Two marks questions with answers

1. Define modulation?
Modulation is a process of changing the characteristics of high frequency carrier
Signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal.

2. Define the need for modulation?

➢ Ease of transmission
➢ Reduce the Antenna Height
➢ Multiplexing
➢ Reduced noise
➢ Narrow bandwidth

3. Describe AM &FM?
Amplitude modulation (AM) is a modulation technique where the amplitude of a
carrier varies depending on the message signal.
In frequency modulation(FM) the carrier wave frequency is modified according to
the message signal that carries information.

4. Distinguish between AM,FM&PM?

Amplitude modulation frequency modulation Phase Modulation
(AM) (FM) (PM)
The amplitude of the The frequency of the The phase of the carrier
carrier wave is varied carrier wave is varied wave is varied according
according to the message based on the message to the message signal.
signal signal
It is used AM radio It is used in FM radio It is used in Digital
broadcasting and two-way radios communication
It is more susceptible to It requires wider It carry data more
noise bandwidth efficiently

5. Define the modulation index of AM?

The Modulation Index (µ) (or depth of modulation or modulation factor) is defined
as ratio of the amplitude of the modulating signal (Am) to the amplitude of carrier
signal (Ac)
 6. Define demodulation?
It is the process of extracting the original message (information) signal from a
modulated carrier wave. It is the reverse process of modulation. The devices used
for demodulation or detection are called demodulators or detectors
7. Define the modulation index of FM?
It is defined as the ratio of maximum frequency deviation to the frequency of the
message signal

8. What are the elements of communication systems?

The fundamental elements of a communication system are
a. Information Source
b. Transmitter
c. Channel
d. Noise
e. Receiver
9. What is meant by SSB-SC ?
Single-Sideband Suppressed-Carrier, is a type of amplitude modulation where only
one sideband of the modulated signal is transmitted, while the carrier signal and
the other sideband are suppressed, saving bandwidth and power.
10.What is meant by DSB-SC ?
Double-Sideband Suppressed-Carrier, is a type of amplitude modulation (AM)
where the carrier signal is suppressed, and only the upper and lower sidebands
containing the information are transmitted, leading to improved efficiency and
reduced power consumption compared to conventional AM.

11.Write the advantages of DSB-SC over SSB-SC?

The advantage of SSB-SC is bandwidth and power-saving over both conventional
AM and DSB SC.
12.What is the efficiency of SSB-SC?
Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSB-SC) modulation has an efficiency
of 100%. This is because it transmits only one sideband, eliminating the waste of
power in the other sideband and the carrier.
 13. Define balanced modulator?
A balanced modulator is used to generate DSB-SC (Double Sideband Suppressed
Carrier) signals. Its main function is to modulate the message signal onto a carrier
without transmitting the carrier.
14. What are the types of angle modulation?
The two types of angle modulation are frequency modulation and phase
modulation.
15. Define VSB-SC?
VSB-SC stands for Vestigial Sideband Suppressed Carrier modulation. In VSB-
SC modulation, one sideband is transmitted completely, and a portion (or vestige)
of the other sideband is also transmitted, while the carrier is suppressed.
16. Define FDM?
FDM is a multiplexing technique in which multiple signals are transmitted at the
same time over a common communication medium, with each signal occupying a
different frequency band.
17. Define TDM?
TDM is a multiplexing technique in which multiple signals are transmitted over a
single communication channel by dividing time into separate time slots, each
allocated to a different signal.
18. Write the applications of DSB-SC?
DSB-SC is used in point-to-point communication where power efficiency is
important.
Used in Satellite and Space Communication due to its power efficiency.

19. What are the types of modulations?

1. Analog Modulation:
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM
Phase Modulation (PM)
2. Digital Modulation
ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying)
FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)
PSK (Phase Shift Keying)
20. Write the applications of SSB-SC?
➢ Used in walkie-talkies and emergency communication systems.
➢ Widely used in HF (High Frequency) radio communications like marine,
aviation, and military radio.
 Part-B
1. Explain in detail about the Amplitude modulation? Also derive the necessary
expressions and its waveform?
 =
2. Discuss in detail about the following AM generation and detection techniques?
(ii) Square law modulator ii) Envelope detector
3. Discuss in detail about the Generation of DSB-SC modulation Balanced
modulator & Ring modulator?
4. Discuss in detail about the ssb-sc generation of phase shift method and
synchronous detection method?
5. Discuss in detail about VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION?
6. Discuss in detail about FREQUENCY MODULATION:
7. Explain About PHASE MODULATION:
8. Discuss about PLL-FM DEMODULATOR and SUPER HETERODYNE
receiver .
9. Explain about Frequency division Multiplexing :
10. A carrier signal c(t) = 20cos2π 10 6 t is modulated by a message signal having
three frequencies 5kHz,10kHz,20kHz the corresponding modulation index
0.4,0.5,0.6. Sketch the spectrum calculate bandwidth, power and modulation
efficiency?
 Unit-II
NOISE AND PULSE MODULATION
Two marks questions with answers
1. Define noise??
It is the disturbance or unwanted frequency present in the required frequency
signals and disrupts the transmission signal

2. What are the Types of noise??

3. Define pre-emphasis and de-emphasis??

Pre-emphasis is a process applied at the transmitter side where higher-frequency
components of the signal are amplified more than lower-frequency ones before
transmission.
De-emphasis is the complementary process applied at the receiver side where
the previously emphasized high frequencies are attenuated (reduced) to restore the
original signal.
 4. Define noise in AM?
In AM, the information is carried in the amplitude of the carrier wave. Since AM
relies on changes in amplitude, any noise that alters amplitude directly distorts the
message.
5. Define sampling process?
The sampling process is the method of converting a continuous-time signal (usually
analog) into a discrete-time signal by taking measurements of the signal's
amplitude at regular time intervals. To accurately reconstruct the original analog
signal, the sampling rate must be at least twice the highest frequency present in the
signal.
6. Define Quantization?
Quantization is the process of mapping the sampled values of an analog
signal to a finite set of discrete levels during analog-to-digital conversion (ADC).
It comes after sampling and is an essential step in converting a continuous signal
into a digital one.
7. What are the types of sampling?
The types of sampling are (i) Natural Sampling (ii)Flat-Top Sampling (iii)
Uniform Sampling (iV) Non-uniform Sampling
8. Comparison of PCM ,DM &ADM?
PCM (Pulse Code DM(Delta Modulation) ADM (Adaptive Delta
Modulation) Modulation)
Samples are quantized Encodes change between The step size varies
into binary codes successive sample based on signal
Bandwidth Requirement Bandwidth Requirement Bandwidth Requirement
is high is low is moderate

9. Define DM??
The Delta Modulator (DM) comprises of a 1-bit quantizer and a delay circuit along
with two summer circuits. It sends a single bit:
• 1 if the signal is increasing.
• 0 if the signal is decreasing.

10.What are the advantages of DM over ADM?

