Chapter:5

Linear Analog System

Dr. Sandeep J. Rajput EC,GECG

 Outline
Operational Amplifiers:
▪ The Basic Operational Amplifier
▪ Transistor based Differential Amplifier
▪ The Emitter –Coupled Differential Amplifier
Linear Analog Systems:
▪ Basic Operational Amplifier Applications
▪ Differential DC Amplifier
▪ Stable AC-Coupled Amplifier
▪ Analog Integration and Differentiation
Non-Linear Analog Systems:
▪ Comparators
▪ Sample-and-Hold Circuits
▪ Precision AC/DC Converters
▪ Logarithmic Amplifiers
▪ Waveform Generators
▪ Regenerative Comparator (Schmitt Trigger)
▪ Emitter-Coupled Logic (ECL)
 Operational Amplifiers

The basic op amp with supply voltage included is shown in the diagram below.

Basic op amp diagram.

 Operational Amplifiers
A model of the op amp, with respect to the symbol, is shown below.

V1

_
Ro Vo
Vd Ri
+
AVd
V2

Op Amp Model
 IC 741 Specifications
▪ Power Supply: Requires a Minimum voltage of 5V and can withstand up to 18V

▪ Input Impedance: About 2 MΩ

▪ Output impedance: About 75 Ω

▪ Voltage Gain: 200,000 for low frequencies (200 V / mV)

▪ Maximum Output Current: 20 mA

▪ Recommended Output Load: Greater than 2 KΩ

▪ Input Offset: Ranges between 2 mV and 6 mV

▪ Slew Rate: 0.5V/µS (It is the rate at which an Op-Amp can detect voltage changes)

The high input impedance and very small output impedance makes IC 741 a near ideal
voltage amplifier.
 Characteristics of an ideal op-amp
▪ An ideal op-amp would exhibit the following electrical characteristics:

▪ Infinite voltage gain A.

▪ Infinite input resistance Ri, so that almost any signal source can drive it and there is
no loading of the preceding stage.

▪ Zero output resistance Ro, so that the output can drive an infinite number of other
devices.

▪ Zero output voltage when input voltage is zero.

▪ Infinite bandwidth, so that any frequency signal from 0 to ∞ Hz can be amplified

without attenuation.

▪ Infinite common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR), so that the output common mode
noise voltage is zero.

▪ Infinite slew rate, so that output voltage changes occur simultaneously with input
voltage changes.
 Parameters of an op-amp
Input offset voltage
▪ Input offset voltage is the voltage that must be applied between the two input
terminals of an op-amp to null the output as shown in Figure below.
▪ In figure Vdc1 and Vdc2 are dc voltages and Rs represents the source resistance.
▪ We denote input offset voltage by Vio. This voltage Vio could be positive or negative.
▪ For a 741C, the maximum value of Vio is 6mV dc.
▪ The smaller the value of Vio, the better the input terminals are matched.
▪ For instance, the 741C precision op-amps has maximum Vio= 150µV.
 Parameters of an op-amp
Input offset current
▪ The algebraic difference between the currents into the inverting and non-inverting
terminals is known as input offset current Iio(Fig. 4). In the form of an equation,
Iio = |IB1 - IB2|
▪ Where IB1 is the current into the non-inverting input and IB2 is the current into the
inverting input. The input offset current for the 741C is maximum 200nA .
▪ As the matching between two input terminals is improved, the difference between
IB1and IB2 becomes smaller; i.e. the Iio value decreases further. For instance, the
precision op-amp 741C has a maximum value of lio equal to 6nA, a dramatic
improvement over older technology.
 Parameters of an op-amp
Input bias current
▪ Input bias current IB, is the average of the currents that flow into the inverting and
non-inverting input terminals of the op-amp. In the form of an equation,
IB = (IB1+ IB2)/2
▪ IB = 500nA (maximum) for 741C, whereas for the precision 741C, it is ±7nA. The
two input currents IB1 and IB2 are actually the base currents of the first differential
amplifier stage.
 Parameters of an op-amp
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

▪ For an ideal differential amplifies CMRR should be infinity. In practical situations,

CMRR should be as high as possible. In dB, it is expressed as

▪ For the 741C,CMRR is typically 90dB. This value of CMRR is determined under the
test condition that the input source resistance Rs<10KΩ.

