Steel Catenary Riser (SCR)

Partha Sharma1 and Paul Stanton2

1 DNV GL, Katy, TX, USA
2
The Jukes Group, Katy, TX, USA

a specialty pull tube connection at the top of the pull tube to

1 Introduction 1 support the SCR weight and a special joint at the pull tube
2 Design 1 exit. A flex joint, stress joint, or joint at the pull tube exit
3 Components and Fabrication 9 all address the same function of accommodating the loads
imparted to the SCR by host platform motions.
4 Installation, Commissioning, and Operation 11
On the seafloor, the termination could be a direct connec-
Further Reading 13 tion to a flowline, a FLET (flowline end termination) or a
PLET (pipeline end termination).
Commonly used SCR sizes range from 4.5 to 18 in. OD
(outer diameter) depending on the functional requirements
1 INTRODUCTION of the riser. Typically, infield SCRs are of smaller diameter,
whereas gas export SCRs tend to be of large diameter. Pipe
The first steel catenary risers (SCRs) were installed on the wall thickness is a driving parameter on adequacy of an SCR.
Auger TLP in the Gulf of Mexico in 1994, and since then, the The design challenges for SCRs include strength and
SCR has become one of the most widely used riser systems fatigue performance particularly at the splash zone/upper
in the Gulf of Mexico and in other petroleum production part and at the seabed touchdown area. Interface with the
regions of the world with similar water depths and envi- floater requires bend-limiting devices (flex joint, taper joint,
ronments such as West Africa. Figure 1 shows a typical and pull tube). Other challenges are pipe welding, coating,
SCR attached to a semi-submersible. The SCR is a rela- flow assurance, and corrosion management. In recent years,
tively simple riser system, with steel pipe joints that may significant improvements have been made in the design,
have insulation or coatings welded together to obtain the fabrication, and installation of SCRs. These include high
required length between the host platform and a subsea termi- strength steel grades, seamless pipes, better coating for flow
nation. The other mechanical components associated with an assurance and corrosion management, improved welding and
SCR pipe are helical strakes to mitigate vortex shedding and inspection technology, and the ability to install land-based
buoyancy, potentially to induce a lazy wave catenary profile. welded sections using reeling. All of these have made SCRs
The pipe cross section weight per foot (including coating very attractive for developing both green and brown fields.
and strakes) and its length between host platform and subsea
termination govern the SCR profile.
The top-end termination of an SCR at the host platform is
2 DESIGN
usually a specialty joint such as a flex joint or a stress joint.
In some cases, the SCR is housed in a pull tube that requires
The typical SCR design process begins with a combination
Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
of flow assurance to define the necessary pipe bore and
This article is © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. route selection to a suitable host facility. Factors that affect
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe486
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition)
this decision process include proximity of the host facility
ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2 to the subsea well, seabed topography, field architecture,
2 Offshore

Figure 1. SCR suspended from a semi-submersible. (Source Unknown.)

availability of hang-off locations and process equipment at wall thinning. At a certain pressure, yielding is initiated
the host facility, and future development plans. at the internal diameter of the pipe. Any further increase
The next step after the route is selected and the prelimi- in internal pressure will lead to progression of the yielded
nary pipe bore size has been defined involves selection of zone through the thickness of the pipe, ultimately yielding
the material grade and determination of the required wall the entire wall thickness. A pipe made of strain-hardening
thickness of the SCR pipe. The SCR wall thickness design material will allow further increase in internal pressure
must incorporate all anticipated installation and operational until the increase in strength due to strain-hardening effects
loads. This is done by ensuring the pipe capacity of the SCR cannot counterbalance the effect of wall thinning and
is higher than the design loads with sufficient safety factor as increase in pressure, resulting in a ductile longitudinal
given by the relevant legal requirements and design criteria failure. The pressure at which the failure occurs is the bust
for each limit state (burst, collapse, strength, and fatigue). pressure of the pipe. The burst pressure ( pb ) is given by
Equation 1.
2.1 Pipe capacity ( )
D
pb = k(S + U) ln (1)
D − 2t
The capacity of a pipe to resist burst, collapse, and combined
loads depends on the material characteristics including where,
ductility (a function of yield stress and ultimate tensile
stress) as well as geometric properties, fabrication toler- k is an empirical factor and is equal to 0.45 for API Spec 5L
ances, and imperfections. Fatigue and fracture resistance of or 5CT pipe.
SCRs are primarily governed by the weld quality, welding D is the outside diameter of the pipe.
technique, weldment, and heat-affected zone (HAZ) mate- T is the nominal thickness of the pipe.
rial characteristics such as fracture toughness. A brief S is the specified minimum yield strength of the pipe.
description of the various failure modes along with the U is the specified minimum ultimate strength of the pipe.
corresponding capacity equations in API STD 2RD is
presented in this section. 2.1.2 Collapse