Delta Modulator (DM) uses a fixed step size, making the design of encoder and
decoder very simple. ADM (Adaptive Delta Modulator) requires extra logic to adjust
the step size dynamically. DM consumes less power when compared to ADM
 11.Define PCM??
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is a digital method of converting an analog signal
into a binary sequence by sampling, quantizing, and encoding the signal. It is
the most basic and widely used form of digital audio representation.
12.Define Nyquist rate?
The minimum sampling rate at which a signal can be sampled and can be
reconstructed from its samples without any distortion is called the Nyquist rate of
sampling.

13. Define Aliasing effect??

Aliasing refers to the phenomenon where a sampled signal incorrectly represents
the original continuous signal, especially when the sampling rate is insufficient to
capture high-frequency components.
14. Define Unipolar Non Return to Zero?
In unipolar line coding scheme the positive voltage defines bit 1 and the zero
voltage defines bit 0. Signal does not return to zero at the middle of the bit thus it
is called NRZ.
15. Define Bipolar Return-to-Zero (RZ) Encoding?
Bipolar RZ is a digital line coding scheme that uses three voltage levels—positive,
negative, and zero—where binary ‘1s’ alternate in polarity, and binary ‘0s’ are
represented by zero voltage.
16. What is Encoding process in Communication?
Encoding is the process of using various patterns of voltage or current levels to
represent 1s and 0s of the digital signals on the transmission link.
17. Write the advantages of pulse code modulation?

18. Write the disadvantages of pulse code modulation?

19. Define Non-Uniform Quantization?
The step size varies with respect to the input message. It is also known as nonlinear
quantization. It is varied based on the amplitude of the input signal. Non uniform
quantization is used to improve the signal to noise ratio of the weak signal.
20. Write the advantages of pulse Amplitude modulation?

Part-B
1. Explain in detail about the different types of noises?
2. Discuss in detail about the Differential pulse code modulation?
3. Elaborately explain about the delta modulation?
4. Discuss in detail about Pulse code Modulation:?
5. Discuss about Pre-Emphasis and De-emphasis in FM.
6. Discuss about the Sampling Process in communication:
7. Explain about Pulse Amplitude Modulation
8. Briefly explain about Quantization Process
9. Explain about time division multiplexing

10.Discuss the Noise Performance of DSB-SC Scheme

 Unit-3
Base band signal Transmission

Two marks questions with answers

1. What is the difference between baseband transmission and band pass
transmission?

➢ In base band pulse transmission, the digital data transmitted directly over the channel without
using any modulation technique. This one can be used for shorter distance communication.
➢ In pass band pulse transmission, the digital data can be transmitted over the channel by using
modulation techniques. This one can be used for the longer distance communication.
➢ In case of base band data transmission, there is a requirement to use low frequency channel
whose bandwidth is large enough to pass the input data stream.

2.Define ISI and discuss?

This is another source of bit errors in base band data transmission. Suppose the channel is in
dispersive nature, the present pulse is affected by the adjacent pulses, this type of interference
is called as Inter Symbol Interference.

3. Define Duobinary signaling.

Duo implies that doubling of the transmission capacity of a straight binary system.

Consider a binary i/p sequence {bk} consisting of uncorrelated binary symbols 1 and 0, each
having duration Tb. First this sequence is applied to a pulse amplitude modulator, it produces two
level sequence of short pulses, whose amplitude ak is defined as,
4.Draw eye pattern and explain the significance of eye pattern?
The eye pattern names comes from human eye because the appearance of binary waves closely equal to
human eye.

The interior portion of the eye pattern is called the eye opening

5.Write the equation of probability error for Matched filter?

6. Define Equalization?
 Ten marks questions with answers
1.Explain briefly about the matched filter and its properties?

Matched Filter

The device uses linear time invariant filter for the detection of pulse transmitted over a
channel that is corrupted by channel noise is called marched filter, which is so called because its
impulse response is matched to the pulse signal. It is used to improve the S/N ratio.

Let us consider a receiver model shown in fig, with LTI filter of impulse response h(t).

The filter input x(t) consist of pulse signal g(t) & noise w(t), it is expressed as

Where T is observation interval, g(t) is a binary symbol 1 or 0, w(t) is a sample function of white
noise, zero mean, psd N0/2

Since the filter is linear, the filter output y(t) is expressed as

Where go(t) & n(t) are signal & noise components produced by signal x(t).

Here, the filter has to make at time t=T, the instantaneous power of the output signal as maximum as
possible than the average power of the output noise n(t). This is equivalent to maximizing the peak
signal to noise ratio, defined as

Where the instantaneous power in the output is signal and is ameasure of avg. noise
power.

The requirement is to specify the impulse response of the matched filter in order to maximize the output signal to
noise ratio in equation 3.
Properties of Matched filter:

Matched filter is a optimum device for the detection of received pulse signal effected by noise.
By using LTI filter, to improve the output signal to noise ratio.

(i) The impulse response of the matched filter is, except the scaling factor k, is the time
inversed & delayed inversion of the input pulse signal g(t).
. hopt(t) = k . g(T-t)

Proof: From the Schwartz’s inequality theorem, from eq.10

Then the optimum value of the filter ℎ𝑜𝑝𝑡(𝑡) is

For real signal g(t), 𝐺∗(𝑓) = 𝐺(−𝑓)

(ii) The max signal to noise ratio of the output signal does not depends on the response of the
filter but only depends on signal energy & noise power spectral density.
i.e.

Proof: We know that the signal to noise ratio of output signal

From the Schwarz’s inequality theorem

The Fourier transform of filter o/p go(t) may written as

using the inverse FT

2. Discuss in detail about the Nyquist criterion and derive it?

In order to eliminate ISI, we need to specify frequency response & pulse shape. First, we need
to determine the frequency response of the transmit and receive filter for the better reconstruction
of binary sequence. For this, receiver does extracting & decoding. The extraction involves
sampling the o/p y(t) at time t=iTb. The decoding done from pulse at k=i, i.e. p(t) is shown as

(1)

Where p(0)=1

If P(t) satisfies the condition in eq. 1 the receiver o/p

y(ti)=µai for all i

The condition in eq. 1 gives the perfect reception in the absence of noise.

From design point of view, it is used to transform eq. 1 in to the frequency domain.

From the Fourier transform

(2)
Where fb is bit rate in bits per second (b/s)

𝑃ð(𝑓) Fourier transform of infinite periodic sequence of delta functions of

period Tb. The time domain representation of pulse signal 𝑃ð (𝑡) is

(3)

Let the integer n = i-k

 (5)

The frequency function p(f) eliminates inter symbol interference for samples taken at
intervals Tb provided that it satisfy eq. 5

3. Draw and explain the Intersymbol interference?

This is another source of bit errors in base band data transmission. Suppose the channel is in dispersive
nature, the present pulse is affected by the adjacent pulses, this type of interference is called as Inter Symbol
Interference.

Let us consider a base band binary data transmission system in order to describe ISI
mathematically.

FIG: Base band binary data transmission system

The incoming binary service {bk} consists of symbols 1 & 0, each with Tb duration. It is given to Pulse Amplitude
Modulator, it modifies binary sequence into a new sequence of short pulses, whose amplitude ak is
represented in polar form.