▪ The higher the value of CMRR, the better is the matching between the two input
terminals and the smaller is the output common mode voltage.

▪ For the 741C precision op-amp, CMRR =120dB. This means that the precision 741C
has a better ability to reject common-mode voltages, such as electrical noise, than the
741C and is preferred in noise environments.
 Parameters of an op-amp
Slew rate
▪ Slew Rate (SR) is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage.
SR= (dVo /dt)max V/µs,
▪ Slew rate indicates how rapidly the output of an op-amp can change in response to
changes in the input frequency.
▪ The slew rate of an op-amp is fixed; therefore, if the slope requirements of the
output signal are greater than the slew rate, distortion occurs.
▪ The slew rate is one of the important factors in selecting the op-amp for ac
applications, particularly at relatively high frequencies.
▪ One of the drawbacks of the 741C is its low slew rate (0.5V/µs), which limits its use
in relatively high frequency applications, especially in oscillators, comparators and
filters.
▪ The newer op-amps: LF351, µAF771 and MC 34001 which are direct replacements
for 741, have a slew rate of 13V/µs.
▪ In high-speed op-amps, especially, the slew rate is significantly improved. For
instance, the LM318 has a slew rate of 70V/µs.
 Parameters of an op-amp
Power Supply rejection Ratio (PSRR)
▪ Specifies that if there is any change in the supply voltage, then how it will affect the
output of the op-amp.
▪ For op-amp, if there is any change in the supply voltage, then it should not affect the
output of the op-amp.
▪ With the change in the supply voltage, the output voltage of the op-amp will also
change by a small margin.
▪ This is specifically important when the input signal level is very small.
▪ That means with the change in the supply voltage, how the input offset voltage of
the op-amp will change.
▪ The unit of this PSRR is μV / V.

Where,
ΔVio= change in the input offset voltage
ΔVs= change in the supply voltage
 Parameters of an op-amp
Power Supply rejection Ratio (PSRR)
▪ For example, for some op-amp if the PSRR is equal to 10 μV / V, it means that when
the supply voltage will change by 1 volt, then the input offset voltage of that op-amp
will change by a 10 μV.
▪ The change in the input offset voltage will lead to the change in the output of the op-
amp.
▪ For dual supply op-amps typically it is assumed that the change in the supply
voltage is symmetrical.
▪ But if the change in the supply voltage is not symmetrical, then it will lead to the
common mode error.
▪ In the decibel this PSRR is defined as
Parameters
of an op-amp
 What is Virtual Ground and Virtual Short?

▪ In Figure (a), the voltage at VA = VB, this is because there is a short circuit between VA and
VB point.
▪ In figure (b), there is no connection (short circuit) between VA and VB. But still the voltage at
VB = VA without connection with any other source means there should be a virtual connection
in between VA and VB or due to some other virtual effect the VB is equal to VA.
▪ This is an effect commonly knows as “Virtual Short Circuit”.
▪ Likewise, in Figure (c), even if the VA is connected with a 5V source but due to some effects if
the VA= VB = 0V (Gnd_Potential) means this effect will be called as “Virtual Ground”.
▪ The above-mentioned details may seem like magic or unrealistic. But the basic Op-Amp
operations follow the above two concepts and understanding the reason behind this will help
to understand full Op-Amp physics.
 What is Virtual Ground and Virtual Short?
Basic Op-Amp working Rules

The Basic Op-Amp working mechanism mainly follows below given 2 important rules

1. Always the Voltage at Non-Inverting Input and Inverting input of the Op-Amp
should be Equal. The internal Op-Amp design and output feedback resistors always
tend to make them equal in order to maintain the stable Operation Op-Amp.

2. As per the Op-Amp characteristics, the Op-Amp has higher input impedance and
lower output impedance. So, for ideal Op-Amp operation, the current flow through
Op-Amp input terminals are assumed as “Zero”.
 What is Virtual Ground and Virtual Short?
Virtual Short in Op-Amp