2.1.1 Burst A perfectly round pipe subjected to net external overpressure

will remain round until the elastic collapse pressure pel is
Hoop and radial strains develop in a pipe subjected to net reached. Further increase in pressure will lead to sudden
internal pressure, resulting in expansion of the pipe and collapse of the pipe due to pipe wall buckling. The theoretical

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 Steel Catenary Riser (SCR) 3

collapse pressure due to elastic buckling (pel ) is given by 2.1.3 Tension

Equation 2.
A pipe loaded in tension will undergo axial deformation and
( t∕D)3
pel = 2E (2) thinning of the wall. When the axial stress in the pipe wall
(1 − 𝜈 2 ) reaches the yield stress, the entire cross section is yielded.
The corresponding yield tension capacity Ty is given by
In reality, no pipe is perfectly round and some imper- Equation 9.
fections always exist. When an initially out-of-round pipe
Ty = S A (9)
is loaded with net external overpressure, circumferential
bending stress is developed in addition to compressive hoop
where A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe.
stress. When the equivalent stress due to combined effect
A further increase in tension capacity is only possible
of circumferential bending and compressive hoop stress
due to strain-hardening effect of the material. The tension
exceeds yield stress, the pipe has limited additional capacity
capacity accounting for strain-hardening effect Tk is given
to withstand further increase in external overpressure. Thus,
by Equation 10.
the collapse pressure is a function of elastic stability, yield
stress, and out-of-roundness. T k = 𝛼 c × Ty (10)
The collapse pressure pc can be calculated using
Equation 3. In Equation 10, 𝛼 c is the parameter that accounts for strain
Py pel hardening and wall thinning and is given by Equations 11
pc = √ (3) and 12.
U
2 2
Py + pel 𝛼c = (1 − 𝛽) + 𝛽 (11)
S

where Py is the yield pressure at collapse, given by

Equation 4. ⎧ 0.5 for D∕t < 15
( ) ⎪
t ⎪ 60 − D∕t
Py = 2S (4) 𝛽=⎨ for 15 ≤ D∕t ≤ 60 (12)
D 90
⎪
⎪ 0 for D∕t > 60
Alternatively, the collapse pressure can be calculated using ⎩
Equation 5, which accounts for the initial ovality, in addition
to elastic stability and yield stress.
2.1.4 Moment
D
(pc − pel ) × (p2c − p2p ) = pc × pel × pp × 2 × 𝛿0 × (5) A straight pipe when bent develops internal resisting
t moment. For small curvatures, the moment is proportional
to the flexural rigidity of the pipe and the bending stresses in
The plastic collapse pressure pp given by Equation 6 takes
the pipe wall are in the elastic regime. When the curvature
the fabrication process into account.
exceeds a certain threshold, yielding of the pipe wall will
t start at the extreme outer fiber. Any further increase in
pp (t) = 2 × S × 𝛼fab (6) curvature will cause the yielded zone to progress toward the
D
inner fiber. The yield moment My is defined as the moment at
where 𝛼 fab is the fabrication factor, given by Equation 7. which the mid-wall fiber yields. My is given by Equation 13.

⎧1.0 2S I π
seamless pipe My = ≈ S(D − t)2 t (13)
⎪ D−t 4
𝛼fab = ⎨0.85 UOE pipe (7)
⎪0.925 UO pipe where I is the moment of inertia of the pipe.
⎩
A further increase in curvature will ultimately yield the
entire pipe cross section. The moment at which the entire
Note: UOE and UO are methods used for production of
pipe cross section has yielded is the plastic moment capacity
longitudinally welded large diameter pipes.
Mp of the pipe. The plastic moment capacity is given by
The initial ovality is given by Equation 8.
Equation 14.