(1)

These are given to transmit filter, whose impulse response is g(t), producing the transmitted signal
i.e.

(2)

This signal s(t) is modified and transmission over the channel whose impulse response
h(t). The channel adds the white noise 𝜔(𝑡). Then the noisy signal x(t) is then passed through
the receiving filter output y(t) sampled & given to decision device. Sampled value is more than
the threshold we will say it as binary ‘1’. If the sampled value is lower than the threshold we
will say it as binary ‘0’.

The receiver filter output is written as

(3)

Where 𝜇 is the scaling factor & the pulse p(t) is to be defined. For precise value, we have to
consider transmission delay to, but in simplification we consider t0=0.

The scaled pulse 𝜇.p(t) is obtained by double convolution of impulse response of transmitter g(t),
the impulse response of channel h(t) and impulse response of receiving filter c(t).

(4)
p(t) is normalized by setting p(0) = 1

The above eq. gives the use of scaling factor 𝜇 to obtain amplitude changes in the signal
transmission.

Convolution in time domain transformed into multiplication in frequency domain.

(5)
The received filter o/p y(t) is sampled at time ti=iTb

(6)

In the above eq. first term is contribution ith transmitted bit. The second term indicates
 residual effect of all other transmitted bits on the decoding of the ith bit, this is because presence
of pulses at starting & ending of the sampling instants. This is called ISI. The third term
indicates noise at the sample time t=ti.

In the absence of noise & interference eq. 6 written as

y(ti)=µai---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (7)

Under these ideal conditions, the ith transmitted bit is decoded correctly. In order to minimize
the ISI we have to specify the frequency response of the filters and transmitted signal pulse
shape.
4. Discuss in detail about the correlative level coding?
By adding inter symbol interference to the transmitted signal in a controlled manner, it is possible
to achieve a signalling rate equal to the Nyquist rate of 2w symbols per second in a channel of bandwidth
W Hertz. Such schemes are called correlative level coding (or) partial response signalling schemes.

The design of these schemes based on the following assumptions, i.e. ISI introduced into
transmitted signal is known value, its effect can be taken at the receiver in a deterministic way.This is
the practical method for receiving theoretical maximum signalling rate of 2w sym/sec in a bandwidth of
w Hz.

DUOBINARY SIGNALLING:

➢ The basic idea of correlative level coding can be implemented by using this signalling scheme.
Here Duo implies that doubling of the transmission capacity of a straight binary system.
➢ This type of correlative coding also called as class 1 practical response.

Consider a binary i/p sequence {bk} consisting of uncorrelated binary symbols 1 and 0, each
having duration Tb. First this sequence is applied to a pulse amplitude modulator, it produces two
level sequence of short pulses, whose amplitude ak is defined as,

(1)

This sequence is next applied to the duo binary encoder, it is converted into a three level o/p, i.e. -2,
0&
+2. This is produced by the following block diagram.
 Fig: Duobinary signalling scheme

The two level sequence {ak} is first passed through a simple filter involving a single delay element
and summer. For every unit impulse applied to the i/p of this filter, we get two unit impulses spaced
Tb seconds apart at the filter o/p.

Therefore the duo binary coder o/p Ck is the sum of present i/p pulse ak and its previous value ak-1, i.e.
Ck = ak + ak+1 ------------------------------------------ (2)

The above eq. describes that, uncorrelated two level sequence converted into three level
correlated sequence. This correlation between adjacent pulses is viewed as introducing ISI into a
transmitted signal in an artificial manner.

An ideal delay element, producing a delay of Tb seconds, has the frequency response 𝑒−𝑖2ℎ𝑓𝑇𝘣

The frequency response of simple delay line filter is 1 + 𝑒−𝑖2ℎ𝑓𝑇𝘣. The overall frequency
response this filter connected in cascade with ideal Nyquist channel is

(3)
Where H1(f)→class 1 partial response.

MODIFIED DUO BINARY SIGNALLING:

In the duo binary signalling technique the frequency response H(f) & the power spectral
density of the transmitted pulse is non zero at the origin. This is considered to be an undesirable
feature in some applications. This is overcome by using the class IV partial response (or)
modified duo binary technique, which involves correlation span of two binary digits (Delay
2Tb). This is shown in below figure.
 Modified duo binary encoder involves subtractor & delay 2Tb. The o/p of the modified duo
binary conversion filter is expressed as

(1)

5. Explain in detail about probability error of matched filter?

Consider a binary PCM system based on polar non return to zero signalling. In this form
of signalling, symbol 1 & 0 are represented by positive & negative rectangular pulses with
amplitude A for equal duration. The channel noise is modelled as additive white Gaussian noise
w(t) of zero mean & power spectral density N0 /2

In the signalling interval 0≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇b, the received signal is written as,

(1)

Where Tb = bit duration, A = transmitted pulse amplitude

Given the noisy signal x(t), the receiver is required to make a decision in each signalling interval as
to whether the transmitted symbol is a ‘1’ or a ‘0’.
The structure of the receiver used to perform this decision make process is shown below.

Fig: Receiver for Baseband Transmission

The noisy signal x(t) is passed through the matched filter. Then the o/p of matched filter
sampled at time t = T. If this o/p sample value is more than threshold ‘𝜆’, the receiver make a
decision as symbol 0.

If the o/p sample value is exactly equals to threshold value, the receiver may choose it
as 1 (or) 0. Here there two possible kinds of errors to be considered

i. Symbol 1 is chosen where a 0 was actually transmitted.

ii. Symbol 0 is chosen where a 1 was actually transmitted.
To determine the average probability of error, we consider these two situations separately.
 Symbol ‘0’ was sent

The received signal is expressed as

(2)

The output of matched filter is expressed as

(3)

The above equation 3 represents the sample value of random variable. It is characterised as,
➢ The random variable y is Gaussian distributed with a mean of –A.
➢ The variance of the random variable y is

(4)

Where Rw(t,u) is the auto correlation function of the white noise w(t).
(5)
Where is the time shifted delta function

(6)

Then the conditional probability density function of random variable y where binary ‘0’ is
transmitted is

(7)

This function representation is shown in below fig.(a)

 Fig: (a) Pdf of random variable y at matched filter output when ‘0’ is transmitted
Fig: (b) Pdf of random variable y at matched filter output when ‘1’ is transmitted

Let P10 denote the conditional probability of error, when symbol 0 was sent. In figure a, the shaded
area under the curve fy(y/0) over the limits λ to ∞ gives the P10

(8)

Introduce the complementary error function for simplification of equation 8

(9)

Simplify the equation 8, let us take

(10)

Symbol 1 was sent

The conditional probability density function of random variable ‘y’ where binary ‘1’ is
transmitted is

(11)

This function representation is shown in figure b

Let P01 denote the conditional probability error, when symbol 1 was transmitted. In figure b, the
shaded area under the curve fy(y/1) over the limits. -∞ to λ gives P01.

