Week 9

Electromagnetic Induction
Maxwell’s Equations

Dr Sohail Amjad
 Outline

Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday’s Law
Lenz’s law
Motional EMF
Induced Electric Fields
Eddy Currents
Displacement Currents
Maxwell’s Equations

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 Induction

A charged body can induce the charge of opposite sign on another

object. This is called induction.

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 Induction

A coil of wire is connected to a galvanometer (an instrument that

measures electric current).
When the nearby magnet is stationary, the meter shows no current.
But when we move the magnet either toward or away from the coil,
the meter shows current in the circuit, but only while the magnet is
moving (part b of the figure).
If we keep the magnet stationary and move the coil, we again detect
a current during the motion. We call this an induced current, and
the corresponding emf required to cause this current is called an
induced emf. 4 / 62
 Induction

In part c of the figure, we replace the magnet with a second coil

connected to a battery.
When the second coil is stationary, there is no current in the first
coil.
However, when we move the second coil toward or away from the
first or move the first toward or away from the second, there is
current in the first coil, but again only while one coil is moving
relative to the other.
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 Induction

Using the two-coil setup in part d, we keep both coils stationary and
vary the current in the second coil, either by opening and closing the
switch or by changing the resistance of the second coil with the
switch closed.
We find that as we open or close the switch, there is a momentary
current pulse in the first circuit. When we vary the current in the
second coil, there is an induced current in the first circuit, but only
while the current in the second circuit is changing.
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 Induction

Let’s see what we can infer from above situation, and some more
movements like above:
⃗ = 0 the
1. When there is no current in the electromagnet, so that B
galvanometer shows no current.
2. When the electromagnet is turned on, there is a momentary
current through the meter as B ⃗ increases.
3.When B ⃗ levels off at a steady value, the current drops to zero, no
matter how large B ⃗ is.
4. With the coil in a horizontal plane, we squeeze it so as to decrease
the cross-sectional area of the coil. The meter detects current only
during the deformation, not before or after. When we increase the
area to return the coil to its original shape, there is current in the
opposite direction, but only while the area of the coil is changing.

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 Induction

5. If we rotate the coil a few degrees about a horizontal axis, the

meter detects current during the rotation, in the same direction as
when we decreased the area. When we rotate the coil back, there is
a current in the opposite direction during this rotation.
6.If we jerk the coil out of the magnetic field, there is a current
during the motion, in the same direction as when we decreased the
area.
7.If we decrease the number of turns in the coil by unwinding one or
more turns, there is a current during the unwinding, in the same
direction as when we decreased the area. If we wind more turns onto
the coil, there is a current in the opposite direction during the
winding.

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 Induction

8.When the magnet is turned off, there is a momentary current in

the direction opposite to the current when it was turned on.
9.The faster we carry out any of these changes, the greater the
current.
10.If all these experiments are repeated with a coil that has the
same shape but different material and different resistance, the
current in each case is inversely proportional to the total circuit
resistance. This shows that the induced emfs that are causing the
current do not depend on the material of the coil but only on its
shape and the magnetic field.

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 Induction - Findings

The common element in all these experiments is changing magnetic

flux through the coil connected to the galvanometer.
In each case the flux changes either because the magnetic field
changes with time or because the coil is moving through a
nonuniform magnetic field.
The direction of the induced emf depends on whether the flux is
increasing or decreasing. If the flux is constant, there is no induced
emf.
Induced emfs have a tremendous number of practical applications.
We will study some of those during this course, including the power
generation for your house hold electrical appliances.