𝛿0 =
Dmax − Dmin
(8) S( 3 ) 4
Dmax + Dmin Mp = D − (D − 2t)3 ≈ S(D − t)2 t = My (14)
6 π
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4 Offshore

εb
Mk

Mp

My Post buckling
Moment

Curvature

Figure 2. Moment curvature relationship of circular pipe.

The plastic moment capacity including strain-hardening • Combined loads

effects is Mk and is given by Equation 15. • Fatigue
• Fracture
Mk = 𝛼c ⋅ Mp (15) • Corrosion and erosion

The typical moment curvature behavior of a seamless pipe Specific limits prescribed in API STD 2RD are SLS
is shown in Figure 2. High pressure risers typically have D/T (service limit state), ULS (ultimate limit state), and ALS
in the range 6 to 10. This geometry is more likely to collapse (accidental limit state). It may be noted that in API RP
via ovalization and crushing than a local buckle or wrinkling 2RD, these design load cases were referred to as operating,
of the pipe. extreme, and survival cases, respectively.

2.1.5 Buckling 2.2.1 Internal pressure

Onset of buckling in pipes subjected to bending moment is The internal pressure limit, given as a fraction of the burst
characterized by formation of wrinkles on the compressive pressure, depends on the riser-loading condition and is given
side of the pipe wall. The bending strain 𝜀b at which wrin- by Equation 17. In Equation 17, pi and pe are the internal and
kling is initiated is given by Equation 16. external pressure, respectively.

𝜀b =
t
(16) pi − pe ≤ FD pb (17)
2D
where,
It is noted that wrinkling of the pipe cross section does
not lead to reduction in the internal pressure capacity or the Riser load condition
tensile capacity unless strains are such that material rupture ⎧0.81 Production casing with tubing leak
occurs. ⎪0.81 Drilling riser with extreme pressure
⎪
FD = ⎨0.90 Hydrostatic test
2.2 Design criteria ⎪0.67 Incidental pressure
⎪0.60 Design pressure
⎩
The SCR wall thickness should be sized such that it can
withstand the following limit states: 2.2.2 External pressure
• Internal pressure The external pressure limit, given as a fraction of the collapse
• External pressure pressure, for SLS, ULS, and ALS conditions, is given by

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 Steel Catenary Riser (SCR) 5

Table 1. Typical load case matrix for SCR design.

Load category Load category Operational condition Mooring condition Environmental condition
API RP 2RD (1998 Edition) API STD 2RD
Operating SLS Shut-in Intact 10 Year winter storm
SLS Operating Intact 10 Year loop current
Extreme ULS Shutdown Intact 100 Year hurricane (maximum wave)
ULS Shutdown Intact 100 Year hurricane (maximum wind)
ULS Operating Intact 100 Year loop current
ULS Shutdown One line failed 10 Year hurricane (maximum wave)
ULS Shutdown One line failed 10 Year hurricane (maximum wind)
ULS Operating One line failed 10 Year loop current
Survival ALS Shutdown Intact 1000 Year hurricane (maximum wave)
ALS Shutdown Intact 1000 Year hurricane (maximum wind)
ALS Operating Intact 1000 Year loop current
ALS Shutdown One line failed 100 Year hurricane (maximum wave)
ALS Shutdown One line failed 100 Year hurricane (maximum wind)
ALS Operating One line failed 100 Year loop current
Installation SLS Empty Intact 1 Year winter storm
Test SLS Hydrotest Intact 1 Year winter storm
Notes: (i) Actual load cases should be determined by the project based on FMEA, HAZOP, and design reviews. (ii) Environmental conditions should be
based on project-specific metocean criteria.