(12)
 For the simplification of eq. 12, we take

Interchanging the limits

(13)

Therefore the average probability of symbol error, Pe is

If symbol 0 & 1 are equiprobable, then

Take the optimum value of threshold is equal to zero

(15)

The energy of transmitted signal, Eb is

(16)
Substitute eq. 16 in 15

The above expression gives the average probability of symbol error. (or) This equation gives the probability error
of matched filter.
6. Discuss in detail about the equalization techniques?
7. Draw and explain the eye pattern or eye diagram.
It is an experimental tool for observing the combined effect of inter symbol interference and
channel noise on the performance of the base band pulse transmission system.
▪ The eye pattern names comes from human eye because the appearance of binary waves closely
equal to human eye.
▪ The interior portion of the eye pattern is called the eye opening.
 ▪ The width of the eye opening define the time interval over which the received signal can be
sampled without error from ISI.
▪ The best sampling time is at which the opening eye is widest.
▪ The height of the eye opening at a specified sampling time, defines the noise margin of the
system.
▪ The sensitivity of the system to timing error is determined by the rate of closure of the eye as the
sampling time is varied.
8. Explain in detail base band M-ary PAM transmission system?

In the base band binary PAM transmission, the pulse amplitude modulator produces binary pulses
with one of two possible amplitude levels. But in case of base band M-ary PAM transmission, the pulse
amplitude modulator produces one of M possible amplitude levels with M>2. This one can be explained
with the following example, inarternary system with binary data sequence 0 0 10 11 01 11 .

➢ The above fig a shows the different amplitude levels of gray coded sequence. Fig b shows the
electrical representation of given binary data using inarternary system.
➢ Pulse duration of binary PAM system is denoted by Tb, but in case M-ary PAM transmission the
pulse duration T=2Tb. We refer 1/T as the signalling rate, which is expressed as sym/sec (or)
bauds. In case of M-ary PAM system, 1 baud =log2M bits/sec.
➢ The symbol duration of the M-ary PAM system is related to the symbol duration of binary PAM
system is related as
T = Tb log2 M

Fig: Output of a quaternary system. (a) Waveform. (b) Representation of the 4 possible dibits, based
on Gray encoding.

Therefore, in case of M-ary PAM transmission in a given channel bandwidth, it is possible to

transmit
log2 𝑀 times faster than the binary PAM system. The transmitter power must be increased by
the
2
factor 𝑀 log2 𝑀compared to a binary PAM system.
In a base band M-ary PAM transmission system, the input binary sequence converted into a M-level PAM
pulse train. The detection process is same as the binary PAM at the receiver section. That is, first this M-level PAM
pulses are transmitted over the channel, which is affected by the noise & distortion. The received signal is passed
through the receive filter and then sampled at appropriate time intervals. Each sample is compared with the
predefined threshold value, and decision is made as to which symbol was transmitted. In order to reduce the bit
errors which are introduced due to ISI & noise, we have to design the transmit & receive filter and pulse shape as
same as the base band binary PAM system

9. Explain in detail about Quadrature Amplitude shift Keying?

This modulation scheme is also called quadrature carrier multiplexing. This modulation
scheme enables two DSB-SC modulated signals to occupy the same transmission band width and
therefore it allows for the separation of the two message signals at the receiver output. It is known
as band width conversion

WORKING OPERATION:

The QAM transmitter consists of two separate balanced modulators (BM) which are
supplied with two carrier waves of the same frequency but differing in phase by 900 .The output
of the two balanced modulators are added in the adder and transmitted. The transmitted signal is
thus given by,

s(t ) = Am1 (t )cos(2fc t ) + Am2 (t )sin(2fct )

Where m1(t ) and m2 (t ) are two different message signals applied to the product modulator. Both
m1(t )
and m2 (t ) are band limited in the interval − f m  f  f m then s (t) will occupy a band width of 2 f m
. This
band width 2 f m is centered at the carrier frequency fc , where fm is the band width of message
signal
m1(t ) and m2 (t ).

Hence the multiplexed signal consists of the in-phase component Am2 (t ).

The multiplexed signal s (t) from QAM transmitter is applied simultaneously to two separate
coherent decoders that are supplied with local carriers of the frequency, but differing in phase by
90 degrees. The
1 1
output of the detector is Am (t ) where as the output of the second detector is Am (t ) .
1 2
2 2
 For satisfactory operation of coherent detector, it is essential to maintain coherent phase and
frequency relationship between the oscillators used in the QAM transmitter and receiver parts of
the system. The QAM finds the application in color television (TV).

10. Explain in detail about Maximum A Posteriori (MAP) and Maximum Likelihood
(ML) Decoding?
There are two decision based rules on decision threshold

Maximum A Posteriori (MAP) decoding: This rule is used when the a priori probabilities of
the transmitted signals are unequal.

Maximum Likelihood (ML) Decoding: This rule is used when the a priori probabilities are equal.

Maximum A Posteriori (MAP) decoding:

In a binary communication system, a 0 or 1 is transmitted. Because of channel noise, a 0 can be

received as a 1 and vice-versa. Let m0 and m1 denote the events of transmitting 0 and 1,
respectively. Let r0 and r1 denoted the events of receiving 0 and 1, respectively.

In the absence of noise, r0 and r1 is identified for the signals m0 and m1 respectively.

In the presence of noise, if m0 is transmitted, r1 may be received so there exist an error in

making decision.

The transition probabilities

• P(r0/m0) – Probability that r0 is received when m0 is transmitted.

• P(r0/m1) – Probability that r0 is received when m1 is transmitted.
• P(r1/m0) – Probability that r1 is received when m0 is transmitted.
• P(r1/m1) – Probability that r1 is received when m1 is transmitted.

Maximum A Posteriori probabilities

• P(m0/r0) – Probability that m0 is transmitted when r0 is received.

• P(m1/r0) – Probability that m1 is transmitted when r0 is received.
 • P(m0/r1) – Probability that m0 is transmitted when r1 is received.
• P(m1/r1) – Probability that m1 is transmitted when r1 is received.

P(m0) and P(m1) – A Priori

Probabilities If r0 is received signal

P(m0/r0) > P(m1/r0)-------->(1)

We will take a decision in favour of message m0, which is correct

decision. P(m0/r0) < P(m1/r0) >(2)

We will take a decision in favour of message m1, which is correct

decision. If r1 is received signal

P(m1/r1) > P(m0/r1)-------->(3)

We will take a decision in favour of message m1, which is correct

decision. P(m1/r1) < P(m0/r1) >(4)

We will take a decision in favour of message m0, which is correct decision.