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 Faraday’s Law
Let’s first review the concept of magnetic flux ΦB . For an infinitesimal
area element dA ⃗ in a magnetic field B,
⃗ the magnetic flux through the
area is
dΦB = B. ⃗ = B dA cosϕ
⃗ dA
⃗ (determined as shown below).
⃗ and dA
where ϕ is the angle between B

The total magnetic flux through a finite area is the integral of this
expression over the area:
Z Z
⃗ ⃗
ΦB = B.dA = B dA cosϕ

⃗ is uniform over a flat area A

If B ⃗ then
ΦB = B.⃗ A⃗ = BA cosϕ......
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 Faraday’s Law

Faraday’s law of induction states:

The induced emf in a closed loop equals the negative of the time rate of
change of magnetic flux through the loop. In symbols, Faraday’s law is
dΦB
ε=−
dt
The above equation is valid for one loop of a coil. If we have a coil with
N identical turns, and if the flux varies at the same rate through each
turn, the total rate of change through all the turns is N times as large as
for a single turn. If ΦB is the flux through each turn, the total emf in a
coil with N turns is:

dΦB
ε = −N
dt

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 Faraday’s Law
Direction of Induced emf

We can find the direction of an induced emf or current by using above

equation together with some simple sign rules. Here’s the procedure:
1 ⃗
Define a positive direction for the vector area A.
2 ⃗
From the directions of A and the magnetic field B ⃗ determine the
sign of the magnetic flux ΦB and its rate of change dΦB /dt.
3 Determine the sign of the induced emf or current. If the flux is
increasing, so dΦB /dt is positive, then the induced emf or current is
negative; if the flux is decreasing, dΦB /dt is negative and the
induced emf or current is positive.
4 Finally, determine the direction of the induced emf or current using
your right hand. Curl the fingers of your right hand around the A ⃗
vector, with your right thumb in the direction of A. ⃗ If the induced
emf or current in the circuit is positive, it is in the same direction as
your curled fingers; if the induced emf or current is negative, it is in
the opposite direction.

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Faraday’s Law
Direction of Induced emf

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 Lenz’s Law
Direction of Induced emf

The induced current due to the change in B ⃗ is clockwise, as seen from

⃗ induced that it causes is downward,
above the loop. The added field B
⃗
opposing the change in the upward field B.

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 Lenz’s Law

H. F. E. Lenz (1804-1865) was a Russian scientist who duplicated

independently many of the discoveries of Faraday and Henry.
Lenz’s law is a convenient alternative method for determining the
direction of an induced current or emf.
It is not entirely an independent principle; as it can be derived from
Faraday’s law.
It always gives the same results as the sign rules we introduced in
connection with Faraday’s law, but it is often easier to use.
Lenz’s law also helps us gain intuitive understanding of various
induction effects and of the role of energy conservation.

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Lenz’s Law
If the loop is a conductor, an induced
current results from this emf; this current
is also clockwise,
This induced current produces an
additional magnetic field through the loop,
and the right-hand rule shows that this
field is opposite in direction to the
increasing field produced by the
electromagnet.
This is an example of a general rule called
Lenz’s law, which says that any induction
effect tends to oppose the change that
caused it; in this case the change is the
increase in the flux of the electromagnet’s
field through the loop.

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 Lenz’s Law

Statement of Lenz’s law: The direction of any magnetic

induction effect is such as to oppose the cause of the effect.
The "cause" may be changing flux through a stationary circuit due
to a varying magnetic field, changing flux due to motion of the
conductors that make up the circuit, or any combination.
If the flux in a stationary circuit changes, the induced current sets
up a magnetic field of its own.
Within the area bounded by the circuit, this field is opposite to the
original field if the original field is increasing, but is in the same
direction as the original field if the latter is decreasing.
That is, the induced current opposes the change in f lux through
the circuit (not the flux itself).

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 Application of Faraday’s and Lenz’s Laws

A U-shaped conductor in a uniform magnetic

⃗ perpendicular to the plane of the figure
field B
and directed into the page.
We lay a metal rod (the “slidewire") with length
L across the two arms of the conductor, forming
a circuit, and move it to the right with constant
velocity ⃗v .
This induces an emf and a current, which is why this device is called
a slidewire generator.
Since B⃗ and A⃗ point in the same direction, the angle ϕ = 0 and
ΦB = BA. The magnetic field magnitude B is constant, so the
induced emf is:
ε = − dΦ B
dt = −B dA
dt , in time dt the rod moves a distance vdt so,
dA = Lvdt =⇒ ε = −B Lvdtdt = −BLv
The minus sign tells us that the emf is directed counterclockwise
around the loop. The induced current is also counterclockwise.

