Internet
|
Firewall
|
Router
|
Switch (Core)
|
-----------------------------------------
| |
Switch (Distribution) Switch (Distribution)
| |
--------------------- ---------------------
| | | |
Switch (Access) Switch (Access) Switch (Access)
Switch (Access)
| | | |
------------------- ------------------- -------------------
-------------------
| PC 1 | PC 2 | ...| PC N | Printer | | PC M | PC M+1| ...| PC Z |
Printer |
------------------- ------------------- -------------------
-------------------
| |
Server Room Server Room
--------------------- ---------------------
| File Server | | Web Server |
| Print Server | | Database Server |
--------------------- ---------------------
Explanation of the Network Diagram:
1. Internet: The external network from which the lab's connection originates.
2. Firewall: A security device that controls network traffic, allowing authorized access
while blocking unauthorized attempts. It acts as a barrier between the internet and the
internal network.
3. Router: A device that forwards data packets between different networks. In this case, it
connects the internal network of the lab to the internet. It also performs Network Address
Translation (NAT), allowing multiple devices to share a single public IP address.
4. Switch (Core): A high-capacity switch that forms the backbone of the network. It
connects the distribution switches and provides high-speed communication between
them. Think of it as the central hub.
5. Switch (Distribution): These switches connect to the core switch and provide
connectivity to the access switches. They distribute network traffic to different areas of
the lab. They help segment the network for better management and performance.
6. Switch (Access): These switches connect directly to the end-user devices (PCs, printers).
They provide network access to the workstations in the lab.
7. PCs (Nodes): The individual computers used by students or staff. They are the end-
points of the network.
8. Printers: Network-connected printers that can be accessed by all or some of the PCs.
9. Server Room: A dedicated space for housing servers.
10. File Server: Stores and manages files that can be accessed by users on the network.
11. Print Server: Manages print jobs and queues for the network printers.
12. Web Server: Hosts websites or web applications that may be accessible internally or
externally.
13. Database Server: Stores and manages data for applications used within the lab or
organization.
Network Flow:
When a user on a PC wants to access a website:
1. The request is sent to the access switch.
2. The access switch forwards the request to the distribution switch.
3. The distribution switch forwards the request to the core switch.
4. The core switch sends the request to the router.
5. The router sends the request to the internet through the firewall.
6. The web server hosting the website responds to the request.
7. The response travels back through the network path to the user's PC.
Key Concepts:
Hierarchy: The network is designed in a hierarchical structure (core, distribution,
access) for scalability and manageability.
Redundancy (Optional): In more robust setups, there might be redundant links between
switches or even multiple core switches to prevent single points of failure.
VLANs (Virtual LANs): The network could be segmented into VLANs to separate
different types of traffic (e.g., student traffic, staff traffic, server traffic) for security and
performance reasons. This is not shown in the basic diagram but is a common practice.
QUESTION TWO
1. Hub:
Function: A hub is a simple device that connects multiple devices on a network. It
receives a signal on one port and blindly broadcasts it to all other ports. Think of it like a
megaphone; everyone hears everything.
OSI Layer: Physical Layer (Layer 1).
Reason: Hubs deal with raw electrical or optical signals without any understanding of
data or addresses. They simply repeat the signal.
2. Switch:
Function: A switch is a more intelligent device than a hub. It learns the MAC addresses
of connected devices and forwards data packets only to the intended recipient. It's like a
receptionist who directs calls only to the right person.
OSI Layer: Data Link Layer (Layer 2).
Reason: Switches use MAC addresses, which are Layer 2 addresses, to determine where
to forward data. They build a MAC address table to learn which MAC address is
connected to which port.
3. Wireless Access Point (WAP):
Function: A WAP allows wireless devices (laptops, smartphones, tablets) to connect to a
wired network using Wi-Fi. It acts as a bridge between wireless and wired networks.
OSI Layer: Data Link Layer (Layer 2) and sometimes Network Layer (Layer 3).
Reason: While its primary function is bridging wireless to wired (Layer 2 using MAC
addresses), some advanced WAPs can also perform routing functions (Layer 3) and thus
deal with IP addresses. However, the core function of connecting wireless devices to
wired is at Layer 2.
4. Router:
Function: A router connects different networks together (e.g., your home network to the
internet). It forwards data packets between these networks based on IP addresses. It's like
a postal service that routes mail based on addresses.
OSI Layer: Network Layer (Layer 3).
Reason: Routers use IP addresses, which are Layer 3 addresses, to determine the best
path for data packets to travel between networks. They maintain routing tables to make
these decisions.