A receiver which works on the principle MAP that leads to minimum probability of error is
defined as the optimum filter.
Multiplying with P(r0) in both sides of eq. 1
and 2 P(r0) P(m0/r0) > P(r0) P(m1/r0)
P(m0) P(r0/m0) > P(m1) P(r0/m0) ---------- >(5)

We will take a decision In favour of message m0, which is correct

decision. Multiplying with P(r1) in both sides of eq. 3 and 4

P(r1) P(m1/r1) > P(r1) P(m0/r1)
P(m1) P(r1/m1) > P(m0) P(r1/m0) ---------- >(6)

We will take a decision In favour of message m1, which is correct

decision. To get correct probabilities add eq. 5 and 6,

P( c ) = P(m0) P(r0/m0) + P(m1) P(r1/m1)

Probability of error Pe = 1 – P ( c

) Pe = P(m1) P(r0/m1) + P(m0)

P(r1/m0)

Maximum Likelihood (ML) Decoding:

For Maximum Likelihood Decoding P(m0) = P(m1) = ½

1. MAP is an optimum detector and it considers as a general for the maximum likelihood (ML).

2. MAP concept and ML are the same concept for minimizing the error but the difference between them
as follows: in ML the events occur are equiprobable while in MAP not equiprobable.
 UNIT-4

DIGITAL PASSBAND TRANSMISSION

Two marks questions with answers

1.Draw the block diagram of Pass Band Transmission Model?

2.Draw the Block Diagram for correlation receiver?

3.Write the expression for probability of Error

The average probability of symbol error, Pe is

4. Derive the relation between energy of the signal & representation of vector

For j=k

5. What are the Characteristics of the channel?

➢ Channel is linear, with a sufficient bandwidth to transmit without distortion

➢ The noise added to the channel is AWGN with a process of zero mean and
power spectral density.
 Ten marks questions with answers

1.Draw and explain the Functional model of pass band transmission model?

PASS BAND TRANSMISSION MODEL:

Fig: Functional model of pass band transmission model

First, the message source emits M symbols on symbol for every 

seconds, denoted by m1, m2,…..mN. These symbols are transmitted with
equal probability i.e.,

p i = p (m i )

1
= for all i
M
These symbols are given to signal transmission decoder, it produces a

vector Si made up of N real elements N  M . With Vector Si as the input,

modulator then constructs a distinct signal Si (t) of duration  seconds.

The signal Si (t) is necessarily an energy signal given as

t
i = 1,2,.....M
Ei = S 2 (t)dt ,
 i
0

Si modulates with sinusoidal carrier. The energy signal Si (t) transmits

over the channel. The channel has following characteristics.

➢ Channel is linear, with a sufficient bandwidth to

Si (t)
transmit without distortion.

➢ The noise added to the channel is AWGN with a process of zero

𝑁
mean and power spectral density 𝑜.
2
The receiver which consist of a detector followed by a signal
transmission decoder, performs two functions.
➢ It reverses the operations performed in the transmitter
^

It minimizes the effect of channel noise on the estimate of m

the transmitted symbol m i .

2. Derive And Explain Geometric Representation of Signals?

The main idea of geometric representation of signals is to represent any set of M

signals {si(t)} as a linear combination of N Orthonormal basis functions where N≤M,
then the real valued energy signals s1(t), s2(t),…..sM(t) each of duration T seconds ,
written as

Where the coefficients of the expression are expressed as

2
The real valued basis functions are Orthonormal it means,
 In the above eqn first condition state that the basis functions have unit
energy. The second condition states that the basis functions are ortho normal
to each other.

The set of coefficients {𝑆𝑖j}𝑁 is naturally viewed as N dimensional vector,

j=1
denoted by si. It has one to one relationship with the transmitted signal si(t).

Where ,

Given the N elements of the vector Si operating as input, we use fig(a) generating
the signal Si(t). It is derived from eqn(1). It consists of N bank multipliers, with each
multiplier have one basis function followed by summer, this scheme is called as
synthesizer.
Given the signal Si(t), i=1, 2, …..M operating as input, we use fig(b) generating signal
vector. it is derived from eqn(2) It consists of N product integrators (or) correlators,
with each multiplier have own basis function. This scheme is called analyzer.

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Consider an N dimensional Euclidian space, having M points corresponds to signal

vector, N mutually perpendicular axes labeled Fig : Geo metric representation of
signals for N= 2 & M=3

In N dimensional Euclidian space, we may define length of the vectors,

Distance between vectors and angles between vector.

The squared length of any signal vector is defined as the inner

product or dot product of Si itself

The relation between energy of the signal & representation of vector is

derived as

For j=k,

. This N dimensional Euclidian space is called Signal

Space.

In case of pair of signal si(t) and sk(t), we have

 The squared distance between the points represented by the signals si(t) &
sk(t) is denoted as

The angle between two signal vectors si & sk is expressed as

The cosine of the angle θik is equal to inner product of these two vectors
divided by the product of their individual norms.

3.Explain Briefly About Gram Schmidt Orthogonalization Procedure:

In case of geometric representation of signals, the M energy signals are

linear combination of N orthonormal basis functions, this one can be verified
mathematically by using Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization.

Let us consider M energy signals S 1(t),S2(t)……SM(t). By using S1(t) , the

first basis function is defined as,

- ------ 1

By using S2(t) , the coefficient S21 is defined as,

3
We may thus introduce new a new intermediate function,

Which is orthogonal to ᶲ1(t),over the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ T, ᶲ2(t) is defined as

Substituting eqn (4) in eqn (5), We get

It is clear that from eqn 5,

From eqn 6,

The set of basis functions defined as,

4.‘Explain About Response of Bank of Correlators In Noise:

Suppose that the input to the bank of N product integrators or

correlators is not the transmitted signal Si(t) but actually it is a received signal
x(t).From the equivalent model of channel it is,

The output of the correlator j, is the sample function of RV xj is,

Consider a new random variable X’(t) whose sample function x’(t) is related
to the received signal x(t) as follows,

Substitute 1 and 2 eqns in 3, then we get

The sample function x’(t) therefore depends only on the channel noise w(t).
From 3&4 eqns,
 From the above eqn, w’(t) must be included in the right to preserve the
equality in eqn 5.

5. Draw and Explain Correlation Receiver:

The optimum receiver consists of two sub systems

(i) Detector or demodulator

(ii) signal transmission decoder

Detector or demodulator is shown in fig a, in consists of N-bank of

correlators, each one having one orthogonal basis function that are locally
generated. This bank of correlators operates on received signal x(t) and
produce the observation vector x.

The second part of the receiver is signal transmission decoder, it is

shown in fig b. It is implemented in the form of maximum likelihood decoder
that operates on the observation vector x to produce an estimate 𝑚 ^ of the
transmitted symbol mi in the way to minimize the avg probability error.

First the observation vector x are first multiplied by the individual signal
vectors S1,S2-----SM and the resulting products are successively summed by
accumulators to produce corresponding set of inner products. Next these
inner products are subtracted by transmitted signal energies. Finally the
 largest in the resulting set of numbers is selected and takes the appropriate
decision on the transmitted message.

The optimum receiver in eqn 1 & 2 is commonly referred to as

correlation receiver.