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 Lenz’s Law and conservation of energy

If the flux change is due to motion of the conductors, the direction

of the induced current in the moving conductor is such that the
direction of the magnetic-field force on the conductor is opposite in
direction to its motion.
Thus the motion of the conductor, which caused the induced
current, is opposed. In all these cases the induced current tries to
preserve the status quo by opposing motion or a change of flux.
If the induced current were in the direction opposite to that given by
Lenz’s law, the magnetic force on the rod would accelerate it to
ever-increasing speed with no external energy source, even though
electric energy is being dissipated in the circuit. This would be a
clear violation of energy conservation and doesn’t happen in nature.

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 Lenz’s Law

Can you guess the direction of induced magnetic field?

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 Lenz’s Law
Direction of Induced emf

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 Response to Flux changes

Since an induced current always opposes any change in magnetic

flux through a circuit, how is it possible for the flux to change at all?
The answer is that Lenz’s law gives only the direction of an induced
current; the magnitude of the current depends on the resistance of
the circuit.
The greater the circuit resistance, the less the induced current that
appears to oppose any change in flux and the easier it is for a flux
change to take effect.
If the loops we studied were made out of wood (an insulator), there
would be almost no induced current in response to changes in the
flux through the loop.

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 Response to Flux changes

Conversely, the less the circuit resistance, the greater the induced
current and the more difficult it is to change the flux through the
circuit.
If the loop is a good conductor, an induced current flows as long as
the magnet moves relative to the loop.
Once the magnet and loop are no longer in relative motion, the
induced current very quickly decreases to zero because of the
nonzero resistance in the loop.

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 Response to Flux changes

The extreme case occurs when the resistance of the circuit is zero.
Then the induced current will continue to flow even after the
induced emf has disappeared – that is, even after the magnet has
stopped moving relative to the loop.
Thanks to this persistent current, it turns out that the flux through
the loop is exactly the same as it was before the magnet started to
move, so the flux through a loop of zero resistance never changes.
Exotic materials called superconductors do indeed have zero
resistance; we will discuss these later on.

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 Motional Electromotive Force

The same moving rod that we discussed

above, separated for the moment from the
U-shaped conductor.
The magnetic field B is uniform and
directed into the page, and we move the
rod to the right at a constant velocity ⃗v .
A charged particle q in the rod then
experiences a magnetic force F⃗ = q⃗v × B,
⃗
with magnitude F = |q|vB.
Since q is positive, the force is upward along the rod. This magnetic
force causes the free charges in the rod to move, creating an excess
of positive charge at the upper end a and negative charge at the
lower end b.
This in turn creates an electric field E within the rod, in the
direction from a toward b (opposite to the magnetic force).

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 Motional Electromotive Force

Charge continues to accumulate at the

ends of the rod until E becomes large
enough for the downward electric force
(with magnitude qE) to cancel exactly the
upward magnetic force (with magnitude
qvB).
Then qE = qvB and the charges are in
equilibrium.

The magnitude of the potential difference Vab = Va − Vb is equal to

the electric field magnitude E multiplied by the length L of the rod.
From the above discussion, E = vB, so
Vab = EL = vBL
with point a at higher potential than point b.

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 Motional Electromotive Force

Let’s put the rod back on our U shaped

conductor. No magnetic force acts on the
charges in the stationary U-shaped
conductor, but the charge that was near
points a and b redistributes itself along
the stationary conductor, creating an
electric field within it.

