Arba Minch Water Technology Institute (AWTI)

Faculty of Water Supply And Environmental Engineering

Course title: Construction Materials

Course code: CEng - 2111
Target Group: 2nd Year WSEE
Instructor; Bedane Hailu
February,2020
1
 Course description
Objective:
 Understand the physical and chemical property of construction materials under different
conditions Know the production process of some construction materials Have basic skill
how to mix and produce concrete.

Outcomes: At the end of this course students will be able to:

 Describe engineering properties of concrete,
 Assess the significance of environmental factors on the behavior and durability of concrete
and other construction materials.
 Design concrete mix and grouting materials
 Course Contents
I. Classification of construction materials, mechanical properties of
construction materials:
II. nature and performance of materials under load
III. Cementing materials: production and use of lime, gypsum and cement.
IV. Concrete and concrete making materials: Mix design; physical and
mechanical properties of dry and wet concrete.
V. Grouting materials and their design.
VI. Ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Clay and clay products. Stones, timber and
timber products. Bituminous materials.
VII. Miscellaneous materials such as glass, polymers, ceramics and plastics.
Teaching & Learning Methods
 Lectures, home study and laboratory exercise
Assessment
 Continuous assessment= 50%
 Assignments,
 Laboratory report and
 quiz
 Final exam= 50%
 Nature and properties of construction materials

 Materials used in construction are known as Construction Materials or

Engineering Materials or Building Materials.

 Concrete and Steel dominate the building industry;

 Asphalt, Concrete and Steel widely used in the transportation industry;

 Wood and Masonry are widely used in the residential housing market; and

 Polymers, Composites, Concrete, Steel and other metals are the bulk of the
piping materials.

5
 Classıfıcatıon of Construction Materıals

 Based on Source of Material

1. Naturally occurring:
• Inorganic: Clay, stone, lime gravels and etc.
• Organic: Wood, bamboos and etc.
2. Artificial /Manufactured/ Modified materials:
• Cement, tiles, paints, steel bars, ceramic, pipes, glass, plastic and etc.
 According to their phases
1. Gases: Air, oxygen, CO2
2. Liquids: Water, chemical admixtures
3. Semi-solids: Fresh pastes, mortars, asphalt
4. Solids: Metals, hardened concrete
3
 Cont‘d
 According to their internal structure & chemical composition
1. Metals: (formed by metallic bonds)
A. Ferrous: iron, cast iron, steel
B. Non-ferrous: aluminum, copper, zinc, lead
2. Polymers: (long chains having molecules of C, H, O, N. The
chains are bound to eachother either by covalent bonds or Van
der Waal’s forces.)
A. Natural: rubber, asphalt, resins, wood
B. Artificial: plastics

7
 cont‘d
3. Ceramics: (mainly aluminosilicates formed by mixed bonding,
covalent and ionic)
A. Structural clay products: bricks, tiles,pipes
B. Porcelains (Products of fine clay)
4. Composite Materials:
A. Natural: agglomerates (Mixed)
B. Artificial: Portland cement, concrete
5. Reinforced Composite Materials: (reinforced concrete, reinforced plastics)

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 Material properties
1. Physical properties
2. Chemical properties
3. Mechanical properties
Physical properties
 Electrical properties
• Resistivity: The ability to impede flow of electricity
• Conductivity: The ability to allow current easily
• Dielectric Strength: The insulating capacity against high voltage
• Superconductivity: The ability to allow current easily at very low
temperatures

9
 Physical properties Cont’d
 Thermal properties
 Thermal conductivity –The ability to allow heat flows
 Specific heat – the heat required to raise the temperature of one
gram of a substance by one degree centigrade
 Thermal deformation is theproperty of asubstance to expand
with heat and contract with cold
 Thermal capacity or Heat Capacity: is ability to store heat or
cold.
• helps to even out the temperature swings in a building and also
in many cases reduce energy consumption.
 Melting, boiling and freezing point

10
 Physical properties cont‘d
 Temperature
• At low temperature, where the material is brittle and not strong, little energy
is required to fracture the material.
• At high temperature, where the material is more ductile and stronger, greater
energy is required to fracture the material.
• The transition temperature is the boundary between brittle and ductile
behavior. This is an extremely important parameter in selection of
construction material.

11
 Physical properties Cont.….
 Optical properties – response to light
 Transparent: light passes through
 Translucent: some light passes through but no distinct image
 Opaque: no light passes through it
 Other, which mostly includes the following important points
 Density
 colour
 Permeability
 texture (micro, macro)
 magnetic properties etc…

12
 Chemical properties
How a material interacts with another material (Chemical composition, potential
reaction with environment)
• Corrosion resistance- a material's ability to resist deterioration caused by
exposure to an environment
• Flame resistance is the property not toflame in case of
contacting with fire in the air.
• reaction with acid
• reaction with water

13
 Mechanical properties (Static stress strain properties)
Deal directly with behavior of materials (under equilibrium state) under applied
loads (forces, moments). These include loading under: tension, compression,
torsion, bending, repeated cyclic loading, constant loading over long time,
impact, etc.
Application of forces on solid bodies under equilibrium results in the development of
internal resisting forces and the body undergoes deformations to a varying degree.
Internal forces are called stresses and internal deformations are called strains.
 Most important mechanical properties of eng’g materials
• Elasticity • Brittleness Hardness
• Plasticity • Toughness
• Creep • Stiffness
• Resilience
• Ductility
• Fatigue
• Malleability
• strength
11
 Mechanical properties cont‘d

 Elasticity: Ability to return to original shape and size when unloaded

 Plasticity: Retains new shape after being deformed by stress
 Most engineering materials are in part elastic and in part plastic.
 Stiffness: Deformation resistance under load while in elastic state.
 Usually measured by the Modulus of Elasticity (E)
 The bigger E is, the more difficultly the material deformed.
 Resilience: The work done to deform a material up to elastic limit
 Toughness: Materials ability to absorb energy in the plastic range. It comprises
both strength and ductility.
 Creep: Slow permanent /plastic deformation under a constant load
over a long period of time.

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 Cont‘d
 Fatigue is the fracture/failure of a material that is subjected to repeating
cyclical loading, or cyclic stresses.
 Malleability: The ability to permanently extend in all directions when
hammered.
 Hardness: The ability to resist abrasion, penetration, scratching and
indentation by hard material
 Brittleness: The tendency to break/shatter suddenly when subjected to stress
but has a little tendency to deform before rupture.
 characterized by poor capacity to resist impact and vibration of load, high
compressive strength, and low tensile strength.
 When a brittle material fails, the structure can collapse in a
catastrophic manner. 13
 Cont‘d
 Ductility: Ability to elongate permanently under tensile
forces. Brittle

o Generally, ductile materials are preferred for construction.

o Distortions of the structure will not necessarily collapse Ductile

o Provides sufficient time to the occupants for taking

preventive measures Strain
 Viscoelasticity: is the property of materials that exhibit both viscous and
elastic characteristics when undergoing deformation.

• Viscoelastic materials have a delayed response to load application.

• asphalt and plastics.

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 Cont‘d
 Strength is ability to withstand load (self weight and any applied loads) without
failure or plastic deformation or distortion
Materials used for building structures are said to be strong if they are capable of
safely supporting their own weight and any applied loads without distortion.
• According to different forms of external forces, the strength includes tensile
strength, compressive strength, bend strength, shear strength, fatigue strength
and others.
• It varies with the rate and frequency of loading and, in non- homogeneous
materials, with the direction of load and moisture content (in timber),
temperature (in plastic)

 Specific strength is a ratio of material strength to apparent density.

• The higher specific strength is, the higher strength and lighter weight the
material is……
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 Cont‘d
 Durability: Ability to maintain their original properties in the process of usage
(subjected to physical, chemical, biological and other natural factors besides
various kinds of stress).

• Physical actions cause expansion and contraction of materials.

o wet-and-dry,
o temperature, and
o freeze-and-thaw changes,
• Chemical actions which can change the compositions of materials
o such as the chemical erosion of cement and the corrosion of steel.
• Biological action which can molder or rot materials,
o such as the decomposition of wood and plant fiber
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 Mechanical Tests
 With reference to the rate and duration of the load application.
1. Wear tests: made to determine resistance to abrasion and impact.
2. Dynamic tests: made with suddenly applied loads (generate a shock or
vibration in the structure).
3. Fatigue tests: made with fluctuating stresses repeated a large number of times.
4. Static tests: made with gradually increasing load.
5. Long-time tests: made with loads applied for a long period of time.
 With reference to the effect of the test on the specimen.
1. Destructive tests: tests on specimens .
2. Non-destructive tests: tests on existing structure.

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 Cont‘d
 With reference to the arrangement and direction of external forces, the following
classification may be made:
1. Bending test
2. Compressive test
3. Shear test
4. Tension test
5. Torsion test
 The tension and compression tests are generally used to provide basic design
information on the strength of materials and as an acceptance test for the
specification of materials.
 When a specimen is subjected to a gradually increasing axial tensile force, it is
assumed that the stress is distributed uniformly on the cross section (perpendicular
𝑃𝑃
to the line of action of the force): σ = Where, σ is tensile strength
𝐴𝐴𝑜𝑜
P is Applied load
Ao is area of the section perpendicular to the line of action of the applied force
21
 Cont’d
 The stress σ and strain ξ are called the nominal stress and strain since they don’t
include changes due to increase in length and reduction in area of the
specimen.
 Common types of nominal stress-strain diagrams are as follows:

A ductile material will exhibit a large deformation before complete failure whereas a brittle
material will fail without showing much deformation. For practical engineering purposes and many
engineering materials, the initial stress strain relations may be assumed to be linear. E, the slope
of the straight line, is called the modulus of elasticity.

22
 Cont’d
 The stress-strain relation is referred to as Hook’s law.

23
Properties for the elastic range

24
Cont’d…

25
Properties for plastic range

26
Cont’d…..,

27
 Factors Determining the Choice of Proper Material for a
Structure
 Mechanical and non-mechanical properties of the building materials
 Construction consideration such as the applicability of material to occupancy
and size of building, including durability, structural, and fire protection
requirements
 Material compatibility with climatic (environment), aesthetic conditions and
cultural conditions
 Economy: considering Availability, Initial cost, Useful life, Frequency and Cost
of maintenance, Salvage value…

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 What is Cement?
• A finely ground inorganic material which has cohesive &
adhesive properties; able to bind two or more materials
together into a solid mass.
- Cohesion is the tendency of a material to maintain its
integrity without separating or rupturing within itself when
subject to external forces.
- Adhesion is the tendency of a material to bond to
another material.
• Cement when mixed with water form a paste which sets and
harden by means of hydration reactions, and which after
hardening retain its strength and stability even under water.
 CEMENTING MATERIALS
 Cementing materials are materials with adhesive and cohesive properties,
which make them capable of of solid matter into a compact whole. uniting or
bonding together fragments or particles

 For engineering purposes the meaning is limited to those materials when

mixed with water form a paste, which is temporarily plastic and later on a rigid
mass after setting and hardening.

 Cements of this are known as calcareous cements whose principal constituents

are compounds of lime.

2
 Uses of cement

• Concrete

• Mortar

• Cement Modified Soil (CMS

or soil cement)

• Asbestos cement

• Glass fiber reinforced cement

 Groups of cement

Hydraulic cement Non-hydraulic cement

Able to set and Unable to set and
harden in water harden in water but
require air to harden
e.g. Portland Cement
e.g. lime, gypsum
 Raw materials of cement

• CaO (Calcium oxide) - from limestone Primary

• SiO2 (Silica) material
- from clay
• Al2O3 (Alumina)

• Fe2O3 (Iron oxide) - Secondary material

• MgO (Magnesium Oxide) - minor compound
• CaSO4 (Gypsum) - added to cement during
manufacturing
 Typical composition of some
raw materials

Component SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 K2O Na2O

Limestone 2.68 0.62 0.46 51.85 1.94 0.03 0.05 0.02

Sandy clay 81.56 11.29 1.79 0.12 0.09 0.05 0.14 0.03
Clay 65.18 21.91 3.36 0.11 0.08 0.06 0.19 0.04

Iron ore 14.88 16.79 57.74 0.12 0.56 0.04 0.04 0.03

Shale 61.10 16.42 7.01 1.02 2.34 0.01 4.12 1.65

Sand 94.70 2.90 0.24 0.35 0.13 0.01 0.60 0.21

Bauxite 3.11 57.59 15.74 4.16 0.16 0.29 0.08 0.08

Gypsum 4.31 0.34 0.14 31.19 0.11 43.88 - -
Fuel Ash 57.20 17.36 9.11 3.95 1.80 3.40 0.78 2.50
 Calcium Carbonate
CaCO3
 Carbonation TakesPlace Burnt in a Kiln at 900oC
 Carbon Dioxide Reabsorbed  Carbon Dioxide Given Off
 Water Given Off

Slaked Lime Quicklime

Ca(OH)2 CaO
Add to Water

7
 Generally lime is not found, in nature, in free state but it is obtained
by burning one of the following materials.
 Lime stone (CaCo3) found in lime stone hills:

 consists of more than 90 percent of calcium carbonate

 Lime stone boulders found in the beds of old rivers.

 Shells of sea animals

 sometimes dolomites (amineralformofcalcium-magnesium

carbonates, CaMg(CO3)2)
• contains about 40 and 43 percent of magnesium carbonate.

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Production Steps Of Lime

1. Excavation of limestone (CaCo3)

2. Crushing and Grinding
3. Calcination: at 900oC, to obtain quicklime
• The most commonly used kiln fuels are coal, natural gas, and
occasionally oil.
• The use of supplemental fuels such as waste solvents, scrap rubber, and
petroleum coke has expanded in recent years.
4. Pulverize Quicklime (99% smaller than 0.15 mm)
5. Mixed with water under pressure: to obtainSlaked Lime
6. Drying of Slaked Lime
7. Pulverizing (< 3-mm sieve) and Marketing in bags.
9
 CALCINATION

 CaCO3 + heat → CaO + CO2 (g) (>900°C)

Quick lime
+MgCO3 + heat → +MgO + CO2 (>900°C)
 Calcination is carried out in kilns or furnaces
• Intermittent kiln (for small scale production)
• Continuous kiln
• Rotary kiln
• Reactor kiln

10
Intermittent Kiln
• It is only the flame not the fuel that Limestone
comes in contact with the stones.
Firebricks
• It normally takes two days to burn and
one day to cool the charge.
• Whenever the lime is desired
intermittently or the supply of stones
or fuel is not regular then the Discharge
HEAT quicklime
intermittent kiln is used.

11
Continuous Kiln
• Burning proceeds continuously and the kiln is not allowed to cool
down.
• Burnt material is drawn out daily and fresh charge of stone and fuel is
added from top. Limestone
Fuel
Limestone
Fuel
Ash + Quicklime
Limestone
Fuel

12
Rotary Kiln
• This kiln is a long, a huge steel cylindrical, slightly inclined, refractory-
lined furnace, through which the limestone and hot combustion gases
pass counter currently.

13
Reactor Kiln
• vertical, or shaft, kiln; can be described as an upright heavy steel
cylinder lined with refractory material.
• advantage over rotary kilns is higher
average fuel efficiency.
• disadvantages are their relatively low
production rates and the fact that coal
cannot be used without degrading the
quality of the lime produced.