▪ As per Rule - 1, the Inverting Input (-) voltage should be equal to the Non-Inverting
(+) input voltage, for the given circuit, the V_Non_Inverting = 1V. Like Non-
Inverting (+) pin the Inverting pin (-) not connected to any dedicated voltage source
and only the Op-Amp VOUT can make the Inverting (-) terminal voltage to 1V.
 What is Virtual Ground and Virtual Short?
Virtual Short in Op-Amp
▪ So, once the Op-amp gets “Powered On” the internal parameters of Op-Amp are
worked to bring Inverting Input voltage equal to 1V and as per rule to there is no
current flow through the Inverting pin. Due to that R1 & R2 becomes voltage divider
with VOUT as a Source voltage and Voltage divider output should be equal to Non-
Inverting Input Voltage.
▪ The output voltage is varied to either higher or lower voltage levels from its previous
state in order to bring the V(+) = V(-). Here, due to R1=R2 and both make voltage
divider combination and the VOUT = 2V makes (V+) = V(-).
▪ Based on the below Non-Inverting Op-Amp gain equation:

▪ So, for Non-Inverting Op-Amps the Inverting Pin Voltage is equal to Non–Inverting
voltage without direct short circuit between both the terminal and the Equaling
Voltage at both the terminals happens by Virtual Concept and this effect is called as
“Virtual Short in Op-Amp”.
 What is Virtual Ground and Virtual Short?
Virtual Ground Concept in Op Amp

▪ By applying Rule 1 and 2 in the below Inverting Op-Amp configuration, the Voltage
at Inverting Pin should be Zero. But the Inverting pin (-) is connected to a 5V source
via R1.
▪ As per Rule 2, there is no current flows through Inverting (-) Input and all currents
are flows through R1 and R2. In order to make the V(-) = 0, the VOUT has to supply
compensating voltage.
 What is Virtual Ground and Virtual Short?
Virtual Ground Concept in Op Amp
▪ In the given circuit, the Positive 5V is supplied to Inverting terminal via a 1K
resistor, and to make the Inverting terminal voltage = 0 the VOUT should be -5V (due
to R2 = 1K).

▪ If the R2 Value is modified, then the VOUT also should be modified by the Op-Amp
internal structure to make V(In-) = 0.

▪ For Inverting Op-Amp Configuration => V1/R1 = -VOUT/R2

▪ In this Inverting Input Configuration, the Inverting input is always mentioned at the
“Ground Potential” (due to Non-Inverting Input Ground Potential) without direct
connection with the ground because of Op-Amp internal functions.

▪ Even the Inverting Input is supplied with a 5V source, the Inverting Terminal
Voltage is equal to “Gnd”, and this is the reason behind of calling it as “Virtual
Ground” or Virtual Earth.
 Applications of Op Amp
▪ Op Amp As Signal Amplifier
▪ Op Amp As Filters
▪ Op Amp As Voltage Comparators
▪ Op Amp As Oscillators
▪ Op Amp As Differentiator
▪ Op Amp As Integrator
▪ Op Amp As Voltage to Current Converter
▪ Op Amp As Current to Voltage Converter
▪ Op Amp As Logarithmic Amplifier
▪ Op Amp As Half Wave Rectifier
▪ Op Amp As Peak Detector
▪ Op Amp As Non-Inverting Amplifiers
▪ Op Amp As Inverting Amplifiers
▪ Op Amp As Phase Shifter
▪ Op Amp As Scale Changer
▪ Op Amp As Adder or Summing Amplifier
Applications
of Op Amp
 Operational Amplifier
Advantages of Op Amp
▪ The compactness of op-amp is a very beneficial characteristic of op-amp since it
allows integration of op-amp in larger circuits.

▪ Op-amps display a wide range of features which makes them a versatile device.
They are used as amplifiers, comparators, and filters in analog engineering.

▪ Op-amps are simple to use and can be easily used in a circuit. In case an op-amp is
damaged, it can be easily replaced without major changes required.

▪ Op-amps are cheap and pocket-friendly devices. This makes them the best choice
for small-scale projects.

▪ Op-amps can be easily used in simulation circuits since they can be easily
programmed to create circuits at a professional level.
 Operational Amplifier
Disadvantages of Op Amp
▪ As the level of the circuit increases, it becomes difficult to implement the circuit. A
good understanding of the concepts is required to create these complex circuits.

▪ The need for symmetrical power distribution across the input terminals is a major
requirement for op-amps that can limit the use of op-amps in some applications.

▪ The op-amps are useful only for low-frequency appliances since they don't have a
good frequency response at high frequencies.

▪ Op-amps can't handle high power since they can get destroyed due to the high
power. Therefore, they are not suitable for high power appliances.

