TIMBER

TIMBER-> this Is a naturally occurring building material used for construction and
building
purposes.
ADVANTAGES OF TIMBER AS A BUILDING MATERIAL
1. It has a warm texture and an attractive appearance.
2. It can be used for internal finishing as well as for the main structure.
3. It is easy to work with
4. It can be produced in a wide range of shapes and sizes
5. It has good thermal insulation properties.
6. It has a good strength to weight ratio
->Timber is a highly anisotropic material with a high strength and stiffness parallel to the grain
but low properties perpendicular to the grain.
TYPES OF TIMBER USED IN CONSTRUCTION
There are two types of tree species: 1. Softwoods
2. Hardwoods
->Softwoods species are coniferous & include sprues, pines & firs. These trees retain their
needle-like-
leaves throughout the year.
->Hardwood species are deciduous and include oaks, birches & maples .These tress have broad
leaves which they lose in the winter.
->The wood from both species is used for structural timber, but softwoods are much more
common due to their greater availability and lower costs.
->In east Africa, the hardwood species such as Mvule, Camphor and African mahogany and
many others most of which are used for joinery than building. These timbers occur in natural
forests though in a few plantations.
->The indigenous softwood available in east Africa are two species Podo and cedar both of
which are declining in importance as they become worked out. Cedar may be classified as scarce
timber but Podo is still available in Kenya and fairly common in North Tanzania.
->However, there are breeds of broad leafed hardwood and the main species are ubiquitous
saligna gum and grevillea from Australia. The eucalyptus have mainly been used for poles and
not in construction though there is no reason why this should not be done.
->Exotic conifers also exist. These include cypress and pine and are mostly found in Kenyan
highlands.
->cypress is the main construction timber over much East Africa and this market will be shared
with pine as increasing quantities of the latter become available

PROPERTIES / CHARACTERITICS OF timber

1. Durability
Durability is the first priority for any kind of engineering material. A good
timber should be durable enough to resist the actions of chemical agents,
biological agents, physical agencies, etc. However, wood is weak against the
actions of strong acids and alkalis but it can withstand weak acids and alkali
solution.
2. Strength
Strength is the resistance against failure. A good timber should not fail easily
and it should be strong enough to take loads acting on it. The strength
of timber varies depending on the direction (transverse or direct) it is
loaded. Strength is considered as an important property while designing
structural wood members such as wooden beams, joists, rafters, etc.trusses
3. Porosity
The permeability of timber should be less. A good timber should not absorb
more than 8 to 12%
of water by its weight when placed in water. The water porosity of timber
depends upon various factors such as moisture content of timber, age of
timber, type of timber, type of cut, etc.
4. Hardness
Hardness is the resistance against penetration. Good timber should be hard
and workable. The
hardness of timber depends upon its density and heartwood properties.
Stronger is the heartwood higher is the hardness of timber.
5. Toughness
Toughness is the resistance against sudden shocks and vibrations. A good
timber should be tough
enough to resist sudden impact loads and vibrations. The toughness of
timber is improved by the good interlocking of grains in its structure. A good
tough timber is used to make handles of different tools, parts of automobiles,
etc.
6. Elasticity
A good timber should be elastic. Elasticity is the property of regaining its
original shape after
deformation causing loads are removed. A good elastic timber is used to
make sports items, shafts, bows, etc.
7. Workability
Workability of timber is the ease with which it can cut into the required
shape. A good timber is
easily workable. It should not damage or block the teeth of the saw during
cutting.
8. Weight
The timber should be heavy as much as it looks. A timber is said to be good
if it weighs heavy.
Lightweight timbers are less in strength and unsound.
9. Structure
A timber with uniform structure is said to be a good timber. The fibers of
timber should be straight and firm. The annual rings of timber should be
closely located indicating the fact that the tree is mature enough to use it for
making timber products. The medullary rays should be hard and compact. In
general, an age of 50 to 100 years is considered a good age for felling of
trees.
10. Defects
A timber is said to be good when it is free from defects caused by natural
forces such as burls,
knots, shakes, etc. and also it should be free from various fungal defects
such as blue stain, dry rot, wet rot. etc.
11. Fire resistance
Fire-resistance of timber is very low. Of all the timber types, dense
wood offers the most resistance against fire but up to certain limit only.
The thermal conductivity of timber depends upon various factors such as
moisture content, density, porosity, etc.
12. Mechanical Wear
Wooden floors, pavements, etc. made of timber are continuously
subjected to traffic loads. Hence, good timber should not deteriorate easily
against mechanical wear or abrasion