6. Explain Detection of signals with unknown Phase?

Consider a digital communication system in which the transmitted

signal equals

2𝐸
𝑆 (𝑡) = √ cos(2𝜋𝑓 𝑡) 0≤𝑡≤𝑇 − − − −1
𝑖 𝑇 𝑖

Where E is the signal energy, T is the duration of the

signaling interval, and the fi is an integral multiple of 1/2T. When no
provision is made to phase synchronize the receiver with transmitter, the
received signal will, for AWGN channel, be of the form

2𝐸
𝑥(𝑡) = √ cos(2𝜋𝑓 𝑡 + 𝜃) + w(𝑡) 0≤𝑡≤𝑇 − − − −2
𝑇 𝑖

Where w(t) is the sample function of a white Gaussian noise process of zero
mean and power spectral density N0/2. The phase 𝜃 is unknown, and it is
usually considered to be the sample value of a random variable uniformly
distributed between 0 and 2𝜋 radians. This implies a complete lack of
knowledge of the phase. A digital communication system characterized in
this way is said to be non-coherent.

From eq. 2, the received signal, the output of the associated correlators in
the receiver will be a function of unknown phase 𝜃. From trigonometric
identity, we may rewrite equation 2 in the expanded form

2𝐸 2𝐸
𝑥(𝑡) = √ cos 𝜃 cos(2𝜋𝑓 𝑡) − √ sin 𝜃 sin(2𝜋𝑓 𝑡) + w(𝑡)
𝑖 𝑖
𝑇 𝑇

0≤𝑡≤𝑇 − − − −3

Suppose that the received signal x(t) is applied to a pair of correlators, we

assume that one correlators is supplied with the reference signal

2 ( ) and other is supplied with the reference signal 2 ( )

√ cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑖𝑡 √ sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑖𝑡

𝑇
𝑇

For the both correlators, the observation interval is 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇. Then in the

absence of noise we find that the first correlator output equals √𝐸 cos 𝜃 and
second correlator output equals −√𝐸 sin 𝜃. The dependence on the unknown
phase 𝜃 may be removed by summing the squares of the two correlator
outputs, and then taking the square root of the sum. Thus when the noise
w(t) is zero, the result of these operations is simply √𝐸, which is
independent of phase 𝜃. So, for the detection of a sinusoidal signal of
arbitrary phase, and

which is corrupted by an additive white Gaussian noise (which is in eq.2), we

can use “Quadrature receiver “, this receiver is optimum in the sense that it
realizes detection of signals with the minimum probability of error.

Fig: Quadrature receiver

Explain the working of ON-OFF shift Keying(ASK)

BINARY AMPLITUDE-SHIFT KEYING:

Binary amplitude-shift keying (BASK) is one of the earliest forms of digital modulation used in radio
telegraphy at the beginning of the twentieth century. To formally describe BASK, consider a binary
data stream which is of the ON–OFF signaling variety. That is, b(t) is defined by

√𝐸𝑏, for binary symbol 1

b(t) = { −−−−1
0 , for binary symbol 0

Then, multiplying b(t) by the sinusoidal carrier wave with the phase ∅𝑐set equal to zero for
convenience of presentation, we get the BASK wave

√ 2𝐸𝑏 cos(2𝜋𝑓 𝑡), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 1

𝑐

𝑆 𝑡 ={ 𝑇𝑏 − − − −2
0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 0

The carrier frequency 𝑓𝑐may have an arbitrary value, consistent with transmitting the
modulated signal anywhere in the electromagnetic radio spectrum, so long as it satisfies the band-
pass assumption.

When a bit duration is occupied by symbol 1, the transmitted signal energy is 𝐸𝑏 When
the bit duration is occupied by symbol 0, the transmitted signal energy is zero. On this basis, we
may express the average transmitted signal energy as
𝐸𝘣
Eav = 2
−−−−3

For this formula to hold, however, the two binary symbols must be equiprobable. In
other words, if we are given a long binary data stream, then symbols 1 and 0 occur in
essentially equal numbers in that data stream.
Signal space diagram of ASK:

The ASK waveform of symbol ‘1’ is represented by

√ 2𝐸𝑏 cos(2𝜋𝑓 𝑡), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 1

() 𝑐

𝑆 𝑡 = { 𝑇𝑏
0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 0
2
Where 𝛷 (𝑡) = √ cos(2𝜋𝑓 𝑡)
1 𝑇𝘣 𝑐

i.e. (𝑡) = √𝐸𝑏 𝜱1 (𝑡)

Thus there is only one carrier function𝛷1 (𝑡). The signal space diagram will have two points
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on 𝛷1 (𝑡). One will be zero and other will be at√𝐸𝑏.

GENERATION AND DETECTION OF ASK SIGNALS:

From Eqs. 1 and 2, we readily see that a BASK signal is readily generated by using a product
modulator with two inputs. One input, the ON–OFF signal of Eq. (1), is the modulating signal. The
sinusoidal carrier wave
2
𝛷1 (𝑡) = √ 𝑐𝑜(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) supplies the other input.
𝑇𝑏

FIGURE 1 The three basic forms of signaling binary information. (a) Binary data stream. (b)
Amplitude-shift keying.

A property of BASK that is immediately apparent from Fig. 1(b), which depicts the BASK
waveform corresponding to the incoming binary data stream of Fig. 1(a), is the non- constancy
of the envelope of the modulated wave. Accordingly, insofar as detection of the BASK wave is
concerned, the simplest way is to use an envelope detector, exploiting the non- constant-envelope
property of the BASK signal.
ASK Generator & Detector:
The below figure shows the ASK generator. The input binary sequence is applied to the product
modulator. The product modulator amplitude modulates the sinusoidal carrier. It passes the carrier
when input bit is ‘1’. It blocks the carrier (i.e. zero output) when input bit is ‘0’.

The below figure shows the block diagram of coherent ASK detector. The ASK signal is
applied to the correlator consisting of multiplier and integrator. The locally generated coherent
carrier is applied to the multiplier. The output of multiplier is integrated over one bit period. The
decision device takes the decision at the end of every bit period. It compares the output of
integrator with the threshold. Decision is taken in favor of ‘1’ when threshold is exceeded.
Decision is taken as ‘0’ if threshold is not exceeded.
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Explain briefly about phase shift keying with waveforms
COHERENT PHASE SHIFT KEYING:
In this section we focus on coherent phase shift keying by considering binary PSK,
QPSK.
BINARY PHASE SHIFT KEYING (COHERENT BPSK):

In coherent binary PSK system, the pair of signals S1(t ) and S 2 (t ) are used to represent
binary symbols 1 and o respectively, they are defined as

2Eb
S1 (t ) = cos 2fct (1)
Tb

2Eb
S (t) = (cos2f t +)
2 c
Tb

2Eb
= − cos2fct (2)
Tb

Where 0  t  Tb & Eb is the transmitted signal energy per bit

nc
Carrier frequency f =
c
Tb

nc = integral of no of cycle for carrier wave in one bit duration.