This field establishes a current as shown. The moving rod has

become a source of electromotive force; within it, charge moves
from lower to higher potential, and in the remainder of the circuit,
charge moves from higher to lower potential.
We call this emf the Motional Electromotive Force and it is
expressed as:
ε = vBL
corresponding to a force per unit charge of magnitude vB acting for
a distance L along the moving rod.
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Motional Electromotive Force - General Form

We can generalize the concept of motional emf for a conductor with

any shape, moving in any magnetic field, uniform or not (assuming
that the magnetic field at each point does not vary with time).
⃗ of the conductor, the contribution dε to the emf
For an element dl
is the magnitude dl multiplied by the component of ⃗v × B⃗ (the
⃗ that is,
magnetic force per unit charge) parallel to dl;
⃗ dl
dε = (⃗v × B). ⃗
For any closed conducting loop, the total emf is
⃗
⃗ dl
H
ε = (⃗v × B). [Recall Farday’s Law]
To calculate the current we divide this emf by the resistance of
circuit i,e.
I = ε/R

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 Motional Electromotive Force - Problem

Suppose the moving rod in this figure is 10 cm long, the velocity v is 2.5
m/s, the total resistance of the loop is 0.030 Ω, and B is 0.60 T. Find
the motional emf, the induce d current, and the force acting on the rod.

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 Motional Electromotive Force - Problem

Solution:
Given: v = 2.5m/s, L = 10cm = 0.1m, B = 0.6T , R = 0.03Ω
To find: ε =?, I =?, F =?

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 Motional Electromotive Force - Problem

Solution:
ε = vBL = 2.5 × 0.6 × 0.1 = 0.15V
I = ε/R = 0.15/0.030 = 5A
Because ϕ = 90◦ , so
F = ILB = 5 × 0.1 × 0.6 = 0.3N

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 PBL (Problem Based Learning)

Part of the problem:

This brush-and-commutator arrangement is the same as that in the
direct-current motor. The motor’s back emf is just the emf induced by
the changing magnetic flux through its rotating coil. Consider a motor
with a square, 500- turn coil 10.0 cm on a side. If the magnetic field has
magnitude 0.200 T, at what rotation speed is the average back emf of
the motor equal to 112 V?

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 Induced Electric Field

When a conductor moves in a magnetic

field, we can understand the induced emf
on the basis of magnetic forces on charges
in the conductor.
But an induced emf also occurs when
there is a changing flux through a
stationary conductor. What is it that
pushes the charges around the circuit in
this type of situation?
Take a long, thin solenoid with cross-sectional area A and n turns
per unit length is encircled at its center by a circular conducting
loop.
The galvanometer G measures the current in the loop. A current I
in the winding of the solenoid sets up a magnetic field B along the
solenoid axis, as shown, with magnitude B = µ0 nI.

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Induced Electric Field

If we neglect the small field outside the

solenoid and take the area vector A ⃗ to
⃗
point in the same direction as B, then the
magnetic flux ΦB through the loop is
ΦB = BA = µo nIA
When the solenoid current I changes with
time, the magnetic flux ΦB also changes,
and according to Faraday’s law the
induced emf in the loop is given by
ε = − dΦdt = −µo nA dt
B dI

If the total resistance of the loop is R, the

induced current in the loop, which we may
call I ′ , is I ′ = ε/R.
But what force makes the charges move
around the wire loop? It can’t be a
magnetic force because the loop isn’t even
in a magnetic field.
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 Induced Electric Field

We are forced to conclude that there has to be an induced electric

field in the conductor caused by the changing magnetic flux.
Electric field is caused by electric charges, but a changing magnetic
field can act as a source of electric field. It’s a different electric field.
When a charge q goes once around the loop, the total work done on
it by the electric field must be equal to qε. That is, the electric field
⃗ ̸= 0.
⃗ dl
H
in the loop is not conservative, E.