QUESTION THREE
For a network to be effective and efficient, it must meet the following criteria:
1. Performance – The network should provide fast and reliable data transmission,
measured in terms of bandwidth (speed), latency (delay), and error rate.
2. Reliability – The network should ensure minimal downtime and provide fault tolerance
through redundancy and error recovery mechanisms.
3. Scalability – The network should be able to expand easily by adding more devices and
users without a significant drop in performance.
Three Factors That Can Cause Network Congestion
Network congestion occurs when the demand for network resources exceeds its capacity. The
following factors can lead to congestion:
1. High Traffic Volume – Excessive data transfer from multiple users or devices can
overwhelm the network, slowing down communication.
2. Insufficient Bandwidth – Limited bandwidth restricts the amount of data that can be
transmitted, causing delays and packet loss.
3. Network Device Limitations – Overloaded routers, switches, or servers can struggle to
process large amounts of data, leading to slow response times.
QUESTION 4 Discuss the functions of a bridge and its limitations. Compare Bridge and
Switch
Functions of a Bridge in Networking
A bridge is a network device that connects two or more network segments, allowing
communication between them while maintaining traffic separation. It operates at the Data Link
Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model and helps in efficient data transmission.
Key Functions of a Bridge
1. Network Segmentation – Bridges divide large networks into smaller segments, reducing
congestion and improving performance.
2. Traffic Filtering – Bridges filter network traffic by forwarding only necessary data between
segments based on MAC addresses.
3. Collision Domain Reduction – By dividing the network, bridges help in reducing collisions,
enhancing data flow efficiency.
4. Protocol Independence – Bridges work with different types of network protocols, making them
versatile in heterogeneous network environments.
5. Extending Network Coverage – They help expand a network by connecting distant network
segments.
Limitations of a Bridge
Despite their advantages, bridges have some limitations:
1. Limited Scalability – Bridges struggle to handle a large number of devices, making them
inefficient in large networks.
2. Slower Processing – Since bridges process and forward data using software-based filtering, they
are slower compared to hardware-based solutions like switches.
3. Broadcast Traffic Issues – Bridges do not filter broadcast traffic efficiently, which can lead to
network congestion.
4. Single Collision Domain per Segment – Although bridges separate collision domains, all devices
within a segment still share the same collision domain.
5. Latency Increase – Data packets take longer to reach their destination as bridges introduce
additional processing delays.
Comparison: Bridge vs. Switch
Feature Bridge Switch
Data Link Layer (Layer 2), sometimes Layer
Layer of Operation Data Link Layer (Layer 2)
3 (for Layer 3 switches)
Connects and filters traffic between two Connects multiple devices within a
Purpose
or more network segments network and filters traffic efficiently
Reduces collisions but still has shared Creates separate collision domains for
Collision Domains
collision domains per segment each connected device
Slower, as it processes packets in Faster, as it processes packets in hardware
Processing Speed
software (ASIC-based)
Efficiency in Large Not suitable for large-scale networks Highly efficient in large networks with
Networks due to slow data filtering better traffic handling
Can manage and limit broadcast storms
Broadcast Control Cannot filter broadcast traffic efficiently
using VLANs
Has multiple ports (typically 8, 16, 24, or
Ports Available Usually has 2–4 ports
more)
Conclusion
Bridges are useful for small networks and basic traffic filtering but are not efficient for large-
scale network environments.
Switches are more advanced, scalable, and offer better performance, making them the
preferred choice for modern networks.
QUESTION 5 :
Importance of Open Standards for Protocols
Open standards are essential in networking because they ensure interoperability, compatibility,
and widespread adoption of communication protocols. The key reasons why open standards are
important include:
1. Interoperability – Open standards allow devices and systems from different
manufacturers to communicate seamlessly, preventing vendor lock-in.
2. Scalability – Networks can grow and evolve without being restricted to proprietary
solutions, ensuring long-term flexibility.
3. Cost-Effectiveness – Organizations do not need to rely on expensive proprietary
technologies, reducing costs while maintaining efficiency.
4. Security and Reliability – Publicly reviewed and widely adopted standards ensure
robust security measures and stable network performance.
5. Innovation and Collaboration – Open standards encourage contributions from the
global tech community, leading to continuous improvements in networking technologies.
6. Ease of Integration – New technologies and protocols can be easily integrated with
existing systems that follow the same open standards.