▪ Op-amps have a slow response time which can result in a lag. This can be a major
flaw for appliances that require fast switching actions.
 The Peaking Amplifier

▪ The circuit shown in figure has a maximum output (or 'peaks') at a certain
frequency. It is said to have a peaking frequency response, hence its name 'peaking
amplifier'.
▪ The main component of this circuit is the operational amplifier (such as the 741 or
351), which is configured as an inverting amplifier with a parallel LC network in the
feedback circuit.
 The Peaking Amplifier
▪ This LC network in the feedback path is the one that determines the frequency at
which the output of the circuit peaks.
▪ This frequency fp is known as its resonant or peak frequency and is given by:
1
𝑓𝑝 =
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶

▪ At the resonant frequency, the impedance of the parallel LC network becomes very
high.
▪ If this impedance is denoted by Rp, then the gain 𝐴𝑣 of the amplifier at resonant
frequency is given by:
𝑅𝑝 ∕∕𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑣 = −
𝑅1

▪ At frequencies below or above fp, the impedance of the LC network is below Rp,
𝑅𝑝 ∕∕𝑅𝑓
which means that the gain 𝐴𝑣 of the amplifier circuit is also less than − .
𝑅1

▪ This is why the output of the circuit is maximum at the resonant frequency only.
 Inverting Operational Amplifier

Two very important rules to remember about Inverting Amplifiers or any operational
amplifier for that matter and these are.
▪ No Current Flows into the Input Terminals
▪ The Differential Input Voltage is Zero as V1 = V2 = 0 (Virtual Earth)
Then by using these two rules we can derive the equation for calculating the closed-loop
gain of an inverting amplifier, using first principles.
 Inverting Operational Amplifier

▪ Current ( i ) flows through the resistor network as shown,

 Inverting Operational Amplifier

▪ Then, the Closed-Loop Voltage Gain of an Inverting Amplifier is given as,

and this can be transposed to give Vout as:

▪ The negative sign in the equation indicates an inversion of the output signal with
respect to the input as it is 180o out of phase. This is due to the feedback being
negative in value.

▪ The equation for the output voltage Vout also shows that the circuit is linear in nature
for a fixed amplifier gain as Vout = Vin x Gain.
▪ This property can be very useful for converting a smaller sensor signal to a much
larger voltage.
 Transresistance Operational Amplifier
▪ Another useful application of an inverting amplifier is that of a “transresistance
amplifier” circuit.
▪ A Transresistance Amplifier also known as a “transimpedance amplifier”, is
basically a current-to-voltage converter (Current “in” and Voltage “out”).
▪ They can be used in low-power applications to convert a very small current
generated by a photo-diode or photo-detecting device etc, into a usable output
voltage which is proportional to the input current as shown.

▪ The simple light-activated circuit above, converts a current generated by the photo-
diode into a voltage.
▪ The feedback resistor Rƒ sets the operating voltage point at the inverting input and
controls the amount of output.
▪ The output voltage is given as Vout = - Is x Rƒ. Therefore, the output voltage is
proportional to the amount of input current generated by the photo-diode.
 Non-inverting Operational Amplifier

▪ In the previous Inverting Amplifier tutorial, we said that for an ideal op-amp “No
current flows into the input terminal” of the amplifier and that “V1 always equals
V2”.
▪ This was because the junction of the input and feedback signal (V1) are at the same
potential.
▪ In other words, the junction is a “virtual earth” summing point. Because of this
virtual earth node, the resistors, Rƒ and R2 form a simple potential divider network
across the non-inverting amplifier with the voltage gain of the circuit being
determined by the ratios of R2 and Rƒ.
 Non-inverting Operational Amplifier
▪ Equivalent Potential Divider Network

▪ Non-inverting Operational Amplifier Gain

 Non-inverting Operational Amplifier
▪ Then the closed loop voltage gain of a Non-inverting Operational Amplifier will be
given as:

▪ We can see from the equation above, that the overall closed-loop gain of a non-
inverting amplifier will always be greater but never less than one (unity), it is
positive in nature and is determined by the ratio of the values of Rƒ and R2.
▪ If the value of the feedback resistor Rƒ is zero, the gain of the amplifier will be
exactly equal to one (unity).
▪ If resistor R2 is zero the gain will approach infinity, but in practice it will be limited
to the operational amplifiers open-loop differential gain, ( AO ).
 Voltage follower Operational Amplifier
▪ If we made the feedback resistor, Rƒ equal to zero, (Rƒ = 0), and resistor R2 equal to
infinity, (R2 = ∞), then the resulting circuit would have a fixed gain of “1” (unity) as
all the output voltage is fed back to the inverting input terminal (negative feedback).
▪ This configuration would produce a special type of the non-inverting amplifier
circuit called a Voltage Follower, also known as a “unity gain buffer”.
▪ As the input signal is connected directly to the non-inverting input of the amplifier
the output signal is not inverted resulting in the output voltage being equal to the
input voltage, thus Vout = Vin.
▪ This then makes the voltage follower circuit ideal as a constant voltage source or
voltage regulator because of its input to output isolation properties.
▪ The advantage of the unity gain voltage follower configuration is that it can be used
when impedance matching, or circuit isolation is more important than voltage or
current amplification as it maintains the input signal voltage at its output terminal.
▪ Also, the input impedance of the voltage follower circuit is extremely high, typically
above 1MΩ as it is equal to that of the operational amplifiers input resistance times
its gain ( Rin x AO ).
▪ The op-amps output impedance is very low since an ideal op-amp condition is
assumed so is unaffected by changes in load.
 Voltage follower Operational Amplifier

▪ Since no current flows into the non-inverting input terminal the input impedance is
infinite (ideal conditions) so zero current will flow through the feedback loop. Thus,
any value of resistance may be placed in the feedback loop without affecting the
characteristics of the circuit as no current flows through it so there is zero voltage
drop across it resulting in zero power loss.
▪ As the input impedance is extremely high, the unity gain buffer (voltage follower)
can be used to provide a large power gain as the extra power comes from the op-
amps supply rails and through the op-amps output to the load and not directly from
the input.
▪ However, in most real unity gain buffer circuits there are leakage currents and
parasitic capacitances present, so a low value (typically 1kΩ) resistor is required in
the feedback loop to help reduce the effects of these leakage currents providing
stability especially if the operational amplifier is of a current feedback type.
 Difference Inverting Amplifier Non-Inverting Amplifier
Generates an amplified output signal that is 180° Generates an amplified output signal that is in
Definition out of phase with the input signal is called an phase with the applied input signal is called a non-
inverting amplifier. inverting operational amplifier.
The input signal is applied at the negative terminal The input signal is applied at the positive (called
Input
of the amplifier. non-inverting) terminal.
The non-inverting amplifier has a phase difference
In the inverting amplifier, there is a phase
Phase difference of 0° between the input and output signals.
difference of 180° between the input signal and
between input & Therefore, the input and output signals are in-
output signal. Hence, the input and output signals
output signals phase with each other in case of a noninverting
are out of phase in case of an inverting amplifier.
amplifier.
The feedback signal (negative terminal) and input
The feedback is provided at the same terminal at
Feedback signal (positive terminal) are connected to
which the input signal is applied.
different terminals.
Ground terminal The positive terminal is connected to the ground. The negative terminal is connected to the ground.
The feedback is connected to ground through a
Feedback ground The feedback is not connected to ground.
resistance (in our case R1).
Av = 1+ (R2/R1), Hence, the gain of the non-
Expression of Av = −R2/R1, Thus, the gain of the inverting
inverting amplifier is the sum of 1 and the ratio of
closed loop gain amplifier is just a ratio of resistances.
resistances.
Gain polarity The polarity of gain is negative. The polarity of gain is positive.
The gain may be less than, more than or equal to
Gain value The gain is always more than 1.
unity 1.
Input impedance The input impedance is equal to R1. The input impedance is extremely high.

In trans-resistance amplifiers, at the output stage in In the circuits that require high input impedance,
Applications the circuits designed with different types of isolation of cascaded circuits, changing gain
sensors, integrator circuits, phase shifter, etc. considerations, voltage followers, etc.
 Summing Amplifier

▪ In this simple summing amplifier circuit, the output voltage, ( Vout ) now becomes
proportional to the sum of the input voltages, V1, V2, V3, etc. Then we can modify
the original equation for the inverting amplifier to take account of these new inputs
thus:
 Summing Amplifier
▪ However, if all the input impedances, ( RIN ) are equal in value, we can simplify the
above equation to give an output voltage of:

▪ We now have an operational amplifier circuit that will amplify each individual input
voltage and produce an output voltage signal that is proportional to the algebraic
“SUM” of the three individual input voltages V1, V2 and V3.
▪ We can also add more inputs if required as each individual input “sees” their
respective resistance, Rin as the only input impedance.
▪ This is because the input signals are effectively isolated from each other by the
“virtual earth” node at the inverting input of the op-amp.
▪ A direct voltage addition can also be obtained when all the resistances are of equal
value and Rƒ is equal to Rin.
▪ Note that when the summing point is connected to the inverting input of the op-amp
the circuit will produce the negative sum of any number of input voltages. Likewise,
when the summing point is connected to the non-inverting input of the op-amp, it
will produce the positive sum of the input voltages.
 Summing Amplifier
▪ A Scaling or Weighted Summing Amplifier can be made if the individual input
resistors are “NOT” equal. Then the equation would have to be modified to:

▪ To make the math’s a little easier, we can rearrange the above formula to make the
feedback resistor Rƒ the subject of the equation giving the output voltage as:

▪ This allows the output voltage to be easily calculated if more input resistors are
connected to the amplifiers inverting input terminal. The input impedance of each
individual channel is the value of their respective input resistors, i.e., R1, R2, R3 …
etc.
 Summing Amplifier
▪ Sometimes we need a summing circuit to just add together two or more voltage
signals without any amplification. By putting all of the resistances of the circuit
above to the same value R, the op-amp will have a voltage gain of unity and an
output voltage equal to the direct sum of all the input voltages as shown:

▪ The Summing Amplifier is a very flexible circuit indeed, enabling us to effectively

“Add” or “Sum” (hence its name) together several individual input signals. If the
inputs resistors, R1, R2, R3 etc, are all equal a “unity gain inverting adder” will be
made. However, if the input resistors are of different values a “scaling summing
amplifier” is produced which will output a weighted sum of the input signals.
Summing Amplifier
 Summing Amplifier
Non-inverting Summing Amplifier

▪ For a 2-input non-inverting summing amplifier the currents flowing into the input
terminals can be defined as:
 Summing Amplifier
Non-inverting Summing Amplifier
▪ If we make the two input resistances equal in value, then R1 = R2 = R.

▪ The standard equation for the voltage gain of a non-inverting summing amplifier circuit is
given as:
 Summing Amplifier
▪ The non-inverting amplifiers closed-loop voltage gain AV is given as: 1 + RA/RB. If
we make this closed-loop voltage gain equal to 2 by making RA = RB, then the
output voltage VO becomes equal to the sum of all the input voltages,

▪ Thus, for a 3-input non-inverting summing amplifier configuration, setting the

closed-loop voltage gain to 3 will make VOUT equal to the sum of the three input
voltages, V1, V2 and V3.
▪ Note also that if the amplifier of the summing circuit is connected as a unity
follower with RA equal to zero and RB equal to infinity, then with no voltage gain the
output voltage VOUT will be exactly equal the average value of all the input voltages.
That is VOUT = (V1 + V2)/2.
High Input Impedance Difference Amplifier

Take R1=R2=0 and R3=R4.

 Op-amp Integrator

▪ As its name implies, the Op-amp Integrator is an operational amplifier circuit that
performs the mathematical operation of Integration, that is we can cause the output
to respond to changes in the input voltage over time as the op-amp integrator
produces an output voltage which is proportional to the integral of the input
voltage.
▪ In other words, the magnitude of the output signal is determined by the length of
time a voltage is present at its input as the current through the feedback loop charges
or discharges the capacitor as the required negative feedback occurs through the
capacitor.
 Op-amp Integrator
▪ When a step voltage, Vin is firstly applied to the input of an integrating amplifier, the
uncharged capacitor C has very little resistance and acts a bit like a short circuit
allowing maximum current to flow via the input resistor Rin .
▪ As potential difference exists between the two plates, No current flows into the
amplifiers input and point X is a virtual earth resulting in zero output.
▪ As the impedance of the capacitor at this point is very low, the gain ratio
of XC/RIN is also very small giving an overall voltage gain of less than one, ( voltage
follower circuit ).
▪ As the feedback capacitor, C begins to charge up due to the influence of the input
voltage, its impedance XC slowly increase in proportion to its rate of charge. The
capacitor charges up at a rate determined by the RC time constant, ( τ ) of the series
RC network.
▪ Negative feedback forces the op-amp to produce an output voltage that maintains a
virtual earth at the op-amp’s inverting input.
▪ Since the capacitor is connected between the op-amp’s inverting input (which is at
virtual ground potential) and the op-amp’s output (which is now negative), the
potential voltage, VC developed across the capacitor slowly increases causing the
charging current to decrease as the impedance of the capacitor increases.
 Op-amp Integrator