13. Appearance
The appearance of a good timber should be shiny when it is freshly
sawed. This shining appearance is due to resinous matter present in the
timber. The appearance of timber depends upon the arrangement of cells in
its structure. If they are arranged in a uniform manner, the uniform

appearance will be obtained after cutting. Fungal defects such as blue

stain, sap stain, etc. damage the appearance of timber.
14. Color
The strength of timber can be estimated by looking at its color. Light color
designates low strength timber while dark color indicates high strength
timber. Hence, dark-colored timber is preferable for engineering works.
15. Shape
The shape of timber should not be disturbed while cutting and seasoning. A
bad timber may bow
or warp or split during conversion.
16. Smell
The smell of a good timber is sweet. Bad or unpleasant smell indicates
decayed timber.
17. Sound
The velocity of sound in timber (hardwood) is approximately 12 times more
than that in the air.
Hence, a good timber should produce clear ringing sound when struck. This
is the reason why many musical instruments are made of wood. A dull heavy
sound designates decayed timber.

GRADING OF TIMBER
->Grading of timber is essential to ensure that the material is reliable and
has defined properties
that can be used in design.
->The grading process is essentially a process that assigns each individual
piece of timber to a
strength grade. Grade limits are related to a moisture content of 20%.
->Two methods of grading that are currently in use are: 1) visual grading
2) Machine
grading
3) stress
grading
I) visual grading
->This involves carrying out a visual inspection of strength reducing defects
in a board. The grading process involves a visual examination of the four
faces of each piece.
->the following characteristics are assessed: knots, slope of grain, rate of
growth, wanes, fissures,
resins and bark pockets and finally distortion.
ii) Machine grading
->. Machine stress-grading uses a machine to bend each piece of timber
(generally about its
minor axis). The machine measures the stiffness of the piece and uses a
loose correlation between stiffness and strength to assign a stress grade. A
sorted group with a small range of E (stiffness) can produce a larger range of
strength. The E value is also used to infer all of the other structural
properties, including tension, compression and shear strength.
A stress grade
is the classification of a timber for structural used in structural applications .
Stress grades are derived from either visual- or machine-grading, which specify the stress limits
that
apply to timbers used for structural applications. Stress grades are known by ‘F’ grades (F4 to
F34);
F14 indicates that the basic working stress for that timber is around 14 MPa. Timber to be used
in a specific structural application must meet the required stress grade specified by the architect
or designer.
USES OF TIMBER IN CONSTRUCTION
->Timber in construction can be used in the following uses:
1. Structural members such as floor joists, columns, beams, etc.
2. Can be used for scaffolding and form works.
3. for timber platforms
4. In doors and windows
5. Internal finishing like kitchen units, wardrobes, etc.

Defects in timber
Defects are structural faults within the timber which may impair its strength,
resilience or durability and should not be confused with surface blemishes.
Features of some timbers such as knots may be termed . Natural defect
while others such as short grain are termed artificial defects, because they
could have been reduced with more careful conversion (sawing of the log
into useful sizes) or seasoning (the reduction of the moisture content in the
timber.)