Equation 18. and 20.

pe − pi ≤ FD pc (18)
|T| |M|
| | | |
| |+| |
where, { | Ty | | My |
| | | |
0.7 SLS, ULS √
FD = ( )2
1.0 ALS pi − pe
≤ FD2 − (for internal overpressure) (19)
pb
2.2.3 Combined loading
The combined load effects of pressure, effective tension, and |T| |M|
| | | |
bending moment may be assessed by any of the four methods | |+| |
| Ty | | My |
in the API STD 2RD. | | | |
√
The design criteria for internal pressure and external ( )2
pe − pi
pressure along with a brief description of the combined ≤ FD2 − (for external overpressure) (20)
loading design equations and the associated design criteria pc
are presented in this section. The typical load case matrix
for SCR strength design is given in Table 1. where,
The design equations are summarized below for Method 1
and Method 4. For details about Method 2 and Method ⎧0.80 SLS, ULS internal and external
3, please refer to API STD 2RD and DNV OS-F201, ⎪ overpressure
⎪
respectively. FD = ⎨0.90 ALS external overpressure for
⎪ pe − pi > 0.5pc
⎪1.00 ALS otherwise
2.2.3.1 Method 1. This method is based on elastic design ⎩
where the effective tension T and bending moment M
are normalized by the yield tension Ty and yield moment 2.2.3.2 Method 2. As in Method 1, the effective tension
capacities My of the pipe, respectively. The differen- term in the combined loading equation is normalized by
tial pressure term is normalized by the burst pressure the yield tension capacity of the pipe. However, Method
(for internal overpressure) and the collapse pressure (for 2 allows for higher values for moment by comparing the
external overpressure). The capacity equations for internal moment to the elastic/perfectly plastic moment capacity of
and external overpressure are given by Equations 19 the pipe.

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6 Offshore

2.2.3.3 Method 3. While Methods 1 and 2 are based primarily caused by cyclic loads due to first-order wave
on allowable stress design (ASD) format, the equations for effects (direct wave loads and associated floater motions),
Method 3 are based on a load and resistance factored design second-order floater motions, vortex-induced vibrations
(LRFD) as given in DNV-OS-F201. The capacities account (VIV), and vortex-induced motion (VIM) of the platform.
for the effect of strain hardening. Thermal and pressure-induced stress cycles may also cause
fatigue, especially at the flex joint location, and should be
2.2.3.4 Method 4. The equations in Method 4 are addressed during the design process as this failure mode has
based on API RP1111. In this method, separate checks are been previously observed. The fatigue critical locations in
performed for pressure–tension interaction and local buck- an SCR are usually the top-end termination and the seabed
ling due to bending loads. The combined loading equation touchdown region (Figure 3).
for Method 4 is given by Equation 21.
√( 2.2.4.1 Wave fatigue. Wave fatigue is calculated based
)2 ( )2 on the environmental scatter diagram that is made up of
pi − pe T
+ ≤ FD (21) various sea states with associated probabilities. Ideally,
pb Ty
fatigue analysis should be performed for each sea state in
the scatter diagram to determine the stress cycle distribu-
where, {
0.9 SLS, ULS tion. If a condensed scatter diagram is used, the short-term
FD = fatigue conditions should be selected to give an adequate
1.0 ALS
representation of the stress cycles for the lifetime of the riser
Strain limits 𝜀 (Equations 22 and 23) are also specified for system. Once the representative stress cycle for a given sea
internal and external overpressure conditions to check for state is determined, the fatigue damage is then computed
potential local buckling of the pipe wall due to bending. for each selected short-term sea state. Long-term fatigue
damage is then computed by damage accumulation from all
𝜀 ≤ FD 𝜀b (for internal overpressure) (22) short-term sea states weighted by their associated probability
of occurrence.
( ) For the most representative fatigue prediction, both wave
1 p − pi frequency and low frequency motions should be considered.
𝜀 ≤ FD 𝜀b − e (for external overpressure)
1 + 20𝛿0 fc × pc The designer also needs to be aware of the impact of consid-
(23) ering wave frequency and low frequency motions as separate
where, fatigue load cases or in a combined fatigue load case. Typi-
cally, nominal properties of drag coefficients, wall thickness
𝜀b is the
{ bending strain capacity given by Equation 16. and diameter, and seabed stiffness are used for fatigue anal-
0.5 SLS, ULS
FD = ysis. Fatigue sensitivity studies should be performed for these
1.0 ALS
{ parameters. Fatigue stress computation can, in some cases,
0.6 cold expanded pipe (e.g., DSAW) be based on a reduced wall thickness to account for material
fc =
0.7 seamless pipe loss due to corrosion.
When long-term fatigue damage is computed using
Any of the four methods in the new API STD 2RD may a scatter diagram, the main contribution to the total
be utilized by the designer for checking combined loading fatigue damage comes from low to moderate sea states
utilization. It should be noted that the combined loading with high probability of occurrence rather than a few
criteria in Method 1 are the most conservative. Method 4 extreme sea states. Therefore, in addition to the long-term
allows for higher utilization and is often required to demon- fatigue, short-term fatigue should be assessed to demon-
strate adequacy of the SCR design for extreme events like strate that the system is robust against short-term fatigue
hurricanes. When Method 4 is used, additional testing is loading. Short-term fatigue damage calculations should
recommended to demonstrate that the pipe has adequate also be performed using extreme waves for storms lasting
reserve capacity, should there be pitting or other imperfec- for 3–6 h or on a set of cases with similar duration but
tions in the pipe or welds. increasing intensity to account for the buildup of an extreme
environment.
2.2.4 Fatigue It is also important to note that fatigue analysis should
be based on a local hot spot stress that accounts for stress
SCRs should be designed to withstand anticipated fatigue concentration factors due to weld geometry and pipe end
loads within the service life of the system. SCR fatigue is misalignment.