▪ This results in the ratio of XC/RIN increasing producing a linearly increasing ramp
output voltage that continues to increase until the capacitor is fully charged.
▪ At this point, the capacitor acts as an open circuit, blocking any more flow of DC
current.
▪ The ratio of feedback capacitor to input resistor ( XC/RIN ) is now infinite resulting
in infinite gain.
▪ The result of this high gain (similar to the op-amps open-loop gain), is that the
output of the amplifier goes into saturation as shown in figure above. (Saturation
occurs when the output voltage of the amplifier swings heavily to one voltage supply
rail or the other with little or no control in between).
 Op-amp Integrator

▪ The rate at which the output voltage increases (the rate of change) is determined by
the value of the resistor and the capacitor, “RC time constant“.
▪ By changing this RC time constant value, either by changing the value of the
Capacitor, C or the Resistor, R, the time in which it takes the output voltage to reach
saturation can also be changed for example.
▪ If we apply a constantly changing input signal such as a square wave to the input of
an Integrator Amplifier, then the capacitor will charge and discharge in response to
changes in the input signal.
▪ This results in the output signal being that of a sawtooth waveform whose output is
affected by the RC time constant of the resistor/capacitor combination because at
higher frequencies, the capacitor has less time to fully charge. This type of circuit is
also known as a Ramp Generator.
 Op-amp Integrator
▪ In an integrator circuit, the output voltage is the integration of the input voltage. The
integrator circuit can be obtained without using active devices like op-amp,
transistors etc. In such a case an integrator is called passive integrator. While an
integrator using an active devices like op-amp is called active integrator.
▪ Ideal Active Op-amp Integrator

▪ The node B is grounded. The node A is also at the ground potential from the concept
of virtual ground i.e. VA = 0 = VB.
▪ As input current of op-amp is zero, the entire current I flowing through R1, also
flows through Cf, as shown in the Fig. 2.29.1.
 Op-amp Integrator

▪ Where Vo (0) is the constant of integration, indicating the initial output Voltage.
 Op-amp Integrator
▪ The equation (2.29.5) shows that the output is - 1/ R1Cf times the integral of input
and R1Cf is called time constant of the integrator. The negative sign indicates that
there is a phase shift of 180° between input and output. The main advantage of such
an active integrator is the large time constant.
▪ By Miller's theorem the effective capacitance between input terminal A and the
ground becomes Cf (1-Av ) where Av is the gain of the op-amp which is very large.
Due to such large effective capacitance, time constant is very large and thus a
perfect integration results due to such circuit.

▪ Sometimes a resistance Rcomp = R1 is connected to the non-inverting terminal to

provide the bias compensation. As the input current of op-amp is zero, the node B is
still can be treated at ground potential in this circuit.
 Op-amp Integrator
Input and Output Waveforms
▪ Let us see the output waveforms, for various input signals. For simplicity of
understanding, assume that the time constant R1Cf = 1 and the initial voltage Vo (0)
= 0V
i) Step input signal
▪ Let the input waveform is of step type, with a magnitude of A units as shown in the
Fig. 2.29.3

▪ Mathematically the step input can be expressed as,

Vin (t) = A for t ≥ 0
= 0 for t ≤ 0
 Op-amp Integrator
Input and Output Waveforms
▪ From equation (2.29.5), with R1Cf = 1 and Vo(0) = 0, We can write,

▪ Thus, output waveform is a straight line

with a slope of –A.
▪ Where A is magnitude of the step input.
▪ The output waveform is shown in the Fig.
2.29.4.
 Op-amp Integrator
Input and Output Waveforms
ii) Square wave input signal

▪ It can be observed that the square wave is

made up of steps i.e. a step of A between time
period of 0 to T/2 while a step of - A units
between a time period of T/2 to T and so on.