The main defects caused in timber are :

• Defects due to natural forces
• Defects due to conversion
• Defects due to fungi
• Defects due to insects
• Defects due to seasoning
1) Defects due to natural forces
These are caused basically due to abnormal growth and rapture of tissues.
Following are the defects caused by these forces.
• Burls
• Callus
• Chemical stain
• Coarse grain
• Dead wood
• Druxiness
• Foxiness ( Having reddish brown color)
• Knots
• Rind galls
• Shakes : These are splitsalong the length of the plank where the cells or
fibres have separated.
• Cup shakes
• Heart shakes
• Ring shakes
• Star shakes
Radial shakes
• Fibers
• Upsets
• Water strains
• Wind cracks

Chemical Stain
Due to chemical action by some external agency, wood is sometimes discoloured. This is
known as chemical stain.
Coarse Grain
If a tree grows rapidly, annual rings are widened. It is known as coarse grained timber and such
timber possesses less strength.
Dead Wood
Timber which is obtained from dead standing trees contains dead wood. It is indicated by light
weight and reddish colour.
Knots
Knots are the remains of outgrowing branches of a tree. Their grain runs at an angle to that of the
main timber and where the knots are large and numerous the fibres are distorted and the strength
of the timber much reduced.

2) Defects due to Conversion

During the process of converting timber to commercial form, the following
defects may occur:
• Chip mark: This defect is indicated by the marks or signs placed by chips on the finished
surface of timber
• Diagonal grain: Improper sawing of timber
• Torn grain: When a small depression is made on the finished surface due to falling of some tool
• Wane: Presence of original rounded surface on the finished surface

3) Defects due to Fungi

Fungi attacks timber when these conditions are all present
1. The timber moisture content is above 25%
2. The environment is warm enough
3. There is lots of air
Wood with less than 25% moisture remains free of fungi for centuries. Similarly, wood
submerged in water
will not be attacked by fungi because of absence of air.
• Blue strained
• Brown rot
• Dry rot
• Heart rot
• Wet rot
• White rot
• Sap strained
4) Defects due to Insects
Timber may be attacked in certain circumstances by various wood-boring insects, which differ in
their choice of species and condition of the wood- from standing trees to woodwork which has
been in service for many years.
Insects responsible for the decay of timber:
Beetles
These are small insects. They form pin holes and form tunnels in all directions. They convert
timber into fine powder.
Marine borers
These are found in marine water. They do not feed on wood. They dig holes or form tunnels for
shelter and the wood looses color and strength.
Termites
Popularly known as white ants, these insects are found in tropical and sub-tropical countries.
They feed on wood inside out, form tunnels and live in colonies. They usually do not disturb out
shell. Good timbers like teak, sal, etc are not attacked by termites.

5) Defects due to Seasoning

• Bow : Bending of timber along its length.
• Case hardening : Due to quick drying of exposed surface, internal tension develop irregular
cracks known
as case hardening.
• Check: Check A check is a crack along the length of a board which may be very small and
therefore not
a serious weakness.
• Collapse: Flattening of wood on drying due to uneven shrinkage.
• Cup: Bending of wood or formation of curvature in the transverse direction.
• Honey combining: Development of internal cracks due to drying
• Radial shakes: These are radial cracks.
• Split: These are checks over the entire length of timber.
• Twist: It is a spiral distortion along its length.
• Warp: Twisting of timber in a small portion.

Wood Products
Following are the few products of wood which are widely used for furniture,
partitions, etc.
1. Veneer
2. Plywood
3. Particle board
4. Laminated wood
5. Straw board
1. Veneer
Veneer refers to thin slices of wood, usually thinner than 3 mm (1/8 inch),
that typically are glued onto core panels to produce flat panels such as
doors, tops and panels for cabinets, parquet floors and parts of furniture.
Veneer is also a type of manufactured board.
Veneer is obtained either by “peeling” the trunk of a tree or by slicing large
rectangular blocks of wood.
The appearance of the grain and figure in wood comes from slicing through
the growth rings of a tree and depends upon the angle at which the wood is
sliced.
Depending on the process of cutting, veneers may be classified as:
1. Rotary Veneers
2. Sliced Veneers.

2. Plywood
Plywood is a manufactured wood panel made from thin sheets of wood
veneer. It is one of the most widely used wood products. It is flexible,
inexpensive, workable, re-usable, and can be locally manufactured.
Plywood is used instead of plain wood because of its resistance to cracking,
shrinkage, splitting, and twisting/warping, and its general high degree of
strength.
Plywood layers (called veneers) are glued together with adjacent plies
having their grain at right angles to each other.
Plywood is commercially available in thickness ranging from 4mm 25mm.