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Induced Electric Field

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 Induced Electric Field

We are forced to conclude that there has to be an induced electric

field in the conductor caused by the changing magnetic flux.
Electric field is caused by electric charges, but a changing magnetic
field can act as a source of electric field. It’s a different electric field.
When a charge q goes once around the loop, the total work done on
it by the electric field must be equal to qε. That is, the electric field
⃗ ̸= 0.
⃗ dl
H
in the loop is not conservative, E.
Rather the work done by the induced E ⃗ field per unit charge is:
⃗ = ε. Using Faraday’s Law:
⃗ dl
H
E.

I
⃗ = − dΦB
⃗ dl
E.
dt

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Induced Electric Field - Problem

Suppose this long solenoid has 500 turns per

meter and cross-sectional area 4.0 cm2 . The
current in its windings is increasing at 100 A/s.
(a) Find the magnitude of the induced emf in
the wire loop outside the solenoid. (b) Find the
magnitude of the induced electric field within
the loop if its radius is 2.0 cm.

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 Non-Electrostatic Electric Field

Faradays law is valid for two rather different situations.

1 An emf is induced by magnetic forces on charges when a conductor
moves through a magnetic field.
2 A time-varying magnetic field induces an electric field in a stationary
conductor and hence induces an emf; in fact, the E field is induced
even when no conductor is present.
This E field is nonconservative =⇒ when a charge moves around
a closed path, the field does a nonzero amount of work on it.
It follows that for such a field the concept of potential has no
meaning. We call such a field a nonelectrostatic field.
In contrast, an electrostatic field is always conservative and always
has an associated potential function.
Despite this difference, the fundamental effect of any electric field is
to exert a force F = qE on a charge q. This relationship is valid
whether E is a conservative field produced by a charge distribution
or a nonconservative field caused by changing magnetic flux.

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Eddy Currents

In our previous discussions, the induced

currents have been confined to
well-defined paths in conductors and other
components forming a circuit.
However, many pieces of electrical
equipment contain masses of metal
moving in magnetic fields or located in
changing magnetic fields.
In situations like these we can have
induced currents that circulate throughout
the volume of a material.
Because their flow patterns resemble
swirling eddies in a river, we call these
eddy currents.

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Eddy Currents

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Eddy Currents
A metallic disk rotating in a magnetic field
perpendicular to the plane of the disk but
confined to a limited portion of the disk’s
area.
Sector Ob is moving across the field and
has an emf induced in it. Sectors Oa and
Oc are not in the field, but they provide
return conducting paths for charges
displaced along Ob. The result is a
circulation of eddy currents in the disk.
From Lenz’s law, we can deduce that the
direction of such currents must be such
that the resultant force opposes the
motion of the disk under study.
When the field is turned off, the force
resulting from eddy currents causes the
disk to stop. So we can use these currents
as a braking action.
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 Eddy Currents

(a) A metal detector at an airport security checkpoint generates an

alternating magnetic field B0 . This induces eddy currents in a conducting
object carried through the detector. The eddy currents in turn produce
an alternating magnetic field B ′ , and this field induces a current in the
detector’s receiver coil. (b) Portable metal detectors work on the same
principle.

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 Eddy Currents
Eddy current braking is used on some electrically powered
rapid-transit vehicles. Electromagnets mounted in the cars induce
eddy currents in the rails; the resulting magnetic fields cause braking
forces on the electromagnets and thus on the cars.
The shiny metal disk in the electric power company’s meter outside
your house rotates as a result of eddy currents. These currents are
induced in the disk by magnetic fields caused by sinusoidally varying
currents in a coil.
In induction furnaces, eddy currents are used to heat materials in
completely sealed containers for processes in which it is essential to
avoid the slightest contamination of the materials.
The metal detectors used at airport security checkpoints operate by
detecting eddy currents induced in metallic objects. Similar devices
are used to find buried treasure such as bottlecaps and lost pennies.
Eddy currents also have undesirable effects. In an alternating-current
transformer, coils wrapped around an iron core carry a sinusoidally
varying current. The resulting eddy currents in the core waste
energy through I 2 R heating and themselves set up an unwanted
opposing emf in the coils.
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 Displacement Currents

We have seen that a varying magnetic field gives rise to an induced

electric field.
In one of the more remarkable examples of the symmetry of nature,
it turns out that a varying electric field gives rise to a magnetic field
[We will observe this symmetry in mathematical form].
This effect is of tremendous importance, for it turns out to explain
the existence of radio waves, gamma rays, and visible light, as well
as all other forms of electromagnetic waves.