14
 CLASSIFICATION OF QUICKLIME
Quicklime/ Lime, is calcium oxide (CaO), a white or grayish white, finely
crystalline substance that sometimes has a yellow or brown tint because of iron
impurities.
1. According to Particle Size
• Lump Lime (10-30 cm lumps)
• Pebble Lime (2-5 cm)
• Granular Lime (~0.5 cm)
• Crushed Lime (~5-8 mm)
• Ground Lime (passes #10 sieve/ 2.00 mm)
• Pulverized Lime (passes #100 sieve/ 0.149 mm)

15
 Cont‘d
2. According to Chemical Composition

• High-Calcium Quicklimes, rich, fat, caustic lime (CaO ≥ 90%)

• Calcium Quicklime (75 < CaO < 90%)

• High magnesium/Dolomitic Quicklime (at least 25% of MgO)

• Magnesium Quicklime (at least 20% of MgO)

3. According to Intended Use

• Mortar Lime (used forstonework)

• Plaster Lime

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 Slaking (Hydration) OfLime
• Slaking is adding water to Quick lime/Calcium Oxide: CaO +
H2O → Ca(OH)2 + Heat (i.e. exothermic)

• considerable heat is generated, expansion takes place, breaking down the

quicklime pieces into a fine powder, and the resulting product is calcium
hydroxide, also called hydrated lime, or slaked lime.

• Magnesia limes slake more slowly and heat evolution and expansion are much
less than high-calcium limes. On the other hand, they harden slowly and they
are more plastic. They have less sand carrying capacity.

17
 Cont‘d
Types of slaking depending on the amount of water added are:
a) Wet-slaking: excess water is used.
 The putty is then covered with 5-10 cm thick soil to protect it from the action
of the air & left for seasoning.
• Time of seasoning → 1 week for mortar use
6 weeks for plaster use
 Seasoning provides a homogeneous mass & completion of chemical reactions.
 Used for plastering or limewash.
 Used for pointing masonry and even rendering.

18
 Cont‘d
b) Dry-slaking
 Just sufficient water is added (almost the theoretical quantity under carefully
controlled operation),

• The lumps break down into a dry powder

• Can be used immediately after mixing with water, its plasticity is

greatly improved by soaking overnight i.e. for at least 12 hours.

 It is usually used as an additive in cement as a plasticizer,

19
 Hardening Of SlakedLime
 Slaked lime/hydrated lime/calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), builders lime, or
pickling lime: is a colorless crystal or white powder
 Slaked lime hardens or sets by gradually losing its water through evaporation
and absorbing carbon dioxide from the air (carbonation), thus reverting back to
calcium Carbonate (CaCO3).
Ca (OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
• Classification of Lime
i. Fat lime,
ii. Hydraulic lime, and
iii. Poor lime.

20
 Cont‘d
i. Fat lime/high calcium lime/pure lime/ rich lime/ lump lime/white lime

 Raw material is produced by fairly pure limestone, essentially calcium

carbonate.

 It slakes rapidly.

 When compared with quick lime, the volume of fat lime gets increased to
about 2 - 2 ½ times during slaking. That is why it is popularly known as fat
lime

 The color is pure white.

 It is having the high degree of plasticity.

21
 Cont‘d
 The lime will only set by the method of carbonation
 Mixing of sand with fat lime mortar
• forms pores for access of air which helps hardening in the interior of thick
walls.
• prevent its greater tendency to shrink and crack as it dries.
 It has greater sand carrying capacity
 does not possess much strength.
• better for mortars, plasters and renders.

22
 Cont’d
ii. Hydraulic Limes

• Made by burning chalk or limestone, which contain clay, silicate and producing
compounds similar to those present in Portland cement.

• The content of clay and silicate gives the hydraulic property;

• It must be thoroughly slaked by the exact amount of water required.

• It slakes slowly.

• Usually supplied in powder form–not usually putty like non- hydraulic.

23
 Cont‘d
 Its colour is not perfect white. It varies with percentage of clay.

 It has the capacity to set and harden even under water.

• harden by an internal reaction and the method of carbonation

 They are strong but less fat or plastic than non-hydraulic limes.

 Hydraulic lime was found to be very useful in:

• damp conditions, and

• the construction of dams, bridges, quays, thick walls etc.

• situations where extra strength is important

24
 Cont‘d
Based on clay percentage, hydraulic lime is divided into three types
a. Feebly hydraulic Lime (5 to 10% clay content)
• used for internal work and external work on soft porous bricks and also in
covered areas.
b. Moderately Hydraulic Lime(11 to 20% clay content)
• used for external work in most areas.
c. Eminently Hydraulic Lime (21 to 30% clay content)
• used for external work in exposed areas, such as chimneys and floor
slabs/underpinning, and in damp places
• the more clay it contains, the harder it sets and the more it behaves like cement,
but makes slaking difficult

25
 Cont‘d
iii. Poor lime/ impure lime or lean lime
• Is a lime with clay content more than 30%.
• It slakes veryslowly.
• Its colour is muddy.
• It never gets dissolved with water and gets frequently changed.
• It has poor binding property.
• The mortar made with such lime is used for inferior works.

26
 LIME POPS

• If quicklime is not mixed completely with water, some CaO will be carried to
construction stage. In its final stage it will absorb water & CO2 from air and will
expand upto 2.5-3 times.

• This will cause cracking & pop-ups in the structure.

27
 Precautions to be taken in Handling Lime
• Workers should be provided with goggles and respirators as the lime dust causes
irritation, skin burns particularly in the presence of moisture.

• Worker should be instructed to wash their skin properly afterwork.

• Application of oil avoids skin burns.

• Quicklime must be kept in dry storage and carefully protected from

dampness until used.

• Quicklime will corrosively attack equipment.

• Slaking of lime generates immense heat. Hence, proper precautions

should be taken to avoid any fire hazards. 28
 PROPERTIES OF LIME MORTARS
• lime mortar is obtained By adding sand to lime.
• Sand contributions: decreases strength and shrinkage effects
• Adjusts plasticity – otherwise toosticky
• Gaining economy
• lime contributions:
• High water retentivity (hardens slowly)
• Improved bond strength
• A lighter color mortar
• compressive strength of lime mortar varies from 5 kgf/cm2 to 20 kgf/cm2
(less than that of cement-and gypsum-mortars)
• Its tensile strength is less about 3 to 5 kgf/cm2.
• Portland cement used to improve mechanical properties of lime-mortar.44
 Uses ofLime
 Plaster mortars – sets slower than gypsum
 lime concrete for make water proof structures.
 Stabilization of road surfaces bases and sub-bases. The use depends upon the
• reaction of lime with particular constituent materials of the soil to give a
cementing effect.
• Climates (Slow & ineffective in cooler climates).
 It is used in the manufacture of glass, paints, bricks, blocks, tilesetc.
 used as an ingredient of cement.
 Lime for treatment of water and waste water.

30
Calcium Sulphate Dihydrate /Gypsum: GYPSUM
Gypsum is a hydrated calcium sulphate of non
- hydraulic cementing material.
 In nature: Gypsum Rock
 Pure gypsum rock : CaSO4.2H2O
 Impurities : MgO, Al2O3, Fe2O3, SiO2,
CaCO3, MgCO3...
• It is rarely found in the pure form.

31
 PRODUCTION STEPS
• Excavating: from open-cast mines, or underground mines using pillar and stall
mining methods,
• Crushing (~25 mm diameter)
• Grinding
• Heating (calcining)
• carried out in two types of kilns.
• Kettle Kilns
• Rotary Kilns
• Cooling and Pulverizing
• Marketing inBags

32
 Heating (calcining)
• Incomplete calcınatıon: is low burning process (150-1900C).
CaSO4.2H2O + heat → CaSO4.1 2H2O + 32H2O
Plaster of Paris
• Complete calcınatıon: is high-burning process (above 190°C).
CaSO4.2H2O + heat → CaSO4 + 2H2O
gypsum anhydrite all water is removed
• Both of these products form gypsum rock by recombining with water.
CaSO4. 12H2O + 32H2O → CaSO4.2H2O
CaSO4 + 2H2O → CaSO4.2H2O

33
 GYPSUM PLASTERS
 Obtained by Incomplete Calcination (CaSO4.½H2O)
1. Plaster of Paris/hemihydrate /stucco: No admixtures are found.
2. Hard Wall Plaster
Plaster of Paris + Admixtures (Glue, Sand...)
 Obtained by Complete Calcination (CaSO4)
1. Flooring Plaster (CaSO4 with no impurities)
2. Hard Finish Plaster
(CaSO4 + Al2(SO4)3)
(CaSO4 + Na2B4O7)

34
 PROPERTIES & USES OF GYPSUM PLASTERS
 Plaster of Paris (POP)/hemihydrates
• fine, white colored powder.
• Setting time ~5-20 min.
• soft after setting, and can be easily manipulated with
metal tools or even sandpaper.
• Used for
• ornamental work: designs can be made in the walls and ceilings
• Sculpturing (because of its easy occurrence and speed),
• small repair work: seals thin cracks in the plastered surfaces.
• Finishing/ chalk plaster
• plaster molds for casting metal to make boat keels

50
 Cont‘d
 Hard Wall Plaster

• Setting time ~1 hr

• Compressive strength 7 MPa

• Admixtures result in increased plasticity & setting time & reduced shrinkage

• Can be used for

• plastering walls, and

• Production of prefabricated structural units,

• masonry bricks & blocks

36
 Cont‘d

 Flooring, Hard Finish Plaster

• Setting time ~1-16 hrs

• Compressive strength > 7 MPa

• used for producing:

• prefabricated units,

• masonry bricks & blocks &

• flooring & pavement bricks & tiles.

37
 Properties andUses

• It is light in weight.
• It is practically unaffected by bacteria.
• It shows negligible shrinkage upon drying. So molds of actual
dimensions can be used for castings.
• it is slightly soluble in water (non-hydraulıc).
• It should not be used for exterior work & for moist interiors.
• used for sound-absorbing constructions as in acoustical plaster,
plasters boards, partition tile, roof tile and reinforced plaster decking.

38
cont.
• Gypsum often serves as a fire and heat proofing
material. It forms a powder covering the surface
which acts as an effective insulator.
• prolonged exposure to extreme heat, after the
water of hydration is driven off, destroys strength.
• Plaster ingredient.
• Gypsum board/ plaster boards/ Drywall - a layer of plaster
sandwiched between two sheets of cardboard.
• Uncalcined gypsum is an effective, economical retarder in cement.
• A component of Portland cement used to prevent flash setting of
concrete. 39
cont.
• The ultimate strength of gypsum has been found to vary from 5
kgf/cm2 to 200 kgf/cm2, depending upon
• the temperature used in calcining the gypsum rock.
• the amount of foreign materials mixed with the gypsum to retard
or accelerate its rate of setting and
• the amount of H2O used in mixing the gypsum paste,
• use least possible amount of water for highest strength
• 33-38% water makes plastic or workable sufficiently.
• completeness of drying out of H2O after the gypsum paste has set,
• water removed either by simply leaving the plaster to dry by
evaporation or by heating it to up to 250oC for up to 60 minutes.
55
cont.
• Plaster too slow in setting action , so a wide variety of setting
accelerators and retardants (retarders) are used in the technology of
gypsum.
• Accelerations include such substances as potassium alum and
calcium.
• Commonly used retarders are keratin, sodium silicate, glycerol,
bentonite, glue, sawdust etc.
• It should not be handled with barehands.
• Large amounts of Plaster of Paris placed directly onto the skin can
cause serious burns because of the heat produced
• Rubber glows and goggles should beused. 41
Production & Use of cements

42
 Portland Cement
• Portland cement is a cementing material which is obtained by thoroughly
mixing together calcareous or other lime bearing material with argillaceous
and/or other silica, alumina or iron oxide bearing materials, burning them at a
clinkering temperature and grinding the resulting clinker.

• 1824, Joseph Aspdin from Leeds city - England, produced a powder made from
the calcined mixture of limestone and clay.

• He called it "Portland Cement", because when it hardened it produced a

material similar to stones from the quarries near Portland Island in UK.

43
 TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT

Different concrete applications require cement

with different properties.

Different types of cement are achieved by

changing the

• composition of cement - ratios of the four main

compounds
• degree of grinding - fineness
• adding admixtures / additives
 Types of Portland Cement

TYPES ASTM BS MS PROPERTIES USES

Ordinary Type I BS 12: 522 Ordinary. General

Portland 1978 construction e.g.
70 % of total
Cement floors, pavements,
cement
(Most reinforced concrete
consumption.
common) structures
Moderate rate
(Special properties
of hardening.
not required).
Minimum
Small structures
fineness: 225
(no exposure to
m2/kg
sulfate)
 Types of Portland Cement

TYPES ASTM BS MS PROPERTIES USES

Modified Type Moderate heat For structures
Portland II of hydration. where a
Cement Moderate moderately low
(Moderate resistance to heat generation
sulfate sulfate attack. is desirable or
resistance) moderate
sulfate attack
may occur
either in soil or
sea water e.g.
large pier,
retaining wall
 Types of Portland Cement

TYPES ASTM BS MS PROPERTIES USES

Rapid Type III 522 Rapid strength. Urgent / fast

Hardening High C3S track
Portland content (70 %). construction
Cement High rate of (formwork to be
heat removed early).
development. High early
Minimum strength is
fineness: 325 required.
m2/kg. Construction
3 days strength at low
= 14 days temperature.
strength of OPC.
 Types of Portland Cement

TYPES ASTM BS MS PROPERTIES USES

Low Heat Type IV Low heat of Mass concrete
Portland hydration. structures e.g.
Cement High C2S and large gravity
C4AF. dams.
Low content of Prevent thermal
C3S and C3A and shrinkage
resulting in low cracks.
early strength but
ultimate strength is
unaffected.
 Types of Portland Cement

