Circulatory system

20 Apr. 2025

It seems like you're asking about the circulatory system, which is a key topic in biology rather

than a book chapter. If you need a brief overview of the circulatory system, here's a summary:

The circulatory system, also known as the cardiovascular system, is responsible for transporting

blood, nutrients, gases, and wastes throughout the body. It consists of the heart, blood vessels,

and blood. The heart pumps blood through a network of blood vessels (arteries, veins, and

capillaries) to deliver oxygen and nutrients to cells and remove waste products like carbon dioxide.

Key components:

1. Heart: A muscular organ that pumps blood. It has four chambers: two atria (upper chambers)

and two ventricles (lower chambers).

2. Blood vessels:

Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart.

Veins return deoxygenated blood back to the heart.

Capillaries are tiny vessels that facilitate the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste products

between blood and body tissues.

3. Blood: Made up of red blood cells (which carry oxygen), white blood cells (which fight

infections), platelets (which help with clotting), and plasma (the liquid component).

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The circulatory system is crucial for maintaining homeostasis, such as regulating body

temperature and pH balance.

If you meant something else or need more detailed information, feel free to clarify!

Here are the main functions of the listed structures:

1. Lymphocytes:

Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell that play a crucial role in the immune system.

Their main functions are to identify and attack pathogens like viruses, bacteria, and other foreign

invaders.

They are involved in adaptive immunity, with T lymphocytes (T cells) helping destroy infected

cells and B lymphocytes (B cells) producing antibodies to neutralize pathogens.

2. Coronary Artery:

The coronary arteries are blood vessels that supply oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle

(myocardium).

They ensure that the heart has a continuous supply of oxygen and nutrients necessary for it to

pump blood e ectively to the rest of the body.

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Any blockage or damage to these arteries can result in heart conditions like angina or a heart

attack.

3. Thrombocytes (Platelets):

Thrombocytes, or platelets, are small cell fragments in the blood that play a critical role in blood

clotting (hemostasis).

When a blood vessel is injured, platelets aggregate at the site of injury, releasing chemicals that

promote clotting and help form a protective plug to prevent further bleeding.

4. Chordae Tendineae:

The chordae tendineae are fibrous cords that connect the papillary muscles in the heart to the

valve leaflets (particularly the mitral and tricuspid valves).

Their main function is to prevent the valve leaflets from inverting or prolapsing when the

ventricles contract, ensuring proper valve closure and preventing backflow of blood.

the exact location:

1. Mitral Valve: Located in the left side of the heart between the left atrium and left ventricle. It is

on the left side of the body.

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2. Semilunar Valve: There are two semilunar valves:

Pulmonary semilunar valve: Located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery.

Aortic semilunar valve: Located between the left ventricle and the aorta.

3. Hepatic Portal Vein: It is located in the abdominal cavity. The hepatic portal vein carries blood

from the gastrointestinal tract, spleen, and pancreas to the liver.

4. Chordae Tendineae: Located inside the heart, attached to the cusps of the atrioventricular

valves (mitral and tricuspid valves) and the papillary muscles in the ventricles.

5. Tricuspid Valve: Located on the right side of the heart between the right atrium and right

ventricle.

6. Pericardium: The pericardium is a double-layered membrane that surrounds the heart. It

consists of two layers: the fibrous pericardium (outer layer) and the serous pericardium (inner

layer). It is located in the chest cavity, surrounding the heart.

The correct order

(a) The correct order is: Intestine, Intestinal artery, Hepatic portal vein, Liver, Hepatic vein.

(b) The correct order is: Platelets, Thromboplastin, Thrombin, Fibrinogen, Fibrin.

Definitions:

a)Pulse:

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A regular rhythmic throbbing of an artery that can be felt, especially in the wrist or neck,

resulting from the wave of blood pressure.

b)Angina pectoris:

A type of chest pain or discomfort caused by reduced blood flow to the heart muscle.

c)Haemophilia:

A group of inherited bleeding disorders that result from a deficiency in certain clotting factors in

the blood.

d)Blood:

A thick, fluid connective tissue that circulates through the body, carrying oxygen, nutrients,

hormones, and other substances.

(e) Systole: The phase of the heartbeat when the heart muscles contract and pump blood from the

chambers into the arteries.

(f) Diapedesis: The movement of white blood cells out of the capillaries and into the tissues,

typically in response to inflammation.

(g) Rh factor: A protein found on the surface of red blood cells; people with the protein are Rh

positive, and those without it are Rh negative.