A pair of sinusoidal waves that differ only in a relative phase shift of 180 degrees shown in
equations (1) & (2) are referred as Antipodal signals.
From eq’s (1) & (2), it is clear that coherent BPSK have only one basis function of unit energy,
defined as

2
1(t) = cos2fct 0  t Tb (3)
Tb
 S1 (t )

 1 (t ) = 
 Eb 
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Then the transmitted signals S1(t ) and S 2 (t ) can be written interms of 1 (t) as

(1)  S 1 (t ) = E b  1 (t ); 0  t  Tb (4)

S2 (t) = − Eb1(t); 0  t Tb (5)

From above eq’s coherent BPSK signal space diagram is one (N=1) dimensional, consisting of
two message points (N=2). The coordinates of the message points are

(6)

(7)

The message point corresponding to S1 (t ) is located at S11 = and the message point

corresponding to S 2 (t ) is located at S 22 = − . It is shown in below figure

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Fig 2: Signal space diagram for coherent BPSK

GENERATION AND DETECTION OF COHERENT BPSK:

Fig: (a) BPSK Transmitter

Fig: (b) BPSK Receiver

To generate a binary PSK signal, first the binary data sequence is given to polar non-
return to zero level encoder
(i) Non-return-to-zero level encoder: whereby the input binary data sequence is encoded in
polar form with symbols 1 and 0 represented by the constant-amplitude of & −
respectively. The resultant output and sinusoidal carrier is given to product modulator, it will
generate BPSK signal.
(ii) Product modulator: which multiplies the level encoded binary wave by the sinusoidal carrier
of amplitude to produce the BPSK signal. The timing pulses used to generate the level encoded
binary wave and the sinusoidal carrier wave are usually, but not necessarily, extracted from a
common master clock.

2Eb
Binary1 →S 1 (t ) = E b  1 (t ) = cos 2fct
Tb

Binary0 →S 2 (t ) = − Eb 1 (t ) = − 2Eb cos 2fct

Tb

To detect the original binary sequence of 1s and 0s, the BPSK signal at the channel
output is applied to a receiver.
(i) Correlator: The noisy PSK signal x(t) is applied which is also supplied with a locally generated
reference signal that is a replica of the carrier wave 1 (t).The output of the correlator
x1 is given to decision device.
(ii) Decision-making device: Compares the output with the zero threshold. If the threshold is
exceeded, the device decides in favor of symbol 1; otherwise, it decides in favor of symbol 0.
If x1 is exactly equals to zero the receiver makes a random guess in favor of symbol 0 (or) 1.
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POWER SPECTRA OF BINARY PSK SIGNAL:
The BPSK wave consists of an in phase component only. Depending on the symbol 0 or 1 at
the input of modulator during signal interval 0  t  Tb , the in phase component equals + g(t)
or − g(t) respectively, where g(t ) is symbol shaping function defined by

(1)

Suppose the input of the modulator is random wave and equally likely then the psd of
g(t ) is equal to the energy spectral density of g(t )

Energy spectral density of g(t ) is equal to the squared magnitude of the signals Fourier

transform G(t )2 .
Power spectral density of BPSK signal equals to
sin2 (T f )
2E
( )=
b b
SB f
(Tb f ) 2

= 2Eb sinc2 (T f ) (2)

b

The spectrum representation is shown in below figure

Fig: Power spectra of BPSK.

BANDWIDTH OF BPSK:
The spectra main lobe width gives the bandwidth of BPSK.

BW = f H − f L
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1  1
= T − − T 
 b  b 

Bandwidth BW = 2 fb

Explain brefiely about QPSK

QUADRIPHASE SHIFT KEYING (QPSK):

In a digital communication system our goal is to achieve very low probability of error and
efficient utilization of channel bandwidth. QPSK is the band conservation modulation scheme
which is an example of quadrature carrier multiplication.
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) is a form of Phase Shift Keying in which two bits are
modulated at once, selecting one of four possible carrier phase shifts such a  4,3 4,5 4
and 7 4 . For this set of values the transmitted signal is defined as

S (t) = (
 2E cos 2f t + (2i −1) ;
c 4 ) 0t T

i  (1)
 0 otherwise

Where i=1, 2, 3, 4 and E is the transmitted signal energy per symbol.

Each possible value of phase corresponds to unique dibit. For example phase values to
represent gray coded set of dibits 10, 00, 01, 11.
Signal space diagram of QPSK:

Using trigonometric functions Si (t) can be written as

Si (t) =
2E
T

cos (2i −1) cos2f t − c 
2E sin (2i −1) 
 sin 2fct
4 T 4 (2)
Where i=1, 2, 3, 4

There are two orthogonal basis functions 1 (t) and 2 (t ) in the above expansion of Si (t ) , they
are defined as

1(t) = 2T cos2fct, 0  t T
(3)
2(t) = 2T sin2fct, 0 t T
(4)

(5)
9

The elements of the signal vector are listed in below table

Page
QPSK has two dimensional signal constellation (i.e. N=2) and four message points (i.e.,
N=4) whose phase angles increase in counter clock wise direction is shown in figure below.

Fig: Signal space diagram of QPSK

GENERATION AND DETECTION OF COHERENT QPSK:

Fig: Block diagrams of (a) QPSK transmitter and (b) coherent QPSK receiver.
The incoming binary data sequence is first transformed into polar form by a non-return to zero
level encoder. Thus symbol 1 and 0 are represented by +√E/2 and -√E/2 respectively. This binary
wave divided into two streams by a de-multiplexer (odd and even numbered bits) and
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represented as a1(t) and a2(t). a1(t) and a2(t) are modulated with a pair of quadrature carriers φ1(t)
and φ2(t) respectively. Thus the two waveforms are added to produce desired QPSK signal.

The QPSK receiver consists of a pair of correlator with a common input and supplied with
locally generated carriers φ1(t) and φ2(t). The correlators produce x1 and x2 and then these are
compared with zero threshold. If the threshold is exceeded, the device decides in favor of symbol
1; otherwise, it decides in favor of symbol 0. Similarly for quadrature phase channel also.
Finally these two binary sequences at the in-phase and quadrature channel outputs are combined
using multiplexer to produce the original binary sequence.
POWER SPECTRA OF QPSK SIGNALS:
Assume that the binary wave at the modulator input is random with symbol 1 and 0 being
equally likely and with the symbols transmitted during adjacent time slots being statistically
independent. QPSK contains in phase and quadrature phase components. We make two
observations regarding these two components are
➢ Depending on dibit sent during the signal interval -Tb ≤ t ≤ Tb,
the in-phase component equals +g(t) or – g(t) similar situation exists for the quadrature
component. The g (t) denotes the symbol shaping function defined by

The in-phase and quadrature components are statistically independent. The baseband power
spectral density of QPSK equals the sum of the individual power spectral densities of the in-
phase and quadrature components.

The power spectra of QPSK is shown in figure below

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BANDWIDTH OF QPSK SIGNALS:
The main lobe width in the power spectra gives the band width of QPSK signals.