TYPES ASTM BS MS PROPERTIES USES

Sulfate Type 1037 Low in C3A. Protection

Resisting V (3.5%) to avoid from severe
Portland sulfate attack. sulfate
Cement High chemical exposure e.g.
resistance. Low underground
heat content. water/ marine
structures
White 888 Iron oxide < Building, arts
Portland 0.4 % to ensure
Cement whiteness
Type IP (Portland Pozzolana cement/PPC)
• Produced when pozollanic materials, to a maximum percentage of 35,
is blended with Ordinary Portland Cement and gypsum.
• offers greater resistance to the attack of aggressive waters than OPC.
• Most pozzolans do not contribute to the strength at early ages, so
strength gain of these cements isslow.
• Therefore they require larger curing period, but the ultimate
strength is the same as OPC.
• Less heat of hydration liberated during the process, which
causes thermal strain resulting cracking.
• destructive expansion from alkali-aggregate reaction is less.
50
cont.
• The PPC is ideally suited for general construction which does not
required high early strength.
• pozzolana is siliceous and aluminous material which in itself
possesses little, or no cementitious properties but will in finely
divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with
calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form compounds
possessing cementitious properties.
• Fly ash, slag (blast-furnace), silica fume are artificial pozzolans.
• Volcanic ash, tuffs , diatomaceous earth, opaline cherts and shales
are natural pozzolan.
51
WHITE PORTLANDCEMENT
• Used for architectural /aesthetic reasons,
• for terrazzo flooring, stucco, and architectural concrete.
• China clay (Kaolin) is generally used together with chalk or limestone
free from specified impurities (iron oxide, manganese oxide).
• This complicates the manufacturing process and increases the energy cost
• To avoid contamination by coal ash, oil is used as fuel in the kiln
• The cost of grinding is higher
• Consequently, the cost approximately twice the cost of normal/gray
portland cement.
• produced as Type I or Type III. Which have the same properties as the
gray Type I and Type III portland cement, respectively. 52
 Sources of Raw Materials Used in Manufacture of Portland Cement
Calcium Silica Alumina Iron Sulfate
Alkali waste Calcium silicate Aluminum-ore refuse Blast-furnace Anhydrite
Clay Clay Clay Clay Calcium sulfate
Cement rock Cement rock Cement rock flue dust Gypsum
Aragonite Loess Loess Iron ore
Fuller’s earth Fuller’s earth Fuller’s earth Mill scale
Calcite Fly ash Fly ash Pyrite cinders
Cement-kiln dust Ore washings Ore washings Ore washings
Chalk Sand Copper slag Shale
Limestone Limestone Limestone
Marble Quartzite Granodiorite
Marl Rice-hull ash Bauxite
Seashells Marl Staurolite
Shale Shale Shale
Slag Slag Slag
Sandstone

Source: PCA, 2003

Trap rock Shale = soft fin ely stratified sedim en6t1aryrock
chemical compounds of PortlandCement
Compound Abbreviation Chemical formula Typical concentration
Tricalcium silicate / alite C3S (CaO)3 · SiO2 50-70%
Dicalcium silicate / belite C2S (CaO)2 · SiO2 15-30%
Tricalcium Aluminate / celite C3A (CaO)3 · Al2O3 5-10 %
Tetracalcium alumino-ferrate / iron C4AF (CaO)4 · Al2O3 · Fe2O3 5-15%cont.
Calcium Oxide CaO 2%

Magnesium Oxide MgO 4%

Gypsum CaSO4 · 2 H2O 2–10%

54
Typical Compound Composition and Fineness of Portland Cements

Type of cement Designation Compound comp.% Fineness*

ASTM (cm2/g)
C3S C2S C3A C4AF
Ordinary Type I 50 24 11 8 1800
Modified Type II 42 33 5 13 1800
Rapid Hardening Type III 60 13 9 8 2600
Low Heat Type IV 26 50 5 12 1900
Sulphate Resisting Type V 40 40 4 9 1900

* Fineness as determined by Wagner turbidimeter test.

55
Steps in Manufacturing Process Of
Portland Cement
• Grinding & mixing of raw materials
• Burning in rotary kiln (clinker is produced)
• Cooling, grinding of clinker & sieving
• Storing, packing & distributing
Types of Processes
• The wet process
• The semi-dry process
• The dry process
Production Steps of Ordinary Portland Cement /OPC

• raw materials acquisition and stored separately.

• Crushing and stockpiling the raw materials
• Calculating the proportions of raw materials depending upon their
purity and composition
• Raw materials are blended and mixed to produce uniform chemical
composition containing calcium carbonate, silica, alumina, iron oxide
etc.
• ground until more than 85% of the material is less than 90μm in
diameter.
57
cont.
• the powder goes into a or rotary kiln.
• Clinker is cooled to a temperature of about 60-150oC and stockpiled.
• Rate of cooling significantly affects the reactivity of the final
cement
• Either gypsum or natural anhydrite, both of which are forms of
calcium sulfate, is introduced to the process during the finish grinding
of Clinker
• to control the setting time of the finished cement.
• The finished cement is stored in silos for a relatively short time before
being sent to the customer in bags or inbulks. 58
 TESTING OF CEMENT

Testing are done to

• ensure the quality of cement.
• determine the chemical and physical properties of
cement.
Tests should be conducted according to the relevant
standard:
• MS 522 Part 1, 2, 3 – OPC
• BS 12: 1978 – OPC and RHPC
• BS 4550: Part 1: 1978 – Methods of testing cement.
 Types of Testing

 Chemical composition
- To determine the amount of C3S, C2S, C3A & C4AF
 Fineness of cement
- Fineness influences:
Rate of hydration, rate of heat released and rate of
strength development
- Fineness is determined through specific surface
(m2/kg)
 Fineness Test

Measures
time to
pass air
through
cement
sample

Wagner Turbidimeter
Blaine Air Permeability
  Setting time
Time taken for cement paste to change from fluid to a
rigid state.

Vicat test

Gilmore test
 Setting time

• Initial set – Time from moment water is added until the

paste ceases to be fluid and plastic.

Vicat test – time when penetration of 25 mm is obtained

• Final set – Time from moment water is added until the
paste acquire a certain degree of hardness.

Vicat test – time when the needle does not penetrate

visibly into the paste.
For OPC and RHPC: Initial set time > 45 minutes.
Final setting time – < 10 hours.
 Setting time

• False set
Occurs within a few minutes of mixing with water. No
heat is evolved. The concrete can be remixed
without adding water.

• Flash set
In the absence of gypsum, immediate stiffening of the
cement paste occur due to the rapid reaction between
C3A with water. The concrete can’t be restored.
  Soundness
• Ability of hardened paste to retain volume after setting.
• Cements exhibiting expansions are classified as unsound.
• Expansion may occur due to reactions of free lime (CaO),
magnesia (MgO) and calcium sulphate.
• Calcium sulphate – cause expansion through the
formation of calcium monosulphoaluminate from excess
gypsum (not used up by C3A during setting).
• For OPC, expansion not more than 10 mm.
 Soundness Test

Autoclave test
(for testing unsoundness due to
magnesia.)
Le Chattelier’s apparatus
(detecting unsoundness due to free
lime only)
 Compressive Strength
Compressive strength tests are made
on mortar and concrete cubes.
Mortar Cube Test 71 mm

Mortar = Cement + Sand + Water

1 : 3
( standard (10% of
sand, one size the mass
and spherical of dry
shape) materials)
 Compressive strength test

• > 24 hours, demould mortar

cubes.
• Cure in water.
• Get the average compressive
strength for three cubes.

According to MS 522: Part 1

• OPC – 23 MPa at 3 days, 41
MPa at 28 days
• RHPC–29 MPa at 3 days, 46 MPa
at 28 days
 Compressive strength test

Concrete Cube Test

Concrete = Cement + Aggregate + Water

(Water /
1 : 6 cement: 0.6,
100 mm 0.55, 0.45)
• OPC – 11.5 MPa at 3 days; 26 MPa at 28 days
• RHPC – 18 MPa at 3 days; 33 MPa at 28 days
CHAPTER 3: Mix Design Process
 The proportioning of concrete mixtures, more commonly referred to as mix
design, is a process that consists of two interrelated steps:
1. selection of the suitable ingredients (cement, aggregate, water and
admixtures) of concrete and
2. determining their relative quantities (“proportioning”)
to produce, as economically as possible, concrete of the
appropriate workability, strength and durability.
A. Economy
the cost of concrete is made up of the costs of materials, labor, and
equipment.
However, except for some special concretes, the costs of labor and
equipment are largely independent of the type and quality of concrete
produced.
3
A. Economy
It is therefore the material costs that are most important in
determining the relative costs of different mix designs.
Since cement is much more expensive than aggregate, it isclear that
minimizing the cement content is the most important single factor in
reducing concrete costs.
This can, in general, be done
by using the lowest slump that will permit adequate
placement,
by using the largest practical maximum size of aggregate,
by using the optimum ratio of coarse to fine aggregates,
where necessary, by using appropriate admixtures.

4
B. Workability
a properly designed mix must be capable of being placed and
compacted properly with the equipment available.
Finishability must be adequate, and segregation and bleeding should
be minimized.
As a general rule, the concrete should be supplied at the
minimum workability that will permit adequate placement.
For concrete without mineral admixtures, the water requirement
for workability depends mostly on the characteristics of the
aggregate rather than those of the cement.

5
C. Strength and Durability
In general, concrete specification will require a minimum
compressive strength.
They may also impose limitations on the permissible w/c ratio and
minimum cement contents.
It is important to ensure that these requirements are not mutually
incompatible.
Specifications may also require that the concrete meet certain
durability requirements, such as resistance to freezing and thawing
or chemical attack.

6
Limiting Values
It is obvious to encounter limiting values in many specifications. The
limiting values may cover a range of properties; the more usual ones
are:
Minimum compressive strength necessary from structural
considerations;
Maximum water/cement ratio and/or minimum cement content and,
in certain conditions of exposure, a minimum content of entrained
air to give adequate durability;
Maximum cement content to avoid cracking due to the temperature
cycle in mass concrete;
Maximum cement content to avoid shrinkage cracking under
conditions of exposure to a low humidity; and
Minimum density for gravity dams and similar structures.

7
Specifying Concrete
Generally concrete can be specified in one of the four ways:
Designed mix: is specified by the designer principally in terms ofstrength,
cement content, and water/cement ratio; compliance relies on strength
testing.
Prescribed mix: is specified by the designer in terms of the nature and
proportions of mix ingredients; the concrete producer simply makes the
concrete ‘to order’.
Standard mix: is based on ingredients and proportions fully listed in the
specific standards. This type of mix most of the time are used only in
minor construction.
Designated mix: In this case the concrete producer selects the
water/cement ratio and the minimum cement content using a table of
structural applications coupled with standard mixes.

8
Mix Design Methods
Some of the prevalent concrete mix design methods are:
ACI: American Concrete Institute Mix Design Method,
DOE: Department of Environment Mix design practice
(British),
DIN Mix design Method (German)
IS: Indian Standard Mix Design Method

9
Back Ground data
To the extent possible, selection of concrete proportions should bebased on
test data or experience with the materials actually to be used.
The following information for available materials will be useful:
Sieve analyses of fine and coarse aggregates.
Unit weight of coarse aggregate.
Bulk specific gravities and absorptions of aggregates.
Specific gravities of Portland cement and other cementitious
materials, if used.
Optimum combination of coarse aggregates to meet the
maximum density gradings

10
Procedure
Step-1: Choice of slump
If slump is not specified, a value appropriate for the work can beselected
from Table-1

Table-1: Recommended slumps for various types of construction

11
Procedure
Step-2: Choice of maximum size of aggregate
Large nominal maximum sizes of well graded aggregates have less voids
than smaller sizes.
Hence, concretes with the larger-sized aggregates require less mortar
per unit volume of concrete.
Generally, the nominal maximum size of aggregate should be the largest
that is economically available and consistent with dimensions of the
structure.

12
Procedure
Step-3: Estimation of mixing water and air content
The quantity of water per unit volume of concrete required to
produce a given slump is dependent on:
the nominal maximum size,
particle shape, and
grading of the aggregates;
the concrete temperature;
the amount of entrained air; and
use of chemical admixtures.
Table-2 provides estimates of required mixing water for concrete made with
various maximum sizes of aggregate, with and without air entrainment.

13
Procedure
Step-3: Estimation of mixing water and air content
Table-2: Approximate mixing water and air content requirements

14
Procedure
Step-4: Selection of water-cement or water-cementitious materials
ratio
Approximate and relatively conservative values for concrete
containing Type I Portland cement can be taken from Table-3a.

Table-3a: Relationships between water-cement ratio and compressive strength of

concrete

15
Procedure
Step-4: Selection of water-cement or water-cementitious materials
ratio
For severe conditions of exposure, the w/c or w/(c + p) ratio should be
kept low even though strength requirements may be met with a higher
value. Table-3b gives limiting values.

Table-3b: Maximum permissible water-cement ratios for concrete in severe

exposure

16
Procedure
Step-5: Calculation of cement content
The amount of cement per unit volume of concrete is fixed by the
determinations made in Steps 3 and 4 above.
The required cement is equal to the estimated mixing-water content (Step 3)
divided by the water-cement ratio (Step 4).
If, however, the specification includes a separate minimum limit oncement in
addition to requirements for strength and durability, the mixture must be
based on whichever criterion leads to the larger amount of cement.

17
Procedure
Step-6: Estimation of coarse aggregate content
Appropriate values for this aggregate volume are given in Table-4.

Table-4: Volume of coarse aggregate per unit volume of concrete

18
Procedure
Step-7: Estimation of fine aggregate content
At completion of Step 6, all ingredients of the concrete have been estimated
except the fine aggregate. Its quantity is determined by difference. Either
of two procedures may be employed:
the weight method or
the absolute volume method.
The weight method
If the weight of the concrete per unit volume is assumed or can beestimated
from experience, the required weight of fine aggregate is simply the
difference between the weight of fresh concrete and the total weight of the
other ingredients.
First estimate of weight of fresh concrete can be determined from Table- 5.

19
Procedure
Step-7: Estimation of fine aggregate content The
weight method
Table-5: First estimate of weight of fresh concrete

20
Procedure
Step-7: Estimation of fine aggregate content The
weight method
If a theoretically exact calculation of fresh concrete weight per m3 isdesired,
the following formula can be used

21
Procedure
Step-8: Adjustment for moisture aggregate
The aggregate quantities actually to be weighed out for the concrete must
allow for moisture in the aggregates.
Generally, the aggregates will be moist and their dry weights should be
increased by the percentage of water they contain, both absorbed and
surface.
The mixing water added to the batch must be reduced by an amount equal to
the free moisture contributed by the aggregate -- i.e., total moisture minus
absorption.

22
Procedure
Step-9: Trial batch adjustments
The calculated mixture proportions should be checked by means oftrial
batches prepared and tested in accordance with ASTM C 192

23
Example-1
Concrete is required for a portion of a structure that will be below ground
level in a location where it will not be exposed to severe weathering or
sulfate attack. Structural considerations require it to have an average 28-day
compressive strength of 24 Mpa (cylindrical). It is determined that under the
conditions of placement to be employed, a slump of 75-100 mm should be
used. and the coarse aggregate has a nominal maximum size of 37.5 mm and
dry-rodded mass of 1600 kg/m3.
Other properties of the ingredients are: cement -Type I with specific gravity of
3.15; coarse aggregate - bulk specific gravity 2.68 and absorption 0.5
percent; fine aggregate - bulk specific gravity 2.64, absorption 0.7 percent,
and fineness modulus 2.8.
Calculate the weights of all materials that you would use for the first trial mix
on a concrete mix.

24
Example-1 Solution
Step 1: The slump is required to be 75 to 100 mm.
Step 2: The aggregate to be used has a nominal maximum size of
37.5 mm.
Step 3: The concrete will be non-airentrained since the structure isnot
exposed to severe weathering.
From Table-2, the estimated mixing water for a slump of 75 to
100 mm in non-air-entrained concrete made with 37.5 mm
aggregate is found to be 181 kg/m3.
Step 4:The water-cement ratio for non-airentrained concrete with astrength
of 24 MPa is found from Table-3a to be 0.62.
Step-5: From the information developed in Steps 3 and 4, the
required cement content is found to be 181/0.62 = 292 kg/m3.