▪ Mathematically it can be expressed as,

Vin(t) = A, 0 < t < T/2 …………….….(2.29.8)
= -A, T/2 < t < T
▪ The output for step input is a straight line with a slope of -A. So, for the period 0 to
T/2 output will be straight line with slope - A. From t = T/2 till t = T, the slope of the
straight line will become - (-A) i.e. + A.
 Op-amp Integrator
Input and Output Waveforms
ii) Square wave input signal
▪ So, the output can be expressed Fig. 2.29.6 Output waveform for square wave input
mathematically for one period as,
Vo(t) = - A t 0 < t < T/2
= + A t T/2 < t < T ……………. (2.29.9)
▪ The output waveform is shown in the Fig. 2.29.6.
 Op-amp Integrator
Input and Output Waveforms
iii) Sine wave input signal
▪ Let the input waveform is purely sinusoidal with an angular frequency of ω rad/sec.
Mathematically it can be expressed as,
▪ Vin (t) = Vm Sin ω t ........................... (2.29.10)
▪ Where Vm is the amplitude of the sine wave and T be the period of the waveform.
▪ To find the output waveform, use the equation (2.29.5) with R1Cf = 1 and Vo(0) =
0V.
 Op-amp Integrator
Input and Output Waveforms
iii) Sine wave input signal
▪ Thus, The output of an integrator is a cosine waveform for an input. Due to inverting
integrator, the output waveform is as shown in the Fig. 2.29.7.
 Op-amp Integrator
Errors in an Ideal Integrator
▪ The operation amplifier has input offset voltage (Vios) and the input bias current (Ib)- In the
absence of input voltage or at zero frequency (d.c.), op-amp gain is very high. The input
offset voltage gets amplified and appears at the output as an error voltage.
▪ The bias current also results in a capacitor charging current and adds its effect in an output
error voltage.
▪ The two components, due to high d.c. gain of op-amp cause output to ramp up or down,
depending upon the polarities of offset voltage and/or bias current. After some time, output of
op-amp may achieve its saturation level.
▪ Thus, the output of an ideal integrator in the absence of input signal is likely to be offset
towards the positive or negative saturation levels.
▪ Thus, it is not possible to get a true integration of the input signal at the output. Output
waveform may be distorted due to such an error voltage.
▪ Another limitation of an ideal integrator is its bandwidth, which is very small. Hence an
ideal integrator can be used for a very small frequency range of the input only.
▪ Due to all these limitations, an ideal integrator is not used in practice. Some additional
components are used along with the basic integrator circuit to reduce the effect of an error
voltage, in practice. Such an integrator is called Practical Integrator Circuit.
 Op-amp Integrator
Practical Integrator
▪ The limitations of an ideal integrator can be minimized in the practical integrator
circuit, which uses a resistance Rf in parallel with the capacitor Cf.
▪ The practical integrator circuit is shown in the Fig. 2.29.8.

Rf

▪ The resistance Rcomp is also used to overcome the errors due to the bias current.
▪ The resistance Rf reduces the low frequency gain of the op-amp.
As, VA & VB= 0.
 Op-amp Integrator
Practical Integrator
▪ When Rf is very large then R1/Rf can be neglected and hence circuit behaves like an
ideal integrator as,
 Op-amp Integrator
Frequency Response of Practical Integrator
▪ To determine the frequency response, let us obtain the expression for the gain of the
practical integrator in terms of the frequency. From the equation (2.29.18) we can
write,
 Op-amp Integrator
Frequency Response of Practical Integrator
▪ fa is the break frequency or the corner frequency of the practical integrator.
▪ Thus, in the frequency response, d.c. gain remains constant for all frequencies less
than fa and from the frequency fa onwards, as frequency increases, gain reduces at a
rate of 20 dB/decade.
▪ The magnitude of the gain A is,
 Op-amp Integrator
Frequency Response of Practical Integrator
▪ Thus, an infinite d.c. gain of op-amp in case of an ideal integrator, gets limited to
Rf /R1 in the practical integrator.
▪ Similarly at f = f a we get,

▪ Thus, the magnitude of gain drops by 3 dB at the frequency f = fa which is the break
frequency.
▪ Now for the integration, the frequency response must be straight line of slope -20
dB/decade, which is possible for the frequencies greater than fa and less than fb.
▪ Thus in between these frequencies practical integrator acts as an integrator. Below fa