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 Steel Catenary Riser (SCR) 7

Vessel

Flexjoint

Riser pipe

Touchdown region

Figure 3. Fatigue critical locations in SCR.

2.2.4.2 VIV fatigue. SCR systems may experience time traces are generated from either model tests or CFD,
current-induced VIV. they can be analyzed using global riser analysis programs.
VIV may be split into cross-flow (CF) vibrations with It should be noted that VIM motions from model tests are
vibration amplitudes in the order of 1 diameter, CF-induced usually more onerous than what is observed in the field.
in-line (IL) vibrations with amplitudes of 30–50% of CF
amplitude, and pure IL VIV with amplitudes in the order 2.2.4.4 Factored fatigue life. The factored fatigue life
of 10–15% of diameter. VIV evaluation is of particular (Equation 24) of the SCR should be greater than the design
importance for deepwater SCRs and may be carried out by life. The factored fatigue life accounts for fatigue damage
state-of-practice tailor-made software (SHEAR7, VIVA, and due to installation loads, wave, VIV, and VIM.
VIVANA) for engineering applications. Detailed sensitivity
(1−𝛽)
studies should always be performed when VIV analysis Factored life =
(SFwave Dwave + SFVIV DVIV + SFVIM DVIM )
is based on semi-empirical software as the predicted VIV
> Design Life (24)
response is very sensitive to certain input parameters related
to VIV modelling. VIV suppression devices such as strakes
where,
and fairings may be installed to minimize or eliminate the
fatigue damage due to VIV. Such devices should remain free Dwave is the fatigue damage per year due to wave loading
of marine growth in order to maintain effectiveness. (first- and second-order vessel motions).
DVIV is the fatigue damage per year due to current-induced
2.2.4.3 VIM fatigue. VIM fatigue is caused by resonant VIV.
platform motion due to current. Estimates of VIM motions DVIM is the fatigue damage per year due to vessel
during design are usually generated from model tests. More vortex-induced motion.
recently, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has been used Safety factor for wave loading, SFwave .
to determine platform VIM motions. Once the VIM motion Safety factor for current, SFVIV .

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8 Offshore

Table 2. Standard design curves for SCR.

S–N curve Exponent (m) Stress coefficient (MPa)
′
API X 3.74 3803.5
DNV C 3.5 7839.6
Trenching: DNV D 3.0 11,480
DNV E 3.0 10,154
DNV F 3.0 8539.1
DNV F2 3.0 7527.9
DOE C 3.0 11,147
DOE D 3.0 8471.8
DOE E 3.0 7431.5
DOE F 3.0 6332.3
Clay DOE F2 3.0 5573.6

S is the rage of cyclic axial and bending stresses.