25
Example-1 Solution
Step 6: The quantity of coarse aggregate is estimated from Table-4. For a fine
aggregate having a fineness modulus of 2.8 and a 37.5 mm nominal
maximum size of coarse aggregate, the table indicates that 0.71 m3 of
coarse aggregate, on a dry-rodded basis, may be used in each cubic
meter of concrete.
The required dry mass is, therefore, 0.71 x 1600 = 1136 kg.
Step 7: The required fine aggregate may be determined on the basis of either
mass or absolute volume as shown below:

26
Example-1 Solution
Step 7: Mass basis
From Table-5, the mass of a cubic meter of non-air-entrained
concrete made with aggregate having a nominal maximum size of
37.5 mm is estimated to be 2410 kg. Masses already known are:

The mass of fine aggregate is therefore estimated to be

2410 – 1609 = 801Kg

27
Example-1 Solution
Step 7: Absolute volume basis
With the quantities of cement, water, and coarse aggregate
established, and the approximate entrapped air content of 1 percent
determined from Table-2 , the sand content can be calculated as
follows:

28
Example-1 Solution
Step 7: Absolute volume basis

29
Example-1 Solution
Step 7:
Batch masses per cubic meter of concrete calculated on the two bases
are compared below:

30
Example-1 Solution
Step 8: Tests indicate total moisture of 2 percent in the coarse
aggregate and 6 percent in the fine aggregate. If the trial batch
proportions based on assumed concrete mass are used, the adjusted
aggregate masses become

Absorbed water does not become part of the mixing water and must be
excluded from the adjustment in added water. Thus, surface water
contributed by the coarse aggregate amounts to 2 -
0.5 = 1.5%; by the fine aggregate 6 - 0.7 = 5.3%. The estimated
requirement for added water, therefore, becomes

31
Example-1 Solution
Step 8:
The estimated batch masses for a cubic meter of concrete are:

Step 9: For the laboratory trial batch, it is found convenient to scale the
masses down to produce 0.02 m3 of concrete.

32
Exercise-1
Calculate the weights of all materials that you would use for the first trial mix
on a concrete mix required to achieve Characteristic compressive
strength of 25 N/mm2 at 28 days (cubic strength). The following information
on material properties and plant performance is available to you.
Cement Type, specific gravity respectively O.P.C, 3.15
Max. Aggregate size, rodded bulk density of aggregate 19 mm,1600kg/m3
Rel. Density (S.G) of combined aggregate (SSD) 2.75
Required Slump 25mm
Maximum Cement Content 500 Kg/m3
Max free water/cementratio 0.5
Fineness modulus 2.97
Air content 1%
Free moisture content of sand and coarse aggregate respectively 8%, 1%
Bulk specific gravity of coarse and fine aggregate respectively 2.7, 2.6
Absorption of coarse and fine aggregate respectively 0.3%, 0.8%
33
Exercise-2
Calculate the weights of all materials that you would use for the first trial mix
on a concrete mix required to achieve Characteristic compressive
strength of 40 N/mm2 at 28 days (cubic strength). The following information
on material properties and plant performance is available to you.
Cement Type, specific gravity respectively O.P.C, 3.15
Max. Aggregate size, rodded bulk density of aggregate 12.5 mm, 1700 kg/m3
Rel. Density (S.G) of combined aggregate (SSD) 2.7
Required Slump 50mm
Min. Cement Content 320 Kg/m3
Max free water/cementratio 0.7
Fineness modulus 2.93
Air content 1%
Free moisture content of sand and coarse aggregate respectively 8%, 1%
Bulk specific gravity of coarse and fine aggregate respectively 2.7, 2.6
Absorption of coarse and fine aggregate respectively 0.3%, 0.8%
 Common terms
 Paste: is a mixture of water and cement
 Hydration, chemical reaction between water and cement which begins
as soon as they meets, results a hardened cement paste (cement stone).
Mortar
 Mortar/cement plaster: mixture of paste and fine aggregate
 Depending on the desired strength, cement to the sand ratio varies from
1:2 to 1:6.
(1:2 cement to sand ratio means 1 part cement and 2 part sand)


 Lime mortar = water+ lime (fat lime or hydraulic lime) + sand

 The lime to the sand proportion is kept 1:2.
 Common terms
 Gauged mortar = water + cement + lime + sand .
 cement to lime proportion varies from 1:6 to 1:9.
 economical than cement concrete and stronger than lime mortar.
 mortar are used
 as a render on masonry
 as a bedding agent in brickwork, ceramic tiles, roof tiles
 as a finishing material /plaster to provide weather resistance
 Concrete
 Concrete: mixture of mortar & larger aggregate or cement
paste & aggregates (fine and coarse aggregate)
 the cement paste: 25 - 35 percent of concrete volume
 aggregate: 60 - 75 percent of concrete volume.
 fine aggregate content usually 35% to 45% of
total aggregate
 contains air, which varies from 2-8% by volume
 admixtures: unlike cement, aggregate and water are
not an essential component, but they are increasingly
widespread.
 AGGREGATE
 Rocklike material of random shapes and
contains mineral such as sand, gravel, shale or
slag.
 Aggregate is a collective term for sand, gravel
and crushed stone.
 Uses
• Underlying material (base course) for foundations
and roads Add stability & provide drainage layer.
•Base materials for roads
•Ballast for railroads
•Asphalt concrete
•Protection of bank or shore from erosion – riprap
 Uses
• As a bedding or backfill material for
underground pipes.
 Uses
 Stone retaining walls
(held in place by wire baskets – gabions)
 Water filter
 Sources
 Natural – Mined from natural deposits (land or underwater).
 Manufactured – e.g. Blast furnace slag, fly ash (industrial by
products)
 Recycled Aggregate – e.g. crushed concrete, clay bricks
 Sizes of Aggregate

• Fine aggregate < 5 mm

• Coarse aggregate > 5 mm (10 mm, 20 mm,
40mm)
Conditions
 Processing

Mining

Crushing –
Primary &
Secondary
 Aggregate properties
• Particle shape & texture
• Specific gravity
• Moisture content & absorption
• Voids
• Bulk density
• Porosity
• Modulus of elasticity
• Compressive strength
• Gradation & fineness modulus
• Shrinkage
• Chemical reactivity
 Specific Gravity

 Ratio of the weight (mass) of an object to the weight of an

equal volume of water (at std. temp. & pressure)
e.g.
1 m3 of sand weighs 2600 kg
1 m3 of water weighs 1000 kg @ 4 oC
Specific gravity = 2600/1000
= 2.6
 Cont’d
• Specific gravity (s.g.) or relative density (rl.dn.)
ρa γa ma
G= = =
ρw γw mw

• Where - ρa and ρw density of aggregate and water

- γa and γw unit weight of aggregate and water
- ma and mw mass of aggregate and water in equal volume.
• affects density of concrete.
• The main use of specific gravity in concrete mix design
• weight-volume conversions
• to calculate void ratios for a given aggregate.
• to calculate the yield of concrete for a given proportion
 Aggregates Properties effecting concrete

• Toughness
important for concrete used in road pavements.
• Hardness
• size (use maximum possible size).
• larger the maximum size of aggregate,
• smaller is the paste requirement
• Higher is the workability of concrete.
• N.B. Maximum size of aggregate should not be larger than
• 1/5th of minimum dimension of section
• 1/3rd of slabs thickness
• 3/4th of minimum clear spacing between reinforcing bars and between rebars
and the form.
 Cont’d
• Bulking of Sand
• Because of their small size and weight, sand particles are easily pushed and held
apart by surface water there by increasing the total volume per given weight of
sand. This phenomenon is known as bulking (%).
• The finer the sand the higher will be the bulking effect.
• Sand which is completely submerged or “inundated” shows no bulking.
• In coarse aggregate the bulking due to moisture is negligible.
 Cont’d
• gradation: is the particle-size distribution of an aggregate
• Well graded in order to minimize paste,
• hence cement requirement.
• Combined gradation: fine and coarse aggregates are combined
• good interlocking, few voids, economical.
• course aggregates gradation plays an important role in workability and paste
requirements
• fine aggregates gradation affects the workability
and finishing characteristics of concrete
 Grading of aggregates

Grading refers to the process that determines the particle size distribution of
a sample of aggregate .
 Standard Sieve Size and Square Openings
For Fine Aggregate For Coarse Aggregate
ES series ASTM series ES series ASTM series
Sieve size & clear Sieve size Clear opening Sieve size & clear Sieve size Clear opening
opening opening

9.5mm 3/8 in 0.375in 75mm 3in 3.00in

4.75mm No.4 0.187in 63mm (2in)* 2.00in

2.36mm No.8 0.0937in 37.5mm 1 ½ in 1.50in

- - - - (1in)* 1.00in

1.18mm No.16 0.0469in 19mm ¾ in 0.75in

600μm No.30 0.0232in 13.2mm (½ in)* 0.50in

300μm No.50 0.0117in 9.5mm 3/8 in 0.375in

150μm No.100 0.0059in 4.75mm No.4 0.187in

 Grading limits for fine aggregate
(from MS 7.4)

100
80 Zone 4
% passing

(lower limit)
60 Zone 4
(upper limit)
40 Zone 1
(lower limit)
20 Zone 1
(upper limit)
0
0.3

0.6
0.15

1.18

2.36

5.00
Sieve size (mm)
A typical example of calculation for aggregate grading
(Fine aggregate)

Sieve size Weight of Percentage Cumulative Cumulative

aggregate retained percentage percentage
retained (%) retained passed
(g) (%) (%)

10.0 mm 10.0 mm 0 0 0 100

5.0 mm 5.0 mm 6 2 2 98
2.36 mm 2.36 mm 31 10 12 88
1.18 mm 1.18 mm 30 10 22 78
600 µm 600 µm 59 19 41 59
300 µm 300 µm 107 35 76 24
150 µm 150 µm 53 17 93 7
< 150 µm < 150 µm 21 7 100 0
Total 307 326

Fineness modulus = 326/100 = 3.26

 Cont’d
• fineness modulus, FM: is a weighted average size of a sieve on which the material
is retained.
• It is an index to the relative fineness or coarseness and uniformity of aggregate
supplied, but it is not an indication of grading since there could be an infinite
number of grading which will produce a given fineness modulus.
cumulative percentage of a sample aggregate
retained on the sieves (by mass)
FM =
100
• Sum doesn’t include intermediate sieves and pan.
…con’t
• FM of fine aggregate is useful in estimating proportions of fine and coarse aggregate in concrete
mixtures.
• Note: The higher the FM, the coarser the aggregate.
• Fine aggregate: 2.3-3.1
• from 2.3 to 2.6 indicate a fine sand,
• from 2.61 to 2.9 medium sand and
• from 2.91 to 3.1 coarse sand.
• Coarse aggregate: 5.5-8
• Combined aggregate: 4-7
• Limits are usually specified for percentage of material passing each sieve
• In general, aggregates which conform to the grading limits produce the most satisfactory limits.
 Example of sieve analysis of fine aggregate suppose that a 500 gram
sample yielded the following amounts on each sieve after screening.
Sieve size Weight retained % Cumulative % Cumulative %
(gr) retained retained passing

9.5mm 0 0 0 100
4.75mm 30 6 6 94
2.36mm 40 8 14 86
1.18mm 80 16 30 70
600µm 160 32 62 38
300µm 140 28 90 10
150µm 40 8 98 2
Passing 10 2 100 0
150µm
Total 500 100 300

300
• Fineness modulus = =3
100
 Types of concrete
 Reinforced concrete : Plain concrete & steel reinforcement
 Pre stressed concrete: Pre tensioned concrete and Posttensioned concrete
Precast concrete: Concrete that is cast in some other location (factory or job site).
Reduce construction time.
Fiber reinforced concrete: Concrete being reinforced with fibers e.g. steel,
polypropylene, nylon, glass. Produce tougher & more durable concrete.
Lightweight concrete (< 1850 kg/m3) Made with lightweight aggregates. Low
density, thus, reduce loads on foundation.
 High strength concrete (> 41.4 MPa) High cement content, low w/c ratio,
admixtures (chemical or mineral), smaller maximum size aggregates (10 –12 mm).
 Concrete Quality

• Achieve the required strength / grade

• Workable
• Enough time for placing before setting
• Free from defects after formwork is removed (Uniform
appearance of hardened concrete)
• Durable
 The quality of concrete is governed by

 Chemical composition of Portland cement

 Hydration
 Aggregate characteristics
 Amount of water
 Admixtures
 Factors affecting concrete strength
 Type & Amount of cement
- Higher cement content increases strength and the heat generated. Finer cement causes faster
hydration rate, more heat and faster strength development.
 Water / Cement ratio
- Water not used in the hydration process contributes to increased porosity.
- Reduced water content increased compressive strength & resistance to weathering,
lower permeability and reduces shrinkage and cracking.
 Factors affecting concrete strength

 Air Voids
- Air voids lower the durability, permeability and the strength of concrete.
 Curing
- Time of curing: 7 days of moist curing is very effective.
- Without moist curing, potential strength may reduce by 50%
- Concrete continues to gain strength as long as water and cement are available.
 Properties of Concrete

• Water Cement ratio (w/c ratio)

= weight of water in the mix
weight of cement the mix
• Water-cement ratio affects
- strength and durability of concrete
- workability of concrete
• Water-cement ratio for
(a) Normal strength concrete – 0.45 to 0.65.
(b) High strength concrete – < 0.45
 Properties of Fresh Concrete
Workability Consistency
The ease with which concrete can be mixed, handled
The degree of plasticity of fresh concrete or
and placed without segregation. mortar. (Ability of concrete to flow). The
Bleeding: Tendency for water to rise to the surface. normal measure of consistency is slump for
concrete and flow for mortar.
 Segregation
The tendency for
(i) sand-cement mortar to separate from coarse aggregate
(ii) cement paste to separate from fine aggregate.
 Water
 Good water is essential for quality concrete.
 It should be good enough to drink
free of trash, organic matter and excessive chemicals and/or minerals


 pH of 6-8 works best

 Water of doubtful quality should be submitted for laboratory analysis and tests.
 The possibility for increased alkali-aggregate reactivity should be considered
before using the alkaline water as mixing water.
 Use of acid waters with pH values less than 3.0 should be avoided.
 Cont’d
 Excessive impurities in mixing water affect setting time and concrete strength
and also cause
 efflorescence (unsightly white salts deposits on the surface of the concrete),
 staining,
 corrosion of reinforcement,
 volume changes, and
 reduced durability
 …con’t
 Water used:
 to lubricate all other materials and make the concrete workable.
 to react chemically with the cement
 The total amount of water for good concrete depends on:
 The desired consistency of the concrete
 The surface texture, particle shape, maximum size and grading of the
aggregate.
 Water reducing or air entraining admixtures.
 The water required to achieve ascertained workability cannot be related to any
single measurable characteristics & is generally ascertained by trial & error.
 Cont’d
 Water/Cement Ratio: is the relationship between the total free water and the
cement, usually expressed in mass
 Water to cement ratio should be kept as low as possible to have
 the less voids and more strength,
 Lower permeability, thus increased water-tightness and lower absorption.
 Increased resistance to weathering.
 less drying shrinkage and more durability,
 Better bond between successive layers and between concrete and
reinforcement.
 ADMIXTURES

 Admixtures: are a material added to the batch of concrete before or during mixing
 There are two main groups of admixtures.
 Chemical admixtures: are water soluble compounds (Accelerators, retarders,
water-reducing and air-entraining)
 quantities no larger than 5% by mass of cement

 Most admixtures are supplied in ready-to-use liquid form.