BW = f H − f L

1  1 
= 2T − − 2T 
b  b 

= 2 1 = fb
 2Tb 
QPSK requires half of the bandwidth than BPSK. So QPSK is called as the bandwidth
conserving modulation scheme.
Ex: Generate the QPSK signal for given binary sequence 01101000

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Explain and draw the waveforms of FSK
FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING:
BINARY FSK:

In BFSK, symbol 1 is represented by S1(t ) and symbol 0 is represented by S2 (t),

these two transmitted signals differ in frequency by a fixed amount. It is defined as

(1)
Where i=1, 2

nc + i
Eb is the transmitted signal energy per bit and f c =
2

FSK signal described here is known as sunde’s FSK. It is a continuous phase signal. It is an
example of continuous phase FSK
From the equations, the orthonormal basis function is defined as

 2

 i (t ) =  T cos 2f i t 0  t  Tb (2)
b


 0 elsewhere

Where i=1, 2

The coefficient Sij , for i=1, 2 is defined as

S ij =  S (t ) j (t )dt
i

(1)

The two message points are defined as

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Fig: Signal space diagram for BPSK

GENERATION AND DETECTION OF COHERENT BFSK SIGNALS:

Fig: BFSK Transmitter

Fig: BFSK Receiver

The generation block diagram is shown in figure above. The incoming binary data
sequence is first applied to an on-off level encoder, it generates constant amplitude of
pulse for binary 1, zero for binary 0. When binary 1 is transmitted, it is passed through first
channel and it modulates with 1 (t) and the second channel is switched off due to inverter. For
binary 0, first channel is switched off, due to inverter the output of on-off encoder into pulse
with amplitude and then modulates with 2 (t)carrier. The output of first channel and
second channel are added to generate the BFSK signal.
To detect the original binary sequence from x (t), we use BFSK receiver as shown in
above figure. It consists of two correlators with a common input, which are supplied by locally
generated carrier 1 (t) and2 (t). The output from both the correlators are subtracted from one
another and then compared with the zero threshold value.
If y>0, the receiver decides in favor of 1
y<o, the receiver decides in favor of 2
y= 0, the receiver makes a random guess in favor of 1(or) 0.
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POWER SPECTRA OF BFSK SIGNALS:

Consider the case of sunde’s FSK, carrier frequency fc is the arithmetic mean of f 1 and f2 .
This special binary FSK signal as follows

(1)

Using trigonometric function the above equation can be rewritten a

(2)

In the above equation minus sign corresponds to transmitted symbol 1 and plus sign
corresponds to transmitted symbol 0.
Following observations relayed to the in phase and quadrature components of the binary FSK
signal with continues phase.

(i) The in phase component is completely independent of the input binary wave. It equals to
 t 
2E
cos b  for all values of t. The psd of this component consists of two delta functions,
Tb  b
T

Eb 1
weighted by the factor and occurring at f =  .
2Tb 2Tb

(ii) The quadrature component is completely related to the input binary wave. During the
signaling interval 0  t  Tb , it equals − g(t) when we have symbol 1 and + g(t) when we have
symbol 0. The symbol shaping function g(t ) is defined by

(3)

The energy spectral density of symbol shaping function equals to

(2)

 g( f )
The psd of quadrature components equal to
Tb
18

The psd of coherent BFSK signals is

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The power spectra is shown in the figure below

BANDWIDTH OF BFSK SIGNAL:

From the spectrum,

BW = BW1 + BW2
=  3 3 + 1 1 
2T + 2T   2T + 2T 
 b b  b b

= 3Tb + Tb = 4Tb

= 4 fb
Define Entropy and properties of Entropy

Entropy:

Average information is represented by Entropy.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑘𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑘
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑘 = = 𝐸𝑘𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑦
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑀
1
𝐻 = ∑ 𝑝k𝑙𝑜𝑔2 ( ) 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠/𝑠𝑦mbol
19
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Properties of Entropy:

1. Entropy (average information) is zero if the event is sure or impossible.

H=0 if Pk = 0 or 1
2. If symbols are equally likely events then probability is pk = 1/M, then entropy is
H= log2 M
3. Upper bound of entropy is given by Hmax =Log2 M.

Discuss in detail about Channel capacity thheorem

Shannon – Hartley theorem:
Shannon – Hartley theorem is channel capacity theorem which is applied under Gaussian
noise. It is also called information capacity theorem. According to this theorem, the channel
capacity of a white band limited Gaussian channel is
𝑆
𝑐 = 𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (1 + ) 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑁
Where B is channel bandwidth, S is transmitted power, N noise power.

Proof:

Le t the noise is AWGN over a channel of bandwidth ‘B’ having ‘N’ average power. Then
the maximum entropy of the noise is
ℎ(𝑁)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑔2(2𝜋𝑒𝑁) 𝑏𝑖𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐

let the received signal is ‘Y’ due to input signal of X over the bandwidth ‘B’ Hz. Therefore
Y will be of the form

Y=X+N; N is the noise in the channel (AWGN assumed)

Let X is having its average power S in the given bandwidth. Since X and N are independent,
then the power of Y will be the variance of the received signal.

𝜎𝑦2 = 𝑆 + 𝑁
The maximum differential entropy of Y is given by
ℎ(𝑌)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑔2(2𝜋𝑒𝜎2) 𝑦
= 𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑔2(2𝜋𝑒(𝑆 + 𝑁))

The channel capacity is given by

C=max {h(Y) – h(N)}

Since Y and N are independent it can be written as

C=h(Y)max – h(N)max

Substituting the h(Y)max and h(N)max in the above equation

C= 𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑔2(2𝜋𝑒(𝑆 + 𝑁)) − 𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑔2(2𝜋𝑒𝑁)

On solving it results

Implications of Shannon Hartley Law:

1. It gives upper limit on reliable data transmission rate over Gaussian channels.

The channel capacity depends on the SNR and bandwidth

Define ASK
1. Amplitude shift keying:
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) is a type of Amplitude Modulation which represents
the binary data in the form of variations in the amplitude of a signal. The binary signal when ASK
modulated, gives a zero value for Low input while it gives the carrier output for High input.

Define FSK

Define FSK
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is the digital modulation technique in which the frequency of the carrier
signal varies according to the digital signal changes. FSK is a scheme of frequency modulation. The
output of a FSK modulated wave is high in frequency for a binary High input and is low in frequency for
a binary Low input. The binary 1s and 0s are called Mark and Space frequencies

Define PSK
Phase shift keying:
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is the digital modulation technique in which the phase
of the carrier signal is changed by varying the sine and cosine inputs at a particular time.

What are the types of PSK

PSK is of two types, depending upon the phases the signal gets shifted. They are:
➢ Binary phase shift keying (BPSK):
This is also called as 2-phase PSK or Phase Reversal Keying. In this technique, the sine
wave carrier takes two phase reversals such as 0° and 180°.
➢ Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK):
In this phase shift keying technique, in which the sine wave carrier takes four phase
reversals such as 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°.

Define Bandwidth of FSK

BANDWIDTH OF FSK SIGNAL:

From the spectrum,
 BW = BW1 + BW2
=  3 3 +  1 1 
2T +2T 2T +2T
 b b  b b

= 3Tb + Tb = 4Tb

= 4 fb

Compare ASK,FSK,PSK