Advantages of Plywood
• It is light in weight, and has good strength depending upon thickness.
• It is available in bigger dimensions than natural wood. Hence joints can be avoided.
• No seasoning is required.
• It can be cut, nailed and glued easily in making furniture.
• It has high resistance to cracking, splitting and warping.
• It has less tendency to shrink and swell as it is cross-grained.

3. Particle Board
Particleboard is a composite product of wood manufactured from wood
particles, such as wood chips, sawmill shavings, or even saw dust, and a
synthetic resin or other suitable binder. The moisture content of wooden
chips is first reduced to about 15% and then pressed in the presence of heat
and moisture to form long sheets of particleboard.
The wood pieces used to make particleboard may be hardwoods or
softwoods. Particleboard is cheaper and denser than solid wood, and is often
used for indoor products in which appearance and durability are not key
requirements.
Surfaces that will be visible are often painted or covered with wood veneers
for better appearance. A major disadvantage of particleboard is that it is very
much prone to expansion and discoloration due to moisture, particularly
when it is not covered with paint or another sealer. Therefore, it is rarely
used outdoors or places that have high levels of moisture.

4. Laminated Board
Laminated wood is an engineered wood product composed of thin layers of
wood, or veneers, that are glued together to make a stronger wood product.
The inner core consists of wooden strips of thickness not exceeding 7mm.
The layers are laid and glued with all wood grains parallel. They are strong
and durable and do not split easily. It is also made similar to the plywood.
Plywood is a stronger form of Laminated woods are used in building
applications, such as partitions, packing cases, floor coverings,
furniture and wall panels.

5. Straw Board
The environmental friendly, economical, and recyclable solid panels are
made of all natural fibrous raw materials. These rigid building panels are
designed to replace labor intensive drywall construction for interior partition
walls. The durable panels feature thermal and acoustic insulation as well as
fire and termite resistance and are available for a variety of applications to
speed up the construction processes. Other applications for strawboard
panels include load and non-bearing ceilings, roofing, doors, flooring, and
prefabricated buildings.
Strawboard panels are made of solid core, compressed wheat or rice
straw. High pressure and temperatures (240°C) forces the straw to
release a natural resin that binds the fibers together. The compressed
panels are then covered with paper liners and adhered to both sides with
water based non-toxic glue.
The panel’s high density and low oxygen content does not support
combustion. These straw boards are made in various thicknesses ranging
from 25mm to 75mm.
The product’s workability is similar to wood as it can be sawn, drilled, routed,
nailed, screwed, and glued. Lightweight wall attachments such as shelf
brackets, picture frames, mirrors, and towel bars can be attached directly
to the panel.

Seasoning
The process of drying of timber is known as the seasoning of timber
Objective of seasoning of timber
The seasoning of timber is carried out to achieve the following objective
1. To reduce “movement” in timber.
2. To reduce the tendency to split, wrap and shrink.
3. To impart hardness, stiffness and strength.
4. To increase the resisting power of timber.
5. To reduce the weight and to minimize cost of transportation and easily
handling.
6. To make timber safe from attack of fungi and insects.
7. To maintain the shape and size of component of timber articles
which are expected to remain unchanged.
8. To make the timber burn readily, if used as fuel.
9. To make timber easily workable and facilitate operations during
conversion.
10. To make timber fit for receiving treatment of paints, preservatives,
varnishes etc.

Methods of seasoning of timber

The methods of seasoning of timber can be broadly divided into the following
two categories
1. Natural Seasoning
2. Artificial seasoning.
1. Natural or air seasoning :
Is a slow process and the reduction in moisture content to the desired level may not be
attainable, by air seasoning alone.
2. Artificial or kiln seasoning :
Is thus adopted for faster drying and to attain the low level of moisture content required. The
stacking space required is reduced if this seasoning is adopted.
Natural or air seasoning
In this method, the seasoning of timber is carried over by the natural air and hence it is also
called as air
seasoning. The following procedure in the air seasoning.