 Mineral admixtures: are finely divided solids to improve workability,

durability, or provide additional cementing properties. (i.e. slags, silica fume,
fly ash, and pozzolans).
 About 40% of ready-mix producers use fly ash.
 Benefits of Admixtures

 they are capable of imparting considerable physical and economic benefits with
respect to concrete.
 ensure the quality of concrete during mixing, transporting, placing, finishing
and curing under difficult circumstances
 makes possible the use of a wider range of ingredients in the concrete mix.
 It should be stressed that they are no remedy for:
 poor quality mix ingredients,
 use of incorrect mix proportions, or
 poor workmanship in transporting, placing and compaction.
 Types of Chemical Admixtures

 ASTM classification of admixtures by their function in concrete:

 Type A – Water reducing
 Type B – Retarding
 Type C – Accelerating
 Type D – Water reducing & retarding
 Type E – Water reducing & accelerating
 Type F – High range water reducing or super plasticizing
 Type G – High range water reducing and retarding or
super plasticizing and retarding
 Air

 All concrete contains “entrapped” air, from mixing process, which are
undesirable for durability & permeability
 0-2% by volume of concrete
 Irregular shape, large size
Air-entraining admixtures,
 Air-entraining concrete is produced by using either an air-entraining cement, by
adding an air-entraining admixture (liquid or powder) during batching, or a
combination of these approaches.
 air-entraining admixture used to purposely introduce and stabilize microscopic
air bubbles (spherical shape) into the concrete
 …con’t
 Entrained air bubbles:
 imparts better workability, improved homogeneity, decreased segregation and
bleeding.
 Increase durability or resistance to severe conditions of exposure, including
application of deicing salts and other chemicals and freeze/thaw action by
providing “escape route”
 Some of the most commonly used air-entrainment chemicals are:
 Salts of wood resins (Vinsol resin)
 Synthetic detergents
 Salts of petroleum acids
 …con’t
 The effectiveness of an admixture depends on several factors including:
 Type and amount of cement,
 Water content,
 Mixing time,
 Slump, and
 Temperatures of the concrete and air.
Factors That Affect Workability and Consistence

i. Grading, Shape and surface characteristics of aggregate particles

 They affect the amount of paste required to fill the spaces thoroughly and
surround the aggregate particles completely, and the friction between the
particles as the concrete is molded.
 Angular particles or those with rough surfaces require a greater amount of

paste for the same mobility of mass than is necessary for well-rounded
particles or those with smooth and slippery faces.
 …con’t
ii. Plasticity of the cement paste
• paste with less water than optimum will itself be stiff and cannot carry much
aggregate without becoming so stiff as to be wholly unplaceable and
decreases strength
 paste with more water than optimum may be so thin and watery that it will be
unable to hold the aggregates in the cohesive mass which is the very
embodiment of plasticity.
 reduced cement bonding and strength

 Cause segregation, shrinkage and creep

 increases permeability → reduced density, abrasion resistance, Freeze-

Thaw resistance and durability

 …con’t
iii. Relative quantities of cement paste and aggregates
 use a minimum amount of paste that will lubricate the mass while fresh and
after hardening will bind the aggregate particles together and fill the space
between them.
 Any excess of paste involves: easy to place and will produce a smooth

surface, greater cost, greater drying shrinkage, greater susceptibility to

percolation of water and therefore attack by aggressive waters and
weathering action.
 If less than the required it will be difficult to place and produce rough,

honeycombed surfaces and porous concrete.

• Aggregate is much cheaper than cement and maximum economy is obtained
by using as much aggregate as possible.
 Handling, placing and compacting fresh concrete

 Concrete should be handled from the place of mixing to the place of final deposit
as rapidly as practical by methods which will prevent the segregation or loss of
any of the ingredients.
 If the segregation does occur during transport, the concrete should be remixed
before being placed.
 Fresh concrete needs forms or moulds until it sets and hardens.
 Concrete should be uniformly spread on all the sides for better compaction.
 It should be deposited in layers of uniform depth, usually not exceeding 25cm.
Each layer should be compacted before the next is placed.
 When the work has to be resumed on a surface which has hardened:
surface should be roughened and swept clean, thoroughly wetted and covered
with a 13mm layer of mortar (to prevent formations of stone pockets and
secure tight joints) composed of cement and sand in the same ratio as the
cement and sand in the concrete mix.
 When the work has to be resumed on a surface which hasn’t fully hardened:
 all lattance should be removed by scrubbing the wet surface with wire or
bristle brushes, care being taken to avoid dislodgement of particles of
aggregate.
 The surface should be thoroughly wetted and all free water removed.
 The surface should then be coated with neat cement grout.
 The first layer of concrete to be placed on this surface should not exceed
150mm in thickness, and should be well –rammed against old work.
 Forms can be removed after 4-7 days (depends on temperature)
 The forms are generally made of either timber or steel.
 Before placing concrete, the forms and subgrade should cleaned and moistened
thoroughly specially in hot weather.
 Where wooden forming have been exposed to the sun for some time, it may
be necessary to saturate the wood to tighten the joints.
 In order to prevent concrete from adhering to the surface, forms should be
thoroughly oiled.
 However comparatively more costly, steel shuttering is used for major work
where every thing is mechanized.
A good form work should satisfy the following requirements:
• It should be cheap and suitable for re-use several times
• It should be practically water proof so that it doesn’t absorb water from
concrete. Also, its shrinkage and swelling should be minimum
• It should be strong enough to withstand all loads coming on it,
• It should be as light as possible
• The surface of the form work should be smooth, and it should afford easy
stripping
• All joints of the form works should be stiff so that lateral deformation under
loads is minimum. The form work should rest on non-yielding supports.
 COMPACTING

 Compaction is the removal of entrapped air to achieve maximum density which

leads to higher strength and durability
 should be done during the operation of placing.
 Compaction can be:
a) manual
 Rodding: for thin vertical members

 Temping: for slabs

 hammering

b) Mechanical/vibrator: is used only when the mix is stiff.

 Over-vibration or vibration of very wet mixes can result in bleeding.
 Hardened concrete

 Fresh concrete, if left undisturbed, gradually stiffens until it may be said to have
“set”.
 there is no well-defined point at which concrete sets or passes from the plastic to
rigid condition.
 In practice concrete, in which ordinary portland cement is used, should remain
sufficiently plastic over a period of at least ½ an hour and preferably 1 hour
 Concrete should be placed in the forms as soon as possible, in no case more
than 30 minutes after mixing.
 it should harden within a reasonable time for the construction to precede.
FRESH CONCRETE
 The requirements for a fresh and a hardened concrete may vary in wide range,
dependent on the type of structure to be cast and the available equipment.
 Concrete is a plastic material when fresh
 Workability: The ease with which a concrete mixture can be mixed, transported,
placed in the form, compacted & finished without any segregation.
 Consistence: is degree of wetness or fluidity of concrete.
 classified and described as stiff, plastic, and flowing.
…con’t
 Hardened concrete properties that need great attention are:
 Compressive strength: good to resist compressive stresses
 Shear Strength: is about 12 to 13% of its compressive strength.
 Tensile Strength: is about 10% of its compressive strength.
 Concrete is brittle material and

is not designed to carry tensile forces.

 Bar is used to increase tensile strength of concrete, known as reinforced concrete.
 …con’t
 The strength of concrete is affected by
 the water cement ratio
 air content
 the degree of compaction.
 the component materials (cement and aggregates),
 both on the type and quantity of cement.

 the compressive strength of concrete decreases with the specific surface of

the aggregate increases.

 the age
 strength of concrete increases with time or age.

 curing condition.
 Properly cured concrete will gain good strength.
 Properties of Hardened Concrete
 Strength: Max. compressive stress before failure
- For ordinary construction, compressive strength in the range 20.7 – 41.1 MPa
 Modulus of Elasticity = 14 to 40 GPa
 Shrinkage – volume reduction or contraction
- Drying shrinkage : shrinkage due to drying of hardened concrete
- Plastic shrinkage : reduction of volume of plastic concrete (typically during
first 12 hours after placement)
 Creep
A very gradual change in length (deformation) which occurs over time when a
material is subjected to sustained load.
 Properties of Hardened Concrete
 Durability
Ability to resist deterioration from weathering action (environment) and
traffic.
e.g. Able to resist high and low temperature (thermalexpansion/contraction),
freezing and thawing, rain, alkali-silica reaction, sulfate attack, action by
chemicals e.g. salts.
Two key factors affecting durability:
1. compressive strength 2. permeability.
- Low strength and high permeability decrease durability.
 Methods for mixing concrete

Methods of mixing of Manually

concrete :
1. Hand mixing
2. Machine Machine mixing
mixing
• Mixing time 2 to 3
minutes

Drum mixer Pan Mixer Ready mixed

 Methods for transporting concrete

Concrete buggy

Wheelbarrow

Concrete pump
Chute Bucket (through pipe)
(Concrete (Large & massive
transported to construction.
lower level) Handled by crane)
 Placing and Compaction
• Concrete should immediately be placed in the structure and should be compacted
before placing the next layer.
• Purpose of compaction is to eliminate entrapped air from the concrete so that
concrete is less permeable and good bond between reinforcement and concrete is
achieved.
• 1 % entrapped air cause 5 – 6 % reduction in concrete strength.
 Methods of Compaction
Internal vibration
• Rodding – for thin sections by pushing iron bar inside and
outside of concrete
• Vibrators – for heavy sections
• Vibrating rod (poker)
 External vibration
` Vibrators are clamped to formwork and vibrated.

• Surface vibration
Surface vibrator
Concrete is vibrated from the
surface when screeding
(striking off) the concrete is
carried out. (For pavements
and slabs).
Screed
Table vibrator

• Table vibration
For precast concrete.
 Curing Concrete
 It is a process of maintaining enough moisture and avoiding temperature
extremes (above 32°C or below -12°C) in concrete to maintain the rate of
hydration during its early stages
 amount of water left in the concrete, after evaporation, may not enough for
full hydration and hardening.
 Begin curing as soon as the concrete has hardened sufficiently to avoid erosion or
other damage to the freshly finished surface.
 Usually within one to two hours after placement and finishing.
 The period of curing depends upon atmospheric conditions such as temperature,
humidity and wind velocity.
 7 days (or longer) are recommended, but not less 3 days
 Commonly used concrete curing methods:

1. Keep water on the concrete during the curing period.

a. Ponding or immersion
 Impounding water in earthen or sandy over the flat surfaces,

 the method is generally used only for small jobs.

 undesirable if the concrete will be exposed to early freezing.

 the water must be free of substances that will stain or

discolour the concrete.

b. spraying or fogging
 Used when the ambient temperature is well above freezing

and the humidity is low.

 …con’t
c. Saturated wet coverings
 Fabric coverings, such as burlap, cotton mats, rugs, or
other moisture-retaining fabrics, are saturated with water
d. Steam curing
i. curing in live steam at atmospheric pressure (for
enclosed cast in place structures and manufactured
precast units)
ii. curing in high pressure steam autoclaves (for small
manufactured units)
 Steam Curing Advantages
 early strength gain in cold weather.
 Reduce creep
…con’t
2. Prevent the loss of mixed water from concrete by sealing the surface.
• Advantage: periodic additions of water are not required.
a. Applying membrane-forming curing compounds.
• Liquid membrane-forming compounds consisting of waxes, resins,
chlorinated rubber, and other materials can be used.
• It maintain the relative humidity of the concrete surface on which it
sprayed above 80% for seven days.
• Its types are:
• clear or translucent;
• white pigmented.
 …con’t

b. Covering the concrete with impervious paper or plastic sheets,

i. Impervious paper (two sheets of kraft paper cemented together by
bituminous adhesive with fiber reinforcements)
 The sheets must be weighted to maintain close contact with the

concrete surface during the entire curing period.

 Used for horizontal surfaces and structural concrete of relatively

simple shapes.
ii. Plastic sheets (such as polyethylene films 0.10 mm thick)
 easily applied to complex as well as simple shapes.

 It may also be placed over wet covering materials to eliminate the need

for continuous watering of the covering.

 Cont’d

 Curing has a major influence on the properties of hardened concrete such as

volume stability, water-tightness, strength, abrasion resistance, wear resistance,
durability, and resistance to freezing and thawing and deicer salts.
 The best curing method depends on:

 Cost, equipment required, materials available,

 Method of construction,
 Size and shape of the concrete surface,
 the intended use of the hardened concrete.
 Concrete work at construction site

• Measuring of materials
• Mixing
• Transporting
• Placing
• Compaction (Consolidation)
• Curing
 Tests to Measure Workability
Four widely used tests

Vebe Time test

Slump Test Compacting factor test

Flow test
 Slump Test
Most useful test at site. Useful in checking the consistency of concrete mix at
site.
Method
The cone is filled in three equal
layers. Each being tampered 25
times with a 5/8 in bullet nose
tampering rod.

Slump cone - 12 in high 8 in at bottom.

Cone is filled The amount of
and level off. slump is then
It is then measured.
carefully
lifted.
 Types of Slump

True Slump Shear Slump Collapse Slump

Concrete slump must be
in this form. Normal slump Concrete lack of cohesiveness or too
range (12 mm – 115 mm) wet. Not allowed for structural work.
 Compaction factor test

Measure the degree of compaction required for a concrete. Suitable for all
mixes.
Method

• Concrete mixture is put in top hopper

• Allowed to fall into 2nd hopper then cylinder
• Top of cylinder is struck off. Concrete is
weighed.
• Compared with weight of fully compacted
concrete in cylinder
 Compaction factor

= weight of partially compacted concrete

weight of fully compacted concrete
(compacted in 4 layers, 25 x tempering each layer )
e.g
weight of concrete partially compacted = 11.02 kg
weight of concrete fully compacted = 12.04 kg
Compaction factor = 11.02 kg / 12.04 kg
= 0.915
 Vebe time test

• Measures the work (time) needed to compact concrete.

Method
• The concrete is packed into a cone (similar to slump test). The cone
stands within a special cylinder on a platform and lifted.

• The container is vibrated and the

time taken for the concrete to be
compacted flat by glass plate is
Vebe time.
Flow Test

Determine the flow of cement pastes and

cement mortars by measuring the spread in
mm (width) of a standard cone on a
dropping table. This value is a measure of
the plasticity of the mortar.
 Degree of Slump (mm) Compaction factor Vebe Use for which concrete is suitable
workability time
(s)

Extremely low 0 0.70 - 0.78 20 Prestressed concrete structure compacted

with heavy vibrators

Very low 0 - 25 0.78 -0.85 7 - 20 Roads vibrated by power-operated machines.

At the more workable end of this group,
concrete may be compacted in certain cases
with hand-operated machines.

Low 25 - 50 0.85 - 0.92 3-7 Roads vibrated by hand

operated machines. Mass concrete
foundations without vibration or lightly
reinforced sections with vibration.

Medium 50 - 100 0.90 - 0.95 1-3 At the less workable end of this group,
manually compacted flat slabs using crushed
aggregates. Normal reinforced concrete
manually compacted and heavily reinforced
sections with vibration.