Touch down area (TDA) k1 is the stress coefficient.
m is the exponent.
Figure 4. SCR trenching (SINTEF CARISIMA JIP).
For SCR design, a typical S–N curve for seawater with
Safety factor for vessel vortex-induced motion, SFVIM . cathodic protection is used. For sour service conditions
𝛽 is the percentage of total allowable fatigue damage during and/or service conditions that have a CO2 presence, the
installation. S–N curves should be derated with appropriate knockdown
factors. Standard design curves for SCR design are listed in
2.2.4.5 SCR–seabed interaction. SCR–seabed inter- Table 2.
action can play a significant role in computed fatigue
damage estimates at the touchdown zone (TDZ) of SCRs. 2.2.6 ECA and fracture mechanics
SCR–seabed interaction is a complex fluid structure inter-
action phenomenon dependent on many factors including SCRs are fatigue-sensitive structures and therefore require
shear strength of the soil, pipe diameter, rate, and magnitude strict weld flaw acceptance criteria. ECA (engineering
of loading (Figure 4). criticality analysis) and fracture mechanics studies are
The trench profile and the seabed stiffness affect the performed to establish allowable defect size on the weld. BS
bending moments at the touchdown area. In the past 7910 and DNVGL-OS-F101 may be used to perform ECA.
decade, several joint industry projects such as CARISIMA The allowable flaw size should be large enough so that they
and STRIDE have investigated the nonlinear pipe–soil can be reliably detected using automated ultrasonic testing
interaction. More details about SCR–seabed interaction can (AUT).
be found in API RP 2GEO and OTC Paper OTC-27564.

2.2.7 Corrosion
2.2.5 Fatigue capacity
External corrosion of SCRs can be prevented by using a
The fatigue capacity of welded pipe is characterized by S–N
combination of external coating and sacrificial anodes. The
curves, which depend on structural detail, material property
major seawater parameters affecting CP in situ are:
of the base and the weld material, operating environment (air,
seawater, and sour service), and quality control of welding
• dissolved oxygen content,
parameters. S–N curves are obtained from fatigue tests. The
• sea currents,
S–N curve is given by Equation 25.
• temperature,
( )m • marine growth, and
k1
N= (25) • salinity.
S

where, Design of cathodic protection system for an SCR is an

important consideration, and further details regarding CP
N is the number of cycles to failure. design is provided in DNV-RP-B401.

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 Steel Catenary Riser (SCR) 9

3 COMPONENTS AND FABRICATION of hydrates and paraffin deposition by maintaining the fluid
temperatures above the critical “hydrate formation” and
3.1 Riser pipe “wax appearance” temperatures.
In case of shutdown, insulation is required to prevent
Seamless carbon steel line pipe is generally preferred for formation of hydrate blockage, which can become problem-
in-field flowline and SCRs. For larger diameter SCR applica- atic when the system is restarted. Polypropylene is a widely
tions, UOE pipes have also been used. X-65 and lower steel used wet insulation system for SCRs. Pipe-in-pipe systems
grades are commonly used, although higher steel grades such may also be used for insulation.
as X-70 pipe have also been used. Manufacturing specifica- Typical wet insulation materials are 5LPP (five-layer
tion for line pipe is provided in industry standards such as polyethylene) and glass syntactic polyurethane (GSPU).
API 5L and DNV OS F-101. For sour service conditions, There are limitations to insulation thickness irrespective
with high CO2 or H2 S concentration, the SCR pipe material of the coating type due to loss of thermal efficiency with
should comply with NACE MR 0175 requirements. For some increasing thickness and the practicalities of field joint
sour service applications, internal cladding or weld overlay coating and installing very thick coatings as well as the effect
may be required. that very thick coating may have on on-bottom stability. A
common thickness is in the region of 2 in., while selected
applications may use 3 in. There are a very limited number
3.2 Coating of cases where insulation thickness of up to 4 in. has been
used. A pipe-in-pipe insulation system may offer better
The SCR pipe is protected from seawater corrosion by thermal insulation when a large thickness of wet insulation
applying external coatings such as fusion bonded epoxy is necessary.
(FBE) coatings and three-layer polyethylene (TLPE) coat-
ings. For the splash zone, thermal sprayed aluminum (TSA)
may be used.
3.4 Strakes and fairings

SCRs are usually fitted with helical strakes to suppress

3.3 Insulation vortex-induced vibrations to an acceptable level. Typically,
strakes are strapped on to the SCR pipe as it exits the lay
Insulation is applied to SCRs to reduce thermal loss and vessel. Fairings have also been used for VIV suppression of
maintain design flow rate. Insulation prevents the formation SCRs (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Strake installation (Lankhorst Mouldings).