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Review of Ampere’s Law

To see the origin of the relationship between

varying electric fields and magnetic fields, let’s
return to Ampere’s law.
We used Gauss’s law
H to find Q
the Electric field
previously. ΦE = E. ⃗ = encl−f ree
⃗ dA
ϵ0
Instead of using the closed surfaces, we use
closed loops through which the current passes.
Thus the magnetic analog of Gauss’s law
I
⃗ = µo Iencl
⃗ dl
B.

is called Ampere’s law and

µo = 4π × 10−7 T.m/A is magnetic constast.
The problem with Ampere’s law in this form is
that it is incomplete. Why?

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Displacement Currents

Let’s consider the process of charging a capacitor.

Conducting wires lead current iC into one plate
and out of the other; the charge Q increases, and
⃗ between the plates increases.
the electric field E
The notation iC indicates conduction current to
distinguish it from another kind of current we are
about to encounter, called displacement
current iD .
We will use lowercase i and v to denote
instantaneous values of currents and potential
differences, respectively, that may vary with time.

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Displacement Currents

Let’s apply Ampere’sHlaw to the circular path

shown. The integral B. ⃗ around this path
⃗ dl
equals µ0 Iencl .
For the plane circular area bounded by the circle,
Iencl is just the current iC in the left conductor.
But the surface that bulges out to the right is
bounded by the same circle, and the current
through that surface is zero.
⃗ is equal to µ0 iC , and at the same time
⃗ dl
H
So B.
it is equal to zero. This is a clear contradiction.

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Displacement Currents

But something else is happening on the

bulged-out surface.
⃗ and
As the capacitor charges, the electric field E
the electric flux ΦE through the surface are
increasing.
We can determine their rates of change in terms
of the charge and current.
The instantaneous charge is q = Cv, where C is
the capacitance and v is the instantaneous
potential difference.
For a parallel-plate capacitor, C = ϵ0 A/d, where
A is the plate area and d is the spacing.
The potential difference v between plates is
v = Ed, where E is the electric-field magnitude
between plates.

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Displacement Currents

If this region is filled with a material with

permittivity ϵ , we replace ϵ0 by ϵ everywhere.
Substituting these expressions for C and v into
q = Cv, we can express the capacitor charge q as
q = Cv = ϵA d (Ed) = ϵEA = ϵΦE
where ΦE = EA is the electric flux.
As the capacitor charges, the rate of change of q
is the conduction current, iC = dq/dt. Taking
the derivative of above with respect to time, we
get
dq dΦE
iC = =ϵ
dt dt

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 Displacement Currents

Now, stretching our imagination a little, we invent a fictitious

displacement current iD in the region between the plates, defined
as
dΦE
iD = ϵ
dt
The changing flux through the curved surface is somehow equivalent,
in Ampere’s law, to a conduction current through that surface.
We include this fictitious current, along with the real conduction
current iC , in Ampere’s law:
I
⃗ = µ0 (iC + iD )encl
⃗ dl
B.

The fictitious current iD was invented in 1865 by the Scottish

physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879), who called it
displacement current.

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 Displacement Currents

So we have the generalised form of Ampere’s law:

I
⃗ = µ0 (iC + iD )encl
⃗ dl
B.