High 100 - 150 0.95 0 -1 For sections with congested reinforcement.

Not normally suitable for vibration.
 Concrete Testing
Destructive test
• Compression test
• Beam bending strength test
• Cylinder splitting test
• Concrete core test

Non destructive test

• Ultrasonic pulse velocity test

• Rebound hammer test (Schmidt hammer test)
• Cover-meter test
• Gamma-ray test
 Destructive concrete test
Compression test
The 7 day and 28 day strength of a standard
concrete cube or cylinder specimen are tested.
Max compressive strength
= Maximum load (N/m2)
Surface area

Concrete cube samples from

site are tested for their actual
Normal failure
strength and compared with
Compression machine mode
design strength.
 Method for preparing concrete samples

D = 150 mm
150 mm

150 mm
L = 300 mm
150 mm

• Concrete mould is filled with concrete.

(3 layers, 35 x tempering each layer using standard rod)

• Concrete is covered and allowed to set and harden for 24 hours.

• Remove concrete from mould and soak in water until testing of strength is
carried out at 7 and 28 days.
 Destructive concrete test

Beam bending strength test

 Cylinder splitting test
(Measures tensile strength)
Concrete beam P
f tensile strength = 2 P / π D L
(size : 150 x 150 x 750 mm)

Measure the strength of an unreinforced L = length of cylinder

D = diameter of cylinder
concrete beam or slab to resist failure in
bending
 Destructive Concrete test

Concrete core test - Concrete specimen is cored from

actual concrete.
- Compression test is done on sample
to obtain strength
 Non destructive Concrete test (Ultrasonic Pulse
Velocity Test)

• Measures the velocity of pulse wave

passing through a solid material.
B
• Transmitter generate pulse, receiver Receiver
receive the pulse. A
Transmitter
Ultrasonic
pulse
generator
• Time taken by the pulse to travel from point A to point B in concrete sample is recorded.
Distance = thickness of concrete
Time = (micro second)
Velocity = Distance / time
Classification of concrete quality based on pulse velocity

Pulse velocity (x 10 3 m/s) Concrete Quality

4.6 Very good
3.6 – 4.6 Good
3.0 – 3.6 Questionable
2.1 – 3.0 Bad
< 2.1 Very bad
Application
• Assess the conditions of structural members with two-sided access such as beams, columns
and walls.
• Voids, honeycomb, cracks and other damage in concrete, wood, stone and masonry materials
can be also located.
 Rebound Hammer Test (Schmidt hammer test)

• The test is based on the principle that the rebound of

an elastic mass depends on the hardness of the
surface against which the mass impinges.

• Within limits, there is a correlation between strength

of concrete and the rebound number.

• Higher rebound number indicates high compressive

strength.
• The test is sensitive to the presence of aggregate and of voids
immediately underneath the plunger.
 Cover-meter Test

•This test can be used to determine the depth

of concrete cover and locating the direction
and size of reinforcement.

•The instruments consist of a searcher unit

connected to the main unit containing the
cells, circuits and indicator scale.

• Working range of up to 100 mm depth.

Accuracy of ± 15%.
  Gamma-Ray Test

• Use gamma ray to detect the presence of voids

in concrete, the location and size of reinforcement
and the efficiency of the grouting of cable ducts in
post-tensioned concrete.
• Special precautions are necessary to avoid
contamination from the radioactive source.
• Costly
 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

 It is the process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their relative

proportions with the object of producing concrete of certain strength and durability as
economically as possible.
 The common method of expressing the proportions of a concrete mix ingredients is in terms

of parts or ratios of cement, fine and coarse aggregates. For e.g., a concrete mix of
proportions 1:2:4
 The proportions are either by volume or by mass.
 Batching: is the measurement of materials for making concrete

 There are two methods of batching:

 Volume batching
 Weight batching
 Volume batching

 it is convenient to use at most construction sites.

 a measuring box (40cm X 35cm X 25cm or 35 liter) is used to measure aggregate
.
Care must be taken in the case of wet sand, which might bulk.

 Water is usually measured by volume in a calibrated tank or by means of flow
type water meters.
 volume of the fresh concrete V = Va + Vw + Vc + Vfa + Vca
 If Va = volume of air
Vw = volume of water
Vc = absolute volume of cement
Vfa = absolute volume of fine aggregate
Vca = absolute volume of coarse aggregate
Weight batching
 preferred on important jobs.

 Because the quantity of solid materials in a container very much

depends on its degree of compaction
 Volume batching of cement should be avoided.
 Each cement bag is packed to contain a net weight of 50Kg,
which is approximately 35 liter in volume.
 Materials proportioning

Table 3 Standard Mixes And Related

• Identify mix proportion Strengths

(amount of cement, water and Standard Characteristic Compressive

Mix Strength At 28"" Days
aggregate) Assumed Or Structural Design
N/mm2 (- MPa)
• Mix proportion is based on
strength required ST1 7.5

• Concrete grade ST2 10.0

A number which is equivalent ST3 15.0

to the strength characteristic ST4 20.0

ST5 25.0
 e.g.
ST5 – Standard Constituent Nominal Maximum Size Of
Grade 25 Mix Aggregate
(strength 40mm 20mm

25 N/mm2) slump slump slump slum

75 125 75 p 125
For max. size aggregate mm mm mm mm
of 20 mm and slump 75 ST1 Cement (kg) 180 200 210 230
Total aggregate (kg) 2010 1950 1940 1890
mm,
Cement: ST2 Cement (kg) 210 230 240 260
Total aggregate (kg) 1980 1920 1940 1800
- 340 kg/m3 of concrete
ST3 Cement (kg) 240 260 270 300
Total aggregate: Total aggregate (kg) 1950 1900 1890 1820
- 1830 kg/m3 of
ST4 Cement (kg) 280 300 300 330
concrete Total aggregate (kg) 1920 1860 1860 1800
ST5 Cement (kg) 320 340 340 370
Proportion of fine and Total aggregate (kg) 1820 1860 1830 1770
coarse aggregate: ST1 Fine aggregate 30 to 30 to 35 to 35 to
ST5 ST2 (percentage by mass of total 45 45 50 50
Grading limit M ST3 aggregate)
(medium sand) ST4 Fine aggregate (percentage by
Fine aggregate/ Total ST5 mass of total aggregate)
Grading limits C 30 to 40 35 to 45
aggregate = 30 - 40% Grading limits M 25 to 35 30 to 40
Grading limits F 25 to 30 25 to 35
 Variables in proportioning

In connection with specifying a concrete mix, four variable

factors to be considered are

• Water-cement ratio.
• Cement content or cement-aggregate ratio.
• Gradation of the aggregates.
• Consistency.
 Variables in proportioning (Cont’d)

 Usually two or three factors are specified, and the others are
adjusted to give minimum workability and economy.

 Water/cement ratio expresses the dilution of the paste - cement

content varies directly with the amount of paste.

 Gradation of aggregate is controlled by varying the amount of

given fine and coarse aggregate.

 Consistency is established by practical requirements of placing.

 Variables in proportioning (Cont’d)

 In brief, the effort in proportioning is to use a minimum amount of paste

(and therefore cement) that will lubricate the mass while fresh and after
hardening will bind the aggregate particles together and fill the space
between them.

 Any excess of paste involves greater cost, greater drying shrinkage,

greater susceptibility to percolation of water and therefore attack by
aggressive waters and weathering action.

 This is achieved by minimizing the voids by good gradation.

 American Method of Mix Design

 In practice the most widely used method of mix design is that of the American Concrete
Institute, given in ACI Standards.
 The ACI method utilizes the fact that, for a given maximum size of aggregate, the water
content in kilogram per cubic meter determines the workability of the mix, largely
independently of the mix proportions.
 It is thus possible to start the mix design by selecting the water content from these two tables.
 The values given are for well-shaped angular coarse aggregates, and in practice there would
be some variations due to differences in aggregate shape and texture.
 It should also be added that in mixes with a cement content in excess of about 360 or 390
kg/m3 the water requirement is greater.
 American Method of Mix Design

 A further assumption is made that the optimum ratio of the bulk volume of
coarse aggregate to the total volume of concrete depends only on the
maximum size of aggregate and on the grading of fine aggregate.
 The shape of the coarse aggregate particles does not directly enters the
relation since, for instance, a crushed aggregate has a greater bulk volume
for the same weight (i.e. a lower bulk density) than a well rounded.
 American Method of Mix Design (Cont’d)

The first step in mix design is to establish the design strength from the project
requirement and the over design factor. The following mix design procedure is
based on the ACI manual of concrete practice standard ACI 211.1-91, using
metric units.
1. Choose slump from Table 3.1a
2. Choose the maximum size of the aggregate. The largest size that is
economically available in the area is usually chosen, subject to the
following maximums:
⇒ One-fifth of the width of the forms
⇒ One-third of the depth of the slabs
⇒ Three-fourths of the space between reinforcing bars
 American Method of Mix Design (Cont’d)

3. The Estimate the amount of mixing water and air required from Table 3.1b.
Admixtures, if used, are added to the water.
4. Select the W/C or W/CM ratio from Table 3.4 (for design strength), and
Table 3.5 (for exposure). (Use lowest).
5. Calculate the cement content from the W/C ratio and water-content values.
6. Estimate the proportion of coarse aggregate from Table 3.3, and its mass
using the dry-rodded density.
7. Estimate the mass of fine aggregate using the estimated total mass shown
in Table 3.2.
 American Method of Mix Design (Cont’d)

8. Calculate the adjustments required for aggregate moisture. Usually the aggregates are wet
and therefore the mass of water that they contain, both absorbed and surface water must be
added to the required mass of aggregates, and the mass of surface water subtracted from the
water requirement.
9. Make trial batches. Only sufficient water should be used to produce the desired slump. Test
for slump, air, and density, and cast cylinders for strength, if required. If specifications are not
met, new batches should be prepared with adjusted proportions. If the mix is satisfactory,
design quantities, corrected for moisture contents of the aggregates, should be recorded for
use. e first step in mix design is to establish the design strength from the project requirement
and the over design factor. The following mix design procedure is based on the ACI manual of
concrete practice standard ACI 211.1-91, using metric units.
 Example on Concrete Mix design

Example1: A trial mix is required for a 150-mm pavement slab being

constructed in an area where exposure to seawater is expected. Strength
required is 20 MPa. Trial mix design strength is 28.5 MPa as previous
test result are not available. For the sand, FM = 2.80 and absorption is
1.2%. The absorption of the coarse aggregate is 1.6%, and its dry-
rodded density is 1730 kg/m3. Fine aggregate is dry and coarse
aggregate contains 3.0% water.
 Solution

1. Slump allowed is 25-75 mm (Table 3.1a).

2. Maximum aggregate size is 50 mm (150/3). Size 37.5 mm is chosen,
as it is economically available in the area.
3. Mixing water required is 150 kg/m3 (for 25-50 mm slump). Air content
required is 5.5% (Table 3.1b).
4. Maximum W/C is 0.47 for strength and 0.45 for exposure. Use 0.45
(Tables 3.4 and 3.5).
5. Cement content is 150 kg/m3/0.45 = 333 kg/m3.
 Solution

1. Volume of dry coarse aggregate per volume of concrete is 0.71 (Table

3.3).
2. Materials per m3 (Estimate only as variation in aggregate densities
and water absorption not considered).
Coarse aggregate –0.71 x 1730 = 1228 kg
Water 150 kg
Cement 333 kg
Total 1711 kg
 Solution
Estimated total mass of concrete is 2350 kg (Table 3.2).
∴ Dry mass of fine aggregate is 2350 kg-1711 kg = 639 kg

1. Adjust for moisture contents.

Extra water required for fine aggregate is 1.2% x 639 = 7.7 kg
Surplus water on coarse is 1.4% x 1228 kg = 17.2 kg
Corrected mix proportions:
Cement = 333 kg
Water 150 + 7.7 – 17.2 = 140 kg
 Solution

Fine aggregate (dry) = 639 kg

Coarse aggregate = 1228 + 3.0% x 1228 = 1265 kg
9. Prepare trial mixes. A 150 x 300 mm standard cylinder contains 0.053 m3. For a
mix making three cylinders plus enough for other tests, 0.03 m3 (3% of 1 m3) will be
prepared.
Therefore, quantities are 3% of those required for 1m3.
Cement 9.99 kg
Water 4.20 kg
Fine aggregate 19.2 kg
Coarse aggregate 38.0 kg
 Solution

Water is added to the mix only in sufficient quantities to give the desired slump. This could be
more or less than the amount prepared. If requirements have been met, corrected batch
quantities must be calculated. Results of the trial mix were: water used, 4.12 kg; air content,
5.2%; and density of the mix, 2340 kg/m3.
Cement 9.99 kg
Fine aggregate (SSD): 19.2 + 1.2% x 19.2 (absorption is 1.2%) = 19.2 + 0.23 = 19.43 kg
Coarse aggregate (SSD): 38.0 – 1.4% x 38.0 [excess moisture is total (3.0) – absorbed
(1.6) = 38.0 – 0.53 = 37.47 kg
Mix water; 4.12 – 0.23 + 0.53 = 4.42 kg
Total mass = 71.31 kg
Density was 2340 kg/m3.
 Solution

Therefore, batch quantities per cubic meter are

Cement: 9.99 x (2340/71.31) = 9.99 x 32.814 = 328 kg/m3
Water: 4.42 x 32.814 = 145 kg/m3
Fine aggregate (SSD): 19.43 x 32.814 = 638 kg/m3
Coarse aggregate (SSD): 37.47 x 32.814 = 1230 kg/m3
Total: 2341 kg/m3
Actual W/C ratio = 145/328 = 0.44
The proportions of cementing materials can also be calculated using the volume occupied by each
component. In the ACI method illustrated in Section 7-6.2, the amount of fine aggregate required is
obtained using the masses of the components. An alternate method uses the absolute volumes of the
components. This method is also included in the CPCA manual. The following example illustrates the
calculations.
GROUTING
 GROUTING

• Grouting: is injection of a special liquid or slurry material called grout

into pores, fissures, voids joints or fractures .

• Grouts can be divided into two main groups:

A. SUSPENSION GROUT: Cementitious grouts

B. SOLUTION GROUT: Chemical grouts (Sodium Silicates, Acrylates,

Acrylamides, Polyurethanes, MC-Silicates)
 Cont’d

A. Suspension grouts:

• mixture of cement plus water and other particulate solids such as clay, fly ash,
additives, lime, sand, asphalt emulsion etc.

• usually undergoes a significant filtration effect.

• According to its dry matter content, it can be:

a. Stable grouts (i.e., have minimal bleeding)

b. unstable grouts
 Cont’d
1. Pure cement grout
• It is an unstable grout.
• Its water cement ratio is between 0.4 to 1 (if less than 0.67
bleeding can be avoided).
• Very high mechanical strength can be attained.
2. Cement-based Grouts:
• Its properties and characteristics are varied with the mix
proportions (water cement ratio and Total dry matter to Water
weight ratio)
• Relatively low cost mixes
• used in both water stopping and strengthening treatment.
 cont’d
3. Bentonite cement grout
• It is a stable grout.
• bentonite improves the penetration (in compact type soils)
• In water stopping, grout will include a lot of bentonite and little cement
• In consolidation works, grout will contain a lot of cement and little bentonite.
4. Grouts with fillers
• low cost
• The most commonly used fillers are the natural sands and fly ash.
• Mortar is grouts with high sand content.
B. Liquid grout or solution grout

• It consists of chemical products in a solution or an emulsion form and their

reagents.