(h) Leukaemia: A type of cancer that a ects the blood and bone marrow, characterized by an

overproduction of abnormal white blood cells.

(i) Thrombosis: The formation of a blood clot inside a blood vessel, which can obstruct the flow of

blood through the circulatory system.

(j) Hypertension: High blood pressure; a condition in which the force of the blood against the

artery walls is too high.

(k) Phagocytosis: The process by which certain cells, like white blood cells, engulf and digest

microorganisms and cellular debris.

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(l) Myocardial infarction: Commonly known as a heart attack; occurs when blood flow to a part of

the heart is blocked, causing damage to the heart muscle.

3. Write important roles of the following:

(a) Spleen:

It filters blood, removes old or damaged red blood cells, and helps fight infections by producing

lymphocytes.

(b) Basophils:

A type of white blood cell that releases histamine during allergic reactions and inflammation.

(c) SAN (Sinoatrial Node):

Acts as the natural pacemaker of the heart, initiating and regulating heartbeat.

(d) Blood:

Transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste; regulates body temperature and pH; and

protects against pathogens.

(e) Circulatory system:

Transports blood, oxygen, nutrients, and hormones throughout the body and removes waste

products.

(f) Lymph:

A fluid that transports white blood cells and removes toxins, waste, and other unwanted materials

from the body.

(g) Double circulation in humans:

Ensures oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are kept separate, improving e ciency in oxygen

delivery.

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(h) Blood plasma:

The liquid component of blood that carries cells, nutrients, hormones, and waste products.

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4. Give reasons for the following statements:

(a) Arteries carry blood under high pressure, so their walls are thicker and more muscular to

withstand the pressure.

(b) Capillaries are one cell thick to allow e cient exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste between

blood and tissues.

(c) Ventricles pump blood out of the heart with force, so their walls are thicker than the auricles,

which only receive blood.

(d) The left ventricle pumps blood to the entire body, requiring more force, so it has a thicker

muscular wall than the right ventricle, which only pumps blood to the lungs.

(e) Vitamin K is essential for synthesizing clotting factors, which are crucial in the blood clotting

process.

(f) Carbon monoxide (CO) binds with hemoglobin more strongly than oxygen, reducing oxygen

transport and causing poisoning.

(g) Pulse rate represents the number of times the heart beats per minute, which is the same as the

heart rate.

(h) Mature mammalian RBCs lack a nucleus, ER, and mitochondria to maximize space for

hemoglobin and to carry more oxygen.

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(i) Blood flows in arteries in spurts due to the rhythmic contraction of the heart, especially during

systole.

di erentiation

(a) Erythrocytes vs Leucocytes (Functions):

Erythrocytes (RBCs): Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide using hemoglobin.

Leucocytes (WBCs): Defend the body against infections and foreign substances.

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(b) Antibodies vs Antibiotics:

Antibodies: Proteins produced by the immune system to neutralize pathogens.

Antibiotics: Medicines that kill or inhibit bacterial growth; not produced by the immune system.

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(c) Tricuspid vs Bicuspid Valve:

Tricuspid Valve: Between right atrium and right ventricle; has 3 cusps.

Bicuspid (Mitral) Valve: Between left atrium and left ventricle; has 2 cusps.

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(d) Artery vs Vein:

Artery: Carries blood away from the heart; usually oxygenated.

Vein: Carries blood toward the heart; usually deoxygenated.

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(e) Blood vs Lymph:

Blood: Red fluid with RBCs, WBCs, platelets, and plasma; circulates through the heart and vessels.

Lymph: Clear fluid with WBCs; circulates through lymphatic vessels; helps in immune response

and tissue fluid balance.

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(f) Pulmonary vs Systemic Circulation:

Pulmonary Circulation: Blood flows from heart to lungs and back (for oxygenation).

Systemic Circulation: Blood flows from heart to body tissues and back (to deliver oxygen and

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nutrients).

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(g) Lubb vs Dup:

Lubb: First heart sound; caused by closure of tricuspid and bicuspid valves (start of systole).

Dup: Second heart sound; caused by closure of semilunar valves (start of diastole).

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(h) RBC vs WBC:

RBC (Red Blood Cells): Carry oxygen; no nucleus; red in color.

WBC (White Blood Cells): Fight infections; have nucleus; colorless.

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(i) Systole vs Diastole:

Systole: Contraction of heart muscles; blood is pumped out.

Diastole: Relaxation of heart muscles; heart chambers fill with blood.