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10 Offshore

3.5 Flex joint (FJ) 3.7 Welding and inspection

Hang-off arrangement with a FlexJoint has been widely SCRs are subjected to dynamic loads and therefore must
used for SCRs. A FlexJoint reduces the bending moment at be designed to be fatigue resistant. Ensuring good welding
the top of the riser by allowing rotation of the riser pipe. quality through process control and inspection is therefore
The fundamental constituent of the FlexJoint is the lami- one of the most important aspects of riser engineering. Girth
nated flex element. The flex element is a molded elastomeric welds of SCRs have lower fatigue resistance than the pipe
bearing consisting of a series of spherical shaped metal rein- base material due to inherent defects in the welding process.
forcements laminated between and encased by a proprietary Welding quality can be improved by reducing the pipe-end
elastomeric material. Each SCR FlexJoint is designed to misalignment, ovality, and eccentricity and by controlling
the specific application requirements including an optional the heat treatment and other weld parameters. The welding
Bellows System for handling high pressure gas-saturated procedure should be qualified before commencing the
fluids (Figure 6). production welds.
CTOD testing should be performed on the HAZ and
the weld material to ensure adequate fracture toughness.
3.6 Tapered stress joint (TSJ) Requirements for CTOD are established through ECA.
Further details on ECA are provided in industry standards
A tapered stress joint (TSJ) may also be used at the top such as BS7910 and DNV-OS-F101.
end of a SCR. Unlike a FlexJoint, a TSJ does not have any Each weld should be inspected using AUT. Welds that do
elastomeric component and the flexibility is achieved by a not meet the acceptance criteria should be repaired using
carefully designed tapered extension piece. A TSJ is usually approved repair procedures. A prudent approach to fabrica-
made of a steel or titanium forging. When a TSJ is made of tions is to cut out and reweld rather than repair in fatigue
steel, it can be welded to the riser pipe. For a titanium TSJ, a critical zones. There is also a body of opinion to allow no
bolted-flange connection is used (Figure 7). repair of welds in an SCR.

Attach flange with center ball

Body

Elastomer

Reinforcements

Extension

Figure 6. Flex joint (Oil States International).

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe486
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Steel Catenary Riser (SCR) 11

the components to 150% of the anticipated MAOP

(maximum allowable operating pressure) of the riser
system.

4 INSTALLATION, COMMISSIONING,
AND OPERATION

4.1 Installation methods

SCRs may be installed using conventional S-lay, J-lay, or

reeling. The choice of the installation method depends on
the pipe diameter and the capability and the cost of the
installation vessel operation.

Riser porch 4.1.1 S-lay

The SCR pipe is assembled by welding pipe joints on the lay
Stress joint
vessel. With the lay vessel moving in the forward direction,
the pipe string is continuously lowered subject to welding
operations from the stern of the lay vessel into the water
column via a curved stinger at a relatively shallow angle.
SCR During this operation, the pipe is held on the lay vessel using
a tensioner system (Figure 8).
The speed of lay is determined by the speed that pipe
Figure 7. Stress joint (RTI). can be welded together and inspected and that field joint
coating can be applied and sufficiently cured for travel over
the stinger.
Enhanced fatigue performance of a weld may be obtained
by removing the weld cap. However, caution is required 4.1.2 J-lay
to prevent cap removal from reducing wall thickness to an
For very deep water, the S-lay method may not be feasible
unacceptable value.
due to the high bending strain at the exit point of the stinger.
Further details of welding are provided in industry standard
In such cases, a J-lay vessel may be used. Pipe joints of
API 1104 and DNV OS F-101.
120–240 foot length are welded on an elevated tower on a
lay vessel and then discharged at a very steep angle through
3.8 Fatigue testing the water column (Figure 9).
The speed of lay is again determined by the speed that
Full-scale fatigue testing of welded pipe samples should be pipe can be welded together and inspected and that field joint
performed to verify that the welds meet the design S–N coating can be applied and be sufficiently cured.
curve. The design curves can be derived as mean minus two
standard deviations as obtained from a plot of experimental
data assuming the data to follow a Gaussian distribution in 4.1.3 Reeled-lay
a logarithmic format. Additional information about fatigue SCRs installed by reel-lay require significantly less time
testing can be found in DNV GL RP C203. than other installation methods. Reeling allows for a smaller
weather window, resulting in reduced risk of schedule
3.9 Factory acceptance testing delays. The SCR’s pipe is first coated and welded onshore
in a controlled environment. Field joint coating is then
Factory acceptance testing should be performed for SCR applied and the pipe is then spooled on a reel mounted
components such as stress joints and flex joints. Factory on an installation vessel. At the offshore location, the
acceptance tests usually involve hydrotest and other pipe is spooled off the reel and straightened by running
function tests. It is typical for the FAT to hydrotest it through a series of aligners and straightener and then

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe486
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
12 Offshore

Figure 8. S-lay vessel (http://allseas.com/project/statoil-sleipner-vest-alfa/).