• These are intimate one-phase system retaining an originally designed chemical

balance until completion of the relevant reactions.

• The most frequently used products are sodium silicate and certain resins.
 Cont’d
i. Silicate based grouts

• They are sodium silicate in liquid form diluted and containing a reagent.

• They are used in soils with low permeability values such that all suspension
grouts cannot penetrate.

ii. Soft gels

• They are a very low dosage silicate gels with a mineral reagent

• It is mainly for water stopping purpose.

• There is also a slight improvement in strength

 Grouting methods
I. Compaction/Displacement Grouting
• A stiff grout, injected under relatively high pressure through
pipes or casings into soil, develops a growing grout bulb
• It displace and densify the surrounding loose/granular
soils from the point of injection
• Compaction grouting is usually applied in stages from
the lowest point upward.
• On shallow applications, it can be injected from the top down.
• Makes upper layer a dense cap of overburden to help
contain the pressure at lower levels.
• used for settlement control and structural re-leveling .
 Cont’d

Advantages Disadvantages
• Minimum disturbance to the structure
• Grouting adjacent to unsupported slopes
& surrounding ground
may be ineffective
• Effective in a variety of soil conditions
• Effectiveness questionable in saturated
• Supports all portions of structures clays
• Non-hazardous • Not suitable in decomposable materials
• No waste soil disposal
 Cont’d
II. Hydfracture/Fracture Grouting /Compensation Grouting
• cement-based grouts, stable but fluid, is injected through grout pipes
under high pressure into the soil. Fractures in soil are created which are
then filled with grout.
• used in low permeability soil types ranging from weak rocks to
clays
• It is important to keep in mind that the effects are difficult to control
and the potential danger of damaging adjacent structures by
the use of high pressure may prove prohibitive
• Used for
• Soil strengthening to reduce lateral support requirements.
• Repairing a ground underneath a formation
 Cont’d
III. Jet /Erosion Grouting
• grout (usually neat cement grout) injected under high pressure and
velocity from special drill bit with horizontal nozzle cuts and in-
situ mixes the soil to be treated with cement or cementitious grout.
• Nearly all soil types groutable and any cross section
• Much faster than alternative methods
• Safest method of under pinning construction, excavation
support and groundwater control
 Cont’d
Jet grouting systems
• Jet 1 -Single Fluid Jet Grouting (Soilcrete S)
• neat cement grout is pumped through the rod horizontal nozzle
• most effective in cohesion-less soils.
• Jet 2 -Double Fluid.
• neat cement grout and air are pumped through nozzles
• Less strength as compared to the single fluid method.
• Jet 3 -Triple Fluid.
• It is a soil replacement method not an in-situ mixing method.
• Neat cement grout, air & water are pumped through different lines
• the most effective system for cohesive soils.
 Cont’d
IV. Penetration /Permeation Grouting/Chemical Grouting
• Done using chemical grouts or thin grout at low pressure
• Used for creating groundwater barriers or preparing ground before tunneling
• Formation is undisturbed
• A possible drawback
• only certain soil types are amenable.
• grouts seem to present the greatest risk with respect
to handling, ground water pollution, and corrosion
 Grout design steps
1. Identify underground construction problem.
2. Establish objectives of grouting
3. Perform special geotechnical study • durability,
• permeability of the soil • Production, operation and
Maintenance requirements
• Groundwater of status and amount,
• Cost,
• volume of the ground ready to accept grout • Others
4. Develop initial grouting problem
5. Develop performance prediction
6. Compare with other solutions. Is Grouting best solution ?
7. Refine design and prepare specifications
 Use of Grouting
• embed re-bars in masonry walls, connect sections of pre-cast concrete, and seal
joints (like those between tiles).
• Tiling grout secure the tile to its base and acting as a sealant
• strengthen ground so that it can be used as a structural member.
• as a preventive measure before construction or as a rehabilitative treatment for
structures suffering post construction distress due to poor soil condition.
• to alleviate settlement of ground caused by basement and tunnel excavation
works,
• improving the bearing capacity under a sluice
• decrease the permeability.
• Used to prepare foundation and abutments for dams

15
METAL
 Metal

• Ferrous metal
(Iron as main constituent)
- e.g. cast iron, wrought iron, steel

• Non ferrous metal

(Iron is not the main constituent
- e.g. copper, aluminum, zinc, tin
 Production of ferrous metal

Raw Iron ore

Material Coke – supplies carbon
Limestone – reduces impurities

Blast Furnace Slag

removed

Pig Iron

Cast iron Wrought iron Steel

(Commercial forms of iron)
Pig iron Production
Iron ore is reduced to pig iron in a
blast furnace. Iron ore is Iron ore,
combined with coke, and limestone,
limestone. Hot air are forced coke
through the material to ignite the
coke and melt the iron ore. The
impurities in the iron are absorbed
Chute
by the limestone and forms blast
furnace slag. The molten iron
(with an excess carbon) collects
at the bottom of the furnace.
Hot air
Pig iron content:
high carbon content : 4-5%. Hot air
silicon : 2 %, manganese: 1 %,
sulfur: 0.05 %, phosphorous: < slag Liquid
2%. Very brittle; not very useful iron
Blast furnace
directly as a material.
 Cast iron
• Made by remelting pig iron &
removing impurities in a
furnace (cupola)
• Contain
- iron (92 – 95 %)
- carbon (2 – 4 %)
- silicon (1 - 3%)
- traces of manganese,
phosphorus, sulfur
• Shaped by being cast - iron is
poured into a mold while it is
liquid, allowed to solidify cupola
inside the mold.
Properties
• Brittle – due to large carbon amount,
difficult to weld.
• Low tensile strength (110 MPa) but high
compressive strength.
Types (depends on chemical composition
and cooling rate)
• Gray cast iron – commonly used
• White cast iron – harder, more resistant
• Malleable cast iron – can be malleable
Uses
Manhole covers, engine
blocks, machine tools,
cookware, hardware, fire
hydrants, pipes. (Not
subjected to tensile
strength)
 Wrought iron

• Purest form of iron

• Made by refining pig iron in
a furnace
• Contain
- iron (98 %)
- carbon (0.1 – 0.25 %)
- slag (2-3%)
- traces of sulfur, silicon,
phosphorus, manganese
Properties

• Malleable, ductile, can be

easily welded & machined.
• Good resistance to corrosion
• Moderate tensile strength
(310 -380 MPa)

Uses
• Ornamental work, pipes,
vehicle components, bars,
chain.
 Steel
• Invention of steel in 1856 by
Henry Bessemer
• Bessemer process was the
first inexpensive process for
the mass-production of steel
from molten pig iron.
Bessemer Converter
• Replace by basic oxygen
process.
• Contain
- iron
- carbon (0.12 –1.5 %)
- phosphorous & sulfur < 0.1 %
- manganese up to 0.5 %
- silicon up to 0.3 %
Basic oxygen furnace
 Conversion to steel products
Molten steel

Continuous Casting Ingots

(poured directly into molds (6 x 2 x 2 ft)
to make basic shapes)
Primary rolling

slab billet bloom

 Continuos casting of billet

slab billet bloom

Plates Sheets Wires Pipes Bar Structural

shapes –
beams,columns
Steel forming
Molten steel are cast directly into the basic
shape (slab, bloom, billets) or the ingot (once
hardened) are rolled in rolling mills and transform
into slab, bloom, billet.
- a slab (For making plates, sheets, strip and
other flat-rolled steel products)
- a bloom (For making beams and columns)
- a billet (Use to make bars, pipes, wire and
wire products)
Hot rolling

Ingots
(6 x 2 x 2 ft)
 Mechanical operation
Steel properties are greatly
influenced by the mechanical
operation that change ingot,
bloom, billets or slabs into useful
shape.

The operations are rolling,

extruding and drawing.

The operations can be done while

the steel is in plastic condition
(1090 oC) – hot working or at
room temperature (cold working).
• Rolling - The shaping of
metal by squeezing it
through a series of
rollers.

• Extrusion - Forcing a hot

billet through a die of the
desired shape.

• Drawing - Pulling steel

through a small die to
form wire or a small rod.
(e.g. round, square)
Properties of steel
A steel with a wide variety of characteristics can be
produced by
• altering the carbon content
• adding alloy (metal e.g. nickel, chromium,
tungsten etc.) to steel to improve its
characteristics e.g. corrosion resistance,
strength, ductility and machinabilty.
e.g. Stainless steel contains chromium and
nickel. Anti corrosion & acid proof.
• different heat treatment
• mechanical operation (hot or cold rolling,
drawing. extrusion etc.
Heat treatment of Steel
The heating and cooling processes are used
to change the structure of a metal and alter its
mechanical properties. (e.g. Cooling rapidly in
cold water makes it harder and more brittle)

Ductility
Steel has high ductility. Ductility is the
property of a material by which it can
withstand extensive deformation without
failure under high tensile stresses. It usually
shows large visible deflections before failure
or collapse.
Tensile Strength
Most important property. Depends on types of
steel. Tensile strength for structural steel (400 –
900 MPa)

Types of steel
• Mild steel (Low carbon steel) < 0·25% carbon);
cheap, strong and easily shaped. Main metal for
construction.

• Medium carbon steel (0·25% - 0.5 % carbon)

Rails, boilers, plates, axles, structures.
• High carbon steel (0·5% - 1.5 % carbon);
Stronger than mild steel but more brittle. Used
to make tools and cutters.

• Steel Alloy
Ni-steel (Gear, shaft, cable), Mn-steel (Rail
tracks)
• High tensile steel
e.g. as reinforcing material
(in the form of wires) in
prestressed concrete.
• Galvanized Steel
Steel that has been plated with zinc to improve
corrosion resistance.
Classification of
steel products
• Structural steel –
plates, bars, pipes,
tubes, structural shapes
– I, H beams, channel,
angle
• Fastening product used for structural
connections - bolt, nuts, washers

• Reinforcing steel -
plain / deformed bar,
wire fabric for concrete
reinforcement
• Miscellaneous
products e.g. forms,
pans
Advantages of steel in building
construction

1. High strength/weight ratio

Steel has a high strength/weight ratio.

This property makes steel a very
.

attractive structural material for high -

rise buildings & long span bridges
2. Ductility
Steel can undergo large plastic
deformation before failure, thus
providing a large reserve strength.
Properly designed steel structures can
have high ductility, which is an
important characteristic for resisting
shock loading such as blasts or
earthquakes.
3. Speed of erection.
Steel structures can be erected quite
rapidly therefore reducing the cost of
construction. Structural steel framing can
be rapidly designed, purchased, fabricated
and erected without need for curing and
other delays of concrete and masonry
construction.
4. Quality of construction
Steel structures can be built with high-quality
workmanship.

5. Ease of repair, modification & change

Steel structures in general can be repaired
quickly and easily. When building uses
change or are improved, structural steel can
be easily modified and reinforced to
accommodate the new requirements.
6. Adaptation of prefabrication
Highly suitable for prefabrication and mass
production.

7. Repetitive use
Steel can be reused after a structure is
disassembled. Most steel today is a recycled
product, and nearly all structural steel from
building demolition is recycled. This provides
salvage value, reduces demolition expenses,
reduces landfill volume and helps the environment

8. Expanding existing structures

Steel buildings can be easily expanded in any
direction.
Disadvantages of steel

1. General cost
Steel structures may be more costly than
other types of structures.

2. Fireproofing
The strength of steel is reduced
substantially when heated at temperatures
commonly observed in building fires.
Consequently, steel frames in buildings
must have adequate fireproofing.
3. Maintenance
Steel structures exposed to air and water, such
as bridges, are susceptible to corrosion and
should be painted regularly. Application of
weathering and corrosion-resistant steels may
eliminate this problem.

4. Susceptibility to buckling
Due to high strength/weight ratio, steel
compression members are in general more
slender and consequently more susceptible to
buckling than reinforced concrete compression
members.
Non ferrous metal
- use as original metal or as alloy
Aluminum
• Lightweight - 1/3 weight steel and cooper; excellent
corrosion resistance; low strength
Uses
• Roofing, window & door frames, door & window
handles, protective covering

Copper
• High electrical conductivity; readily bent & cut;
good corrosion resistance
Uses
• Electrical conductor, heating vessels
Zinc
• Good conductor of heat; high corrosion resistance,

Uses
• Roofing material, batteries, protective covering

Tin
• Resistance to acid corrosion, good conductor of
heat & electricity

Uses
• Protective covering, alloy, household purpose,
coating for food containers
MASONRY
 Definition
- Masonry refers to a construction
material formed by combining
individual masonry units e.g. brick,
stone, with a binding material:
mortar.
- Commonly used for walls of
buildings.
 Common materials of
masonry construction:
• Brick (most
common)
• Stone e.g. marble,
granite, limestone
• Concrete block,
glass block
The durability of the masonry
construction is affected by
• The materials used
• The quality of the mortar and
workmanship
• The pattern the units are laid
 Bricks
• Usually made from clay and molded
as a rectangular block.

Types of Bricks
- Clay bricks made from clay
- Fire bricks
- Sand-lime brick non-clay brick
- Concrete bricks made from concrete
 USES
◼ Structural uses such as
foundations, walls and floors,
drainage.
◼ Road pavement – traffic calming,
decorative surface in pedestrian
area.
◼ For lining furnaces, kiln and
fireplace.
 Advantages

• Size easily to work with.

• Good fire resistant.
• Durable and require little maintenance
 Clay Bricks

• Principal ingredient: Clay (contain silica and

alumina and other metal oxides e.g iron)

• Occurs in three principal forms:

- Surface clays: found near earth surface
- Shale: subjected to high pressures from
soil above, relatively hard.
- Fire clays: deeper levels. Can withstand
higher temperature.
Brick manufacturing plant
 Manufacturing of clay brick

Preparation of
Raw Material
- Clay is in form of
large clumps -
crushed into small
pieces; grinded to
fine powder and
blended with
water.
 Forming
Stiff mud process
(clay with 10 - 15 %
water. Most common)

- Clay is forced into a

die producing a
continuous column of
clay of proper size
and shape, then cut
to size with a wire
frame.
 Forming
Soft mud process
(clay with 20 - 30 % water). Oldest way of
making brick.
- Clays which contain to much natural water.
- Clay is pressed in wooden /steel molds
(press by machine).
Dry press process ( <10% water)
Clay is placed into molds and compacted
using a steel plunger. Expensive. Not
common.
 Drying

-Wet brick contains 7-30 %

water.
- Bricks are dried in covered
open area or in a drying
chamber before firing to
Drying chamber
remove excess moisture.
- This excess moisture will Temperature :
burn off too quickly during 43 oC to 204 oC
firing causing cracking and Drying time:
24 to 48 hours
warping.
 Burning and Cooling

- Bricks are burned in a kiln at a

very high temperature 1315 0 C
- Periodic Kiln - loaded and
unloaded
- Tunnel Kiln - continuous feed
Burning stages
1. Dehydration - removal of all water
at temperature up to 600 0 C
2. Oxidation (Burning of
carbonaceous material between
300 - 900 0 C)
- Vitrification (900 - 1315 0 C)
(Change into a glassy substance)

• Temperature affects color,

strength, and absorption of
bricks. Higher temperature gives
darker color.
• Cooling for 2 - 3 days.
• Proper sorting and packaging
of the brick.
 Shapes of Bricks
- Solid
- Hollow
- Cellular
- Perforated
 Shapes of Bricks
◼ Cores / holes - vary in size &
number
Purpose :
◼ Reduce volume & weight of brick
◼ Increase bond strength
◼ Allow even drying during burning
 Sizes of Brick

The standard UK/ MS 7.6: 1972

215 x 102.5 x 65 mm

US brick :
8 x 4 x 2.25 inches
(203 x 102 x 57 mm)
 Properties of bricks

• Size, texture, density & color

• Compressive & tensile strength
- Affected by the properties of clay,
methods of manufacturing (higher in
stiff mud process than soft mud
process) and burning process. (Higher
degree of burning, higher strength).
- Compressive strength between 7 -
21 MPa.
• Absorption
- Absorption of water depends on clay
properties, manufacturing process and
burning. Absorption determine the
durability of bricks.
- High absorption capacity causes mortar
to be dry & reduces mortar strength.
Good brick should absorb < 20 % water.
Highly absorptive bricks can cause
efflorescence.