1. The timber in a form of log is not usually fit for this process of seasoning. Hence, it is cut and
sawn into suitable sizes of planks and scantlings.
2. The timber sizes can either be stacked horizontally OR vertically, the stacking in horizontal is
common.
3. The ground, where stack is to be constructed is cleared and leveled for good drainage.
4. The platform of stack in made slightly higher above 30 cms above ground level. (for this
purpose. Rows of brick OR concrete pillers OR with pillers of wood coated with Tar are
construction).
5. The timber pieces are sorted out according to lengths and thickness. They are arranged in
layers one over the other. (Care should be taken that all members of in the particular layer are of
same thickness to avoid wastage, and occurring of cracks).
6. Each layer is separated by spacers of sound dry wood. The usual dimension of spacer vary
from 35x25 mm, to 50x35mm. larger dimension being width.
7. The distance of spacers depends upon the sizes of timber members to be seasoned.
8. The length of stack is equal to length of timber piece. The width and height of stack are
restricted to about 150 cms x 300cms respectively.
9. The stack should preferably covered by a roof of suitable material to protect from wind, rain,
sun heat etc.
10.The distance between the adjacent stacks should be at least 60 cms.
Advantages
1. Air seasoning is simple and economical method.
2. It does not require much skill and attention.
3. The chances of seasoning defects in the timber is less, as it is slow
process.

Disadvantages
1. As it depends on natural air, it some times difficult to control.
2. Moisture content cannot be reduced less than 15 to 18 %
3. The drying of different surfaces may not be uniform.
4. Can be easily attacked by insects and fungi due to long period of
seasoning.
5. Very slow; time taken for seasoning is more according the capital cost will
be blocked for long time.
6. Large space is required for stacking.
6’ Space between lumber stack and roof 24” cr less between foundation
supports

Artificial seasoning
Artificial seasoning is preferable instead of natural seasoning due to the
following reasons.
1. The defects such as shrinkage, cracking and warping are minimized in
artificial seasoning.
2. There are practically no chances for attack of fungi and insects.
3. The drying in different surfaces is even and uniform.
4. The period of seasoning considerably reduces.
5. Better control of circulation of air and temperature.
6. The wood is more suitable for finishing and preserving items like painting
etc.
7. The desired moisture contents can be obtained.

Methods of Artificial seasoning

(i) Boiling
(ii) Chemical Seasoning
(iii) Electrical seasoning
(iv) Kiln seasoning
(v) water seasoning
(a) Boiling : In this method, the timber is immersed in water and thenboiled. Thus the timber has
to be boiled ‘3’ to ‘4’ hours and then it is dried slowly under shed. In this process, the time of
seasoning and shrinkage of timber is reduced, but affects the elasticity and strength of timber. In
it timber may be exposed to the action of hot stream. It is proves to be costly.

(b) Chemical Seasoning (Salt Seasoning) :

In this method the timber is immersed in solution of suitable salt. It is then taken out and
seasoned in ordinary way. The interior surface of timber dries in advance of exterior one and
chances of forming external cracks are reduced.

(c) Electrical Seasoning :

In this method, use is made of high frequency alternating current. The resistance of electricity
increases, the timber dries internally which also result in the production of heat. It is
most rapid method of seasoning. This method is costly and uneconomical to season timber for
commercial purpose.

(d) Kiln seasoning :

In this method, the drying of timber is carried out inside an airtight chamber OR oven.
Depending upon mode of construction and operation, the kilns are of two types. They are
1. Stationary kilns and
2. Progressive kilns.
1. Stationary Kiln : It is also known as a compartment kiln. In it the process of seasoning is
carried out in single compartment only. In it the drying operations are adjusted as drying
proceeds. This kiln is adopted for seasoning of timber which requires a close control of humidity
and temperature. It gives better results.
2. Progressive Kiln : In it the carriage with timber sections travels slowly from one end to other
end of kiln. In doing so, it gets seasoned. The hot air is supplied from the discharging end, so that
the temperature is less at the charging end and it increases towards the discharging end. IT is
used for seasoning timber on a large scale. If it is not properly attended, the drying in the kiln
prove to be unsatisfactory.

