannot switch quickly enough between traces. The
dual beam oscilloscope has two separate electron beams, therefore two
completely separate vertical channels, as in fig.
The two channels may have a common time base system, as shown. Or they
may have independent time base circuits. An independent time base allows
different sweep rates for the two channels but increases the size and weight
of the oscilloscope.
Two methods are used for generating the two electron beams within the CRT;
the first method uses a double gun tube. This allows the brightness and
focus of each beam to be controlled separately but is bulkier than a split
beam tube.
In the second method known as split beam, a single electron gun is used. A
horizontal splitter plate is placed between the last anode and the Y deflection
plates. The plate is held at the same potential as the anode and it goes along

the length of the tube between the two vertical deflection plates. It therefore
isolates the two channels. The split beam arrangement has half the
brightness of a single beam, which has disadvantages at high frequency
operation. An alternative method of splitting the beam, which improves its
brightness, is to have two apertures in the last anode instead of one, so that
two beams emerge from it.
The disadvantage of the split beam construction is that the two displays may
have noticeably different brightness, if operated at widely spaced sweep
speeds. The brightness and focus controls also affect the two traces as the
same time.