Efflorescence – white, powdery deposits on

bricks composed of soluble salts in the brick
brought up to the surface by moisture.
Aesthetic problem; may cause surface
damage.
 Bricks test

◼ Compressive strength test

◼ Water absorption test
◼ Efflorescence test (not common)
 Types of clay brick

1. Common brick
- Brick for common building
purposes. Strength & durability
are important. Appearance
(texture or color not so
important.)
- Used for wall / partition wall which
require plastering.
2. Face brick
Brick made especially
for exterior use with
special consideration
of color, texture and
size, and used as a
facing on a building.
High durability.
3. Engineering brick
◼ Dense, tough, strong brick which
are used to construct
- retaining wall
- load bearing wall
- brick sewer
4. Firebrick
(refractory brick)
Used to line lining furnaces,
kilns and fireplace. Built
primarily to resist high
temperature.
 Non- Clay brick

1. Sand-Lime (Calcium- silicate ) brick

A white brick made
of lime, sand and
water which is then
molded at high
pressure, followed
by high-pressure
steam curing.
 Sand-Lime (Calcium- silicate )
brick production
Mixing reactor

Lime water
Sand
Brick pressing

Send to autoclave

Autoclave (high pressure, Transport

steam curing)
 2. Concrete brick

Solid concrete unit in clay brick dimensions. A

mixture of cement and aggregate, usually
sand, formed in molds and cured.

Concrete block
A large unit, usually 8
inches high, 16 inches
long, and of various
thicknesses.
Screen wall blocks
have an open web
pattern to be used
where the admission
of air and light is
needed in connection
with separation of
areas.
 Brickwork
Bricks are laid to expose their ends (Header)
or sides / face (Stretcher) half brick

Stretcher
Header
One brick

Bricks are laid in rows called courses (layers).

The manner in which the bricks are arranged as
they are laid up is called bond.
 Types of bond

- Stretcher (most common)

- Header
- English
- Flemish
 Stretcher bond

- Most common bond

in modern times; easy
to lay.
- consists of course
entirely comprised of
stretchers (shows only
the long side-surface
of the brick.)
- Produce half brick
wall thickness. half brick wall thickness.
 Header bond

- Course consists of
header
- Useful for producing
one brick wall
thickness & curve
wall.
- Weak bond
 English bond

- Made up of
alternating courses
of stretchers and
headers.
- This produces a solid
wall that is a full brick
in width.
- The strongest bond
for a one-brick-thick
wall.
 Flemish bond

- Alternately laying
headers and stretchers
in a single course.
- The next course is laid
so that a header lies in
the middle of the
stretcher in the course
below.
- Quite difficult to lay
properly.
 Mortar

• Mortar is a material used in masonry to

fill the gaps between blocks (e.g. brick,
stone) in construction and bind the
blocks together.
• Mortar is a mixture of sand, cement,
lime & water.
• Thickness of mortar : 6 – 9 mm
 Types of Mortar
Lime 1 part lime, 3 - 4 parts sand; low strength,
mortar poor durability but good workability.

Cement 1 part Portland cement, 3 - 4 parts sand. High

mortar strength, harden quickly, good durability but
low workability. Should be used immediately.

Lime - 1 part Portland cement, 1 part lime, 6 parts

cement sand. Good strength, moderate hardening,
mortar good workability and good durability. The
addition of lime increases mortar workability.
 Methods of finishing joints / Pointing
.

Types of joint

• A process of filling in the most watertight

joints of brickwork with
mortar
• Pointing is carried out on
face brick or on exposed (concave; V-joints)

brick surface.
• The process can be carried
out while laying the bricks
or at a later stage. not particular strong or
water-resistant
 Plastering

• To finish off brick wall (interior or

exterior wall) and give a smooth
surface.
• A fluid mixture of lime, Portland
cement, sand and gypsum.
• Stucco – a plaster used to cover
exterior walls.
 Types of Plaster
Lime plaster A mixture of lime and sand.
Cement A mixture of Portland cement and sand.
plaster
Gypsum A mixture of gypsum (calcium sulfate)
plaster and sand.

Plastering is normally done in two coats:

(Combination of the three materials is normally used)
Base coat: e.g. Lime plaster & with cement or gypsum
Finish coat: Lime plaster & with gypsum
Basic Brick Construction
 History of Construction Block

Blocks sometimes referred to as artificial stone, and have been used since 4000 BC.

MIDDLE EAST:-The earliest brick were dried brick meaning that they were formed
from clay bring earth or mud.

The oldest discovered bricks originally made from shaped mud and dating before
7500BC were found at TELL ASWALD.

CHINA:-The earliest fired bricks appeared in Neolithic China around 4400BC at

Chengtoushan, a walled settlement of the DOXI culture.

Europe:-Europe were also called roman brick.

 BLOCKS VS. BRICKS

• A brick is building material used to make walls, pavements and other

elements in masonry construction. Traditionally, the term brick
referred to a unit composed of clay. A brick can be composed of clay-
bearing soil, sand, and lime, or concrete materials.

• Block is a similar term referring to a rectangular building unit

composed of similar materials, but is usually larger than a brick.
Lightweight bricks (also called lightweight blocks) are made from
expanded clay aggregate.
 Construction Brick
Construction Block
 Properties of building blocks

It consider implementation and usage and involve to exploit technology and
standard.
It may assembled from other building blocks.
Ideally a building block is reusable and replaceable and well specified.
Structural properties
Fire resistance
Water resistance
Aesthetic properties
Insulating properties
Acoustic properties
Types of concrete block used in building construction
1. Hollow concrete blocks
• Commonly used in the construction industry, concrete hollow blocks
are usually manufactured using lightweight aggregates with a certain
design load.

• There are two kinds of concrete hollow blocks;

I. load-bearing concrete hollow blocks and

II. Non-load bearing concrete hollow blocks.

• It is available in sizes such as 100x200x400mm, 200x200x400mm,

150x200x400mm and so on
 2. Aerated Autoclaved Concrete Block (AAC)
• Most of the time compared with bricks but is different in a lot of ways:

• Aerated Autoclaved concrete blocks are lighter and bigger version of bricks

• Studies show that using autoclaved aerated block has diligently reduced the overall
steel and concrete consumption by 15% and 10%.

• Apparently, in the cost-benefit factor part, autoclaved aerated block past by bricks
in several areas such as construction time, adaptation to various surfaces, fire
resistance, and cost.
 3. Concrete Bricks
• Concrete bricks typically are small rectangular block arrange and
piled systematically to create a rigid wall.

• Usually made up of cooked clay or concrete

• Some manufacturers use solid concrete while others play with its
cement and aggregates ratio for economic purposes.

• Concrete bricks are usually used in fences, facades, as it provides

good aesthetic and slick look.
 4. Solid concrete blocks
 Solid concrete blocks are manufactured to be strong, heavy, and created out of
naturally dense aggregates.

 These solid concrete blocks are strong enough that it is used for large masonry units
that are load-bearing in nature
5. Lintel blocks
These concrete blocks are used in preparation for lintel beams
These lintel blocks are manufactured in such a way that it serves as a
masonry unit and a formwork itself.
 They serve as permanent formwork system for the lintel beam member.
 This is found to be efficient and useful by most builders as they served two
different purposes.
 6. Paving Blocks
Paving blocks are generally just a rectangular or square box made
up of reinforced concrete.

These blocks are used in paving and road shoulders, these have to be
painted with high-visibility concrete paints so motorists and drivers
could see it right away.

Paving blocks are also used in parks, walkway, and sometimes in

parking areas. The common size of paving block is 60mm.

 7.concret stretcher block
• Similar to corner block, concrete stretcher block are used to combine
masonry units.

• Concrete stretcher block is relatively the same with common hollow

block but their faces are laid parallel with respect to the face of the
wall.

• Choosing a masonry unit is solely dependent on the needs of the

builder, the combination of this masonry unit is advisable.

 Use of building block
Inexpensive in comparison to other types of building materials.

Lightweight, which is very beneficial in working on a job that requires heavy

manual labor.

Can also be used as a form of insulation against heat or cold, assisting in the cost
of energy bills.

Durable: concrete block is great when building a foundation because unlike

wood, it is immune to termites and extreme temperatures.

Versatile: can be used in a varieties of different ways, from backyard landscape,

partition walls, or even used to soundproof rooms.
Top 6 Important Quality Tests Of building block
Slump test before leaving the batching plant and on arrival on site

Compressive strength test

Water Permeability test

Rapid Chloride Ion Penetration Test

Water Absorption Test

Initial Surface Absorption Test

Assignment on Construction Materials 2020

1. List And Discuss the Building Construction Materials?

2. What are Building Stones? Discuss their Requirement and Types?
3. What are the Properties of Good Building Stones?
4. What are the uses of Common Building Stones?
5. List out Useful Building Stones in Ethiopia?
6. Write a Brief Notes on Methods Of Quarrying Of Building Stones? And Also
Define What Do Mean By ‘Quarrying’
7. What Is Dressing of Stones? When We Apply and Why?
8. What Are The Deteriorating Agencies of Stones? And How (Methods of
Preservations)
9. List and Discuss both Laboratory and Field Tests on Building Stones?
10. What are Artificial Stone? Give the Examples?
11. What are Advantages of Building Stones?
12. What Are Bricks? Discuss their Requirement and types? Standard Size or
Dimensions as Worldwide and Ethiopia Context?
13. Discuss in details the four bonding types of bricks with their figures and
sketches?
14. Define Building Blocks and Discuss in Details its type, Standard Size and
General Requirement? Don’t Miss to compare it with that of Bricks?
15. List out those metals used in constructions? What are the general properties of
steel and aluminum alloys? Why reinforced concrete?
16. What Is Bitumen? Discuss the Grades of Bitumen, types of Bitumen, the Basic
Function of Bitumen, the General Requirements of Bitumen, and Tests on
Bitumen?
17. What is timber? The general requirements of timber? List out those timber
products in details?

Faculty of Water Supply and Environmental Engineering Page 1

 Assignment 2 (Workout)

General Instructions

All the group members must be participated in doing the workouts.

The neatness and accuracy have their own value.
The procedure must be followed in using the table of Concrete Mix design.
There must Given data information, the required and the solutions discretely.
1. Concrete is required for a portion of a structure that will be below ground level in a location
where it will not be exposed to severe weathering or sulfate attack. Structural considerations
require it to have an average 28-day compressive strength of 24 Mpa (cylindrical). It is determined
that under the conditions of placement to be employed,
a slump of 75-100 mm should be used
The coarse aggregate has a nominal maximum size of 37.5 mm and dry-rodded mass of
1600 kg/m3.
Other properties oftheingredients are:
 cement –TypeI with specific gravity of3.15;
 Coarse aggregate-bulk specific gravity 2.68and absorption 0.5 percent;
 Fine aggregate - bulk specific gravity 2.64, absorption 0.7 percent, and fineness
modulus 2.8.

Calculate the weights of all materials that you would use for the first trial mix on a
concrete mix.

Good luck!
 Assignment 2 (Workout)

2. Calculate the weights of all materials that you would use for the first trial mix on a
concrete mix required to achieve Characteristic compressive strength of 25
N/mm2 at 28 days (cubic strength). The following information on material
properties and plant performance is available to you.

Cement Type, specific gravity respectively O.P.C, 3.15

Max. Aggregate size, rodded bulk density of aggregate 19mm,1600kg/m3
Rel. Density (S.G) of combined aggregate (SSD) 2.75
Required Slump 25mm
Maximum Cement Content 500 Kg/m3
Max free water/cement ratio 0.5
Fineness modulus 2.97
Air content 1%
Freemoisture contentofsand andcoarseaggregaterespectively 8%, 1%
Bulk specific gravity of coarse and fine aggregate respectively 2.7, 2.6
Absorption of coarse and fine aggregate respectively 0.3%, 0.8%

Good luck!
 Assignment 2 (Workout)

3. Calculate the weights of all materials that you would use for the first trial mix on a
concrete mix required to achieve Characteristic compressive strength of 40 N/mm 2
at 28 days (cubic strength). The following information on material properties and
plant performance is available to you.

Cement Type, specific gravity respectively O.P.C, 3.15

Max. Aggregate size, rodded bulk density of aggregate 12.5 mm, 1700 kg/m3
Rel. Density (S.G) of combined aggregate (SSD) 2.7

Required Slump 50mm

Min. Cement Content 320 Kg/m3

Max free water/cement ratio 0.7

Fineness modulus 2.93

Air content 1%

Free moisture content of sand and coarse aggregate 8%, 1%

respectively
Bulk specificgravityofcoarse andfineaggregaterespectively 2.7, 2.6

Absorption of coarse and fine aggregate respectively 0.3%, 0.8%

Good luck!
The table below shows the type of structure with exposure conditions. From this we can
have Maximum Permissible Water/Cement ratios for different types of structure. Hence
it is a must to see or revise our calculation for what type structure. Summarize the
example for the exposure given. See the ‘star’ and ‘dollar’ symbol at the last of the table
and differentiate it as much as possible.

Remember the definition of ‘slump’ from the tests from checking concrete workability.
We have different slumps for different types of constructions. So it is your duties or turn
to check for the type of structure given in the questions or any related calculations and
or examples. For what of structure we are going to prepare concrete? It is a must to
answer this question before starting the workout.
For the table depicted below we have different parameters must be understood. Here
there are slump and aggregate for which we use them to obtain Water (kg/m3) and air
content for both Non-air entrained and air entrained concrete. Try to check the exposure
while finding the recommended air content in percentage. Read the note at the end of
the table for different case if may happen on workout.

The table below describes how we can access fresh concrete from the table with help of
nominal maximum size of aggregate for the two cases of air entrained and non air
entrained. Here such a calculation is not a final one rather it is a first estimate of
concrete unit mass, kg/m3