Figure 9. J-lay vessel (Saipem).

finally lowered through the water column at a steep angle vessel. Reeling also places a higher demand on coating
(Figure 10). and field joint coatings. These need to be qualified to
Reel-lay of pipe has generally quicker offshore oper- accommodate the higher curvatures experienced during
ations. However, this comes at the expense of higher installation.
specification on the pipe steel and on the welding to accom- Reeled SCRs also require a more elaborate ECA to account
modate plastic deformation of the pipe during reeling for plastic deformation and potential material tearing if a flaw
and off on the vessel and straightening before leaving the is present.

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe486
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Steel Catenary Riser (SCR) 13

Figure 10. Reel-lay vessel (Technip).

4.2 As-built survey • detached strakes,

• seabed trenching,
As-built survey of the SCR should be performed after the • indication of clashing with other risers and mooring lines,
installation is completed. The survey should record the • coating damage, and
as-build flowline touchdown point. • buckling near the TDZ.

Following any major weather event such as hurricanes and

4.3 Hydrotest and precommissioning
loop currents in the Gulf of Mexico, ROV inspection should
be performed to look for the above.
Post installation, a hydrotest is performed to verify the
Remaining life assessment studies should be performed
integrity of the SCR. Typically, the hydrotest pressure is
based on the actual field data of platform motions and envi-
performed at 1.25 times the MAOP. Once the hydrotest is
ronmental conditions.
satisfactorily completed, the SCR pipe is cleaned by running
If field inspections and remaining life assessment studies
pigs and dewatered by pumping methanol and dead oil.
indicate that the SCR is not within the design limits, the SCR
may need to be derated or replaced.
4.4 Operation and maintenance

The operational life of the SCR begins with the start-up

phase, during which the production fluid is first introduced FURTHER READING
into the SCR pipe. During start-up, care must be taken to
prevent formation of hydrates due to the presence of residual
American Petroleum Institute (1998) Design of Risers for Floating
water from hydrotest. Production Systems (FPSs) and Tension-Leg Platforms (TLPs)
The SCR should be operated within its design limit. As (API RP 2RD), 1st edn, American Petroleum Institute.
part of the maintenance strategy, pressure, temperature, flow API Standard 2RD (2013) Dynamic Risers for Floating Production
rate, fluid contents, and estimated sea conditions should be Systems, 2nd edn, American Petroleum Institute.
recorded. Production fluids should be monitored for iron Blevins, R.D. (1990) Flow-Induced Vibration, 2nd edn, Van Nostrand
particles or compounds that may indicate corrosion and Reinhold, New York.
erosion. Intelligent pigs can also be run through the SCR to BS 7910 (1999) Guide on Methods for Assessing the Acceptability of
measure wall thickness. Periodically, external visual exami- Flaws in Metallic Structures.
nation should be performed using ROVs to look for: Det Norske Veritas (2001) Dynamic Risers. DNV-OS-F201.
Det Norske Veritas (2005) Cathodic Protection Design.
• indication leaks at the riser top connection (flex joint and DNV-RP-B401.
stress joint), Det Norske Veritas (2010) Riser Fatigue. DNV-RP-F204.

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe486
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
14 Offshore

Det Norske Veritas (2014) Fatigue Strength Analysis of Offshore Steel Sparks, C. (2007) Fundamentals of Marine Riser Mechanics: Basic
Structures. DNV-RP-C203. Principles and Simplified Analysis, Pennwell.
OTC-27564 (2017) A Perspective on the State of Knowledge Vandiver, J.K., Leverette, S., Wajnikonis, C.J., and Marcollo, H.
Regarding Soil-Pipe Interaction for SCR Fatigue Assessments. (2007) User Guide for SHEAR7.

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe486
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2