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---

(j) Arteriole vs Venule:

Arteriole: Small branches of arteries leading to capillaries.

Venule: Small vessels that collect blood from capillaries and lead to veins.

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(k) Universal Donor vs Universal Recipient:

Universal Donor: Blood group O negative; can donate to all.

Universal Recipient: Blood group AB positive; can receive from all.

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(l) Open vs Closed Blood Circulatory System:

Open Circulatory System: Blood flows freely in body cavities; not in vessels (e.g., insects).

Closed Circulatory System: Blood flows within vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries) (e.g., humans).

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Long answer type

1. Write short notes on blood and its components. Why are WBCs described as soldiers?

Blood and its components:

Blood is a fluid connective tissue that performs vital functions like transportation, protection, and

regulation. It has four main components:

Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Carry oxygen from lungs to body tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues

back to the lungs.

White Blood Cells (WBCs): Defend the body against infections and foreign substances.

Platelets: Help in blood clotting and prevent excessive bleeding.

Plasma: The liquid portion of blood that transports nutrients, hormones, and waste.

WBCs as soldiers:

WBCs are described as soldiers because they fight against invading pathogens like bacteria,

viruses, and other harmful microbes. They form the immune defense of the body.

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2. What are the functions of blood?

Functions of blood include:

1. Transport of gases: Oxygen from lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs.

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2. Transport of nutrients: From the digestive system to body cells.

3. Transport of waste products: From cells to excretory organs.

4. Transport of hormones: From endocrine glands to target organs.

5. Regulation: Maintains body temperature, pH, and water balance.

6. Protection: WBCs defend against infection, and platelets help in clotting.

3. Explain the structure of a human heart with the help of a diagram.

The human heart is a muscular organ about the size of a fist. It has four chambers:

Right atrium and right ventricle (deoxygenated blood)

Left atrium and left ventricle (oxygenated blood)

Structure highlights:

Separated by septum (inter-atrial and inter-ventricular)

Valves (tricuspid, bicuspid/mitral, pulmonary, aortic) prevent backflow

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Blood vessels: vena cava, pulmonary artery/vein, aorta

(I can provide a labeled diagram if needed.)

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4. Explain the di erent phases in the circulation of blood through the heart.

There are three main phases:

1. Atrial systole – Atria contract, pushing blood into ventricles.

2. Ventricular systole – Ventricles contract, sending blood to lungs (right ventricle) and body (left

ventricle).

3. Cardiac diastole – All chambers relax and blood flows into the atria.

This cycle repeats, maintaining continuous blood circulation.

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5. What do you understand by the portal vein and hepatic portal system? Why is it significant?

Portal vein carries nutrient-rich blood from the digestive tract to the liver.

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Hepatic portal system is a network of veins connecting capillaries of the gut to those in the liver.

Significance:

Allows liver to process absorbed nutrients and detoxify substances before blood enters general

circulation.

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6. What is lymph and its significance in our body?

Lymph is a colorless fluid derived from plasma, containing WBCs, mostly lymphocytes.

Functions:

Maintains fluid balance by returning interstitial fluid to blood

Absorbs fats from the digestive tract

Defends the body against infection (part of immune system)

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7. What is meant by double circulation?

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Double circulation means blood passes through the heart twice during one complete cycle:

Pulmonary circulation – Heart to lungs and back

Systemic circulation – Heart to body and back

Importance:

Separates oxygenated and deoxygenated blood for e cient oxygen transport.

Sure! Here's Question 8 rewritten and answered in a di erent, simpler and more descriptive way:

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Q8. Explain how arteries, veins, and capillaries di er from each other in structure. How are they

related in the circulatory system?

Arteries:

Arteries carry blood away from the heart.

They have thick, elastic, and muscular walls to handle high pressure.

The blood inside is usually oxygenated (except the pulmonary artery).

No valves are present.

Veins:

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Veins carry blood toward the heart.

They have thinner walls with less muscle, and a larger lumen (inner space).

Blood inside is mostly deoxygenated (except the pulmonary vein).

Valves are present to prevent backflow of blood.

Capillaries:

Capillaries are tiny and thin-walled vessels (only one cell thick).

They connect arteries to veins.

They allow exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and wastes between blood and body

tissues.

Relationship in circulation:

Arteries branch into arterioles, which further divide into capillaries.

Capillaries then join to form venules, which combine to form veins.

Together, they form a complete loop for continuous blood flow throughout the body.

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