(e) Water Seasoning :

 In this method, the following procedure is adopted.
1. The timber is cut into pieces of suitable sizes.
2. These pieces are immersed totally in water, preferably in running water of stream. The time
has to be increased fully to obtain good results.
3. The thicket OR large end of timber is kept pointing upstream side of stream.
4. The timber is kept like that for a period of ‘2’ to ‘4’ weeks. During the
period the sap contained in timber is washed away in water.
5. The timber is then taken out of water and allowed to dry under the shed
having free circulation of air. The water that has replaced sap from the
timber dries out and the timber is seasoned. It is quick method and it renders
timber which is less liable to shrink OR warp. It removes the organic
materials contained in sap of timber. It however weakens the timber and
makes it brittle.

Characteristics Softwood Hardwood

Source Softwood is collected Hardwood is obtained

from conifer trees from deciduo leaves in
which are evergreen autumn). They are
having needle-shaped basica angiosperms.
leaves. these are
Generally
gymnosperms.

Fibre Less dense, strait fiber In the case of

is found. hardwood, the fibers
close
and dense.

Resin quality It is resinous wood that Non-resinous woods

contains good have enough fragrant
and regular texture and smell.
a fragrant
smell.

Weight Lightweight and softer Heavyweight and

than hardwood. harder than soft/w

Color Softwood is light in Normally these are

color. dark-colored wood

Resistance to poorer than hardwood, better than softwood.

fire and burn at a Burn at a very low rate.
high rate.
 Weather If they are modified or Naturally resistant to
resistance treated then these may weathering h
become resistant to environmental impact.
weathering having an
environmental impact.

Durability Less durable wood. Hardwoods are highly

durable and decades.

Ring structure Distinct annual rings The annual rings are

are found. not distinct.

Medullary rays Indistinct medullary Distinct medullary rays.

rays.

Growth rate Soft wood trees grow The growth rate of this
faster than type of tree is slower
hardwood trees. than soft wood

Tensile and Well tensile and Good tensile and shear

shear strength comparatively weaker strength.
shear strength.

PRESERVATION OF TIMBER.
The durability of wood is decidedly variable property. If well-seasoned and kept in
a dry place, if immersed in water, or if buried in ground, wood often lasts for
centuries. When, however, unprotected wood can easily decay by swelling, fungi,
insects, fire, etc.

The rapidly with which it decays depends on external conditions, the species of the
wood, its preliminary conditioning, and its structure. One of the basic approaches
to protect it is to create conditions unfavorable to fungi. Low humidity, heat and
water insulation, etc.
help to maintain the timber dry and thus make it insusceptible to damage by fungi.
Water absorption, decay and other undesirable effects can be minimized by
coating the surface of wood with polymer films or drying oils, oil base paints,
varnishes and synthetic enamels. Preservative treatment of timber is not supposed
to improve its basic properties like mechanical, electrical, or chemical properties.

Methods of preserving timber:

I. Tarrying: this is the use of tar or petroleum products to coat timber/wood.

It’s used for rough types of works like fences and frames to safeguard
against insects and moisture,
II. Charring: it’s the introduction of a layer of coal on the surface of
wood/timber. This is done through burning the timber at the lower ends to
be buried in the soil over a wood fire and then quenched in water. It
prevents attacks by insects and dry rot.
III. Painting: this is the use of oil paints to safeguard against moisture entry
into the wood.
IV. Creosoting: it is used where dark color and odor do not make the timber
objectionable. It imparts water repellent properties to the wood.
It also protects against white ants and rot.
V. Ascue treatment: it’s a powder whose solution in water is sprayed on
wood/timber to safeguard against fungi and insects. Timber can be painted
or vanished with this kind of treatment.
VI. Fire proofing: this is applying a coat of non-combustible materials on the
surface of wood to protect it from direct contact with flying embers as well
as from radiant heat. It can also be done by impregnating wood with a fire-
retarding chemical which absorbs heat and dissociates when heated.