Key Elements of Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication between devices in a network. The
essential elements of protocols include:
1. Syntax – Defines the structure and format of data (e.g., packet headers, message format).
2. Semantics – Specifies the meaning of each part of a message and how devices should
interpret and process the data.
3. Timing – Dictates synchronization rules, data transmission rates, and sequencing to
ensure smooth communication.
4. Error Handling – Mechanisms to detect and correct errors during transmission (e.g.,
checksums, acknowledgments).
5. Flow Control – Regulates data flow to prevent congestion and ensure efficient
communication between devices.
6. Addressing – Defines how devices are uniquely identified in a network (e.g., IP
addresses, MAC addresses).
7. Encapsulation – Describes how data is packaged and sent through the network,
including headers and metadata.
8. Authentication and Security – Ensures secure communication by verifying identities
and encrypting data.
QUESTION 6: Suppose you want to connect two campuses of a University, which are
around 2-3 KM apart. Determine type of Connectivity, Cable type and other devices required
for making a LAN. Justify your design.
Let's design a network connection between two university campuses 2-3 KM apart.
Connectivity Type:
Fiber Optic Cable: This is the best choice for this distance. Fiber offers high bandwidth,
low latency, and is immune to electromagnetic interference, crucial for inter-campus
communication.
Cable Type:
Single-mode Fiber: For 2-3 KM, single-mode fiber is preferred. It has lower signal loss
over longer distances than multi-mode fiber. While slightly more expensive, the
performance justifies it. We'd use a multi-strand cable (e.g., 12 or 24 strands) for current
needs and future expansion.
Devices Required:
1. Fiber Optic Modems/Media Converters: At each campus, these convert electrical
signals from network equipment to optical signals for fiber transmission, and vice-versa.
2. Patch Panels: Installed at both campuses for organized connection points for fiber cables
and media converters. They simplify cable management and troubleshooting.
3. Fiber Optic Cables (with appropriate connectors): Pre-terminated fiber cable runs
between campuses. Connectors (e.g., LC or SC) must match the ports on
modems/converters and patch panels.
4. High-Capacity Switches/Routers: At each campus, high-performance switches (Layer 2
or Layer 3) connect the local network to the fiber link. If routing between campuses is
needed, routers (Layer 3) should be used.
5. SFP/SFP+ Transceivers: Small, pluggable modules inserted into switch/router and
modem/converter ports to provide the optical interface for the fiber cable. They convert
electrical to optical signals and vice-versa.
Network Design and Sketch:
Fiber Optic Cable (Single-mode)
----------------------------------
/ \
/ \
Campus A / \
Campus B
-----------------
-----------------
| | |
|
+-------+ | Switch/Router |---Fiber Optic Modem/Converter---| |
Switch/Router | +-------+
| PC |---| | |
|---| PC |
| | | | |
| | |
+-------+ | Patch Panel | |
Patch Panel | +-------+
| | |
|
-----------------
-----------------
Campus A and Campus B: Represent the two university campuses.
Fiber Optic Cable (Single-mode): The physical connection between the campuses.
Switch/Router: High-capacity network device at each campus. If inter-campus routing is
required, these should be Layer 3 routers. Otherwise, Layer 2 or Layer 3 managed switches are
appropriate.
Fiber Optic Modem/Converter: Converts the electrical signals from the switch/router to optical
signals for transmission over the fiber, and vice-versa.
Patch Panel: Provides a central point for connecting and managing the fiber cables.
PC: Represents the end devices (computers, servers) on the campus network. These would
typically connect to the switch/router via copper cabling (e.g., Cat5e, Cat6).
Justification:
High Bandwidth: Fiber provides ample bandwidth for high-speed data transfer between
campuses, supporting various applications.
Long Distance: Fiber is ideal for the 2-3 KM distance with minimal signal loss.
Immunity to Interference: Fiber is not affected by electromagnetic interference, a
potential issue with copper cabling over long distances.
Scalability: Fiber supports future bandwidth upgrades.
Security: Fiber is more secure than copper, as it's harder to tap into.
Other Considerations:
Cost: Fiber cabling and equipment are more expensive than copper, but the long-term
benefits and performance are worth it for inter-campus connectivity.
Installation: Professional fiber cable installation is crucial, potentially involving
trenching or using existing conduits.
Maintenance: Regular maintenance and testing are important.
Security: Physical security of the fiber cable and equipment should be considered.
Redundancy: For higher reliability, consider redundant fiber links between campuses. If
this is done, STP (Spanning Tree Protocol) should be used on the switches to prevent
network loops.