This law is valid no matter which surface we use. For the flat
surface, iD is zero; for the curved surface, iC is zero; and iC for the
flat surface equals iD for the curved surface.
It is also valid in a magnetic material, provided that the
magnetisation is proportional to the external field and we replace µ0
by µ.
There is a corresponding displacement current density jD = iD /A.
Using ΦE = EA and dividing iD = ϵ dΦ dt by A, we find:
E

dE
jD = ϵ
dt

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 Maxwell’s equations

How are electricity and magnetism related to each other??

We are now in a position to wrap up in a single package all of the
relationships between electric and magnetic fields and their sources.
This package consists of four equations, called Maxwell’s equations.
Maxwell did not discover all of these equations single-handedly
(though he did develop the concept of displacement current).
But he did put them together and recognised their significance,
particularly in predicting the existence of electromagnetic waves.

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 Maxwell’s equations

Before putting them together, let’s review our four equations or laws.
The first one is Gauss’s law for Electric Flux, which is expressed as:
I
E. ⃗ = Qencl (Gauss′ s Law f or E).
⃗ dA ⃗
ϵ0

The surface integral of E⃗ on a closed surface is equal to total enclosed

free charge, divided by ϵ0 .

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 Maxwell’s equations

The second one is Gauss’s law for Magnetic Flux, which is expressed as:
I
B. ⃗ = 0 (Gauss′ s Law f or B).
⃗ dA ⃗

The magnetic monopoles do not exist.

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 Maxwell’s equations

The third one is Ampere’s law which we just developed. It is expressed as:
I  
⃗ dl
B. ⃗ = µ0 iC + ϵ0 dΦE (Ampere′ s law)
dt encl

The line integral of magnetic field around a closed loop is simply µ0

times the current enclosed by that loop.

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 Maxwell’s equations

The fourth one is Faraday’s law which we studied before. It is expressed

as:
I
⃗ = − dΦB (F araday ′ s Law)
⃗ dl
E.
dt
The line integral of Electric Field is negative of the rate of change of the
magnetic flux.

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 Maxwell’s equations

How are electricity and magnetism related to each other??

⃗ = Qencl (Gauss’s Law for E).
⃗ dA ⃗
H
E. ϵ0
⃗ = 0 (Gauss’s Law for B).
⃗ dA ⃗
H
B.
⃗ = µ0 iC + ϵ0 E
⃗ dl dΦ
H

B. dt encl (Ampere’s law)
⃗ = − dΦB (Faraday’s Law)
⃗ dl
H
E. dt

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 Maxwell’s equations

Let’s try to find some symmetry in these laws:

⃗ = Qencl (Gauss’s Law for E).
⃗ dA ⃗
H
E. ϵ0
⃗ = µ0 iC + ϵ0 dΦE
⃗ dl
H

B. dt encl (Ampere’s law)
⃗ In empty space, where there is no
⃗ dA
R
Symmtery: Using ΦE = E.
charge or conduction current, iC = 0 and Qencl = 0, and we have

I Z
=⇒ B. ⃗ = µ0 ϵ0 d
⃗ dl ⃗
⃗ dA
E.
dt

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 Maxwell’s equations

Once more:
⃗ = − dΦB (Faraday’s Law)
⃗ dl
H
E. dt
Symmtery: We know that

Z
ΦB = B. ⃗
⃗ dA

So we can re-write:
I Z
E. ⃗ =−d
⃗ dl ⃗ dA
B. ⃗
dt

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 Maxwell’s equations

⃗ =
⃗ dA Qencl ⃗
H
E. ϵ0 (Gauss’s Law for E).
⃗ = 0 (Gauss’s Law for B).
⃗ dA ⃗
H
B.
⃗ = µ0 iC + ϵ0 dΦE
⃗ dl
H

B. dt encl (Ampere’s law)
⃗ = − dΦB (Faraday’s Law)
⃗ dl
H
E. dt
Symmtery:

I Z
B. ⃗ = µ0 ϵ0 d
⃗ dl ⃗
⃗ dA
E.
dt

I Z
E. ⃗ =−d
⃗ dl ⃗
⃗ dA
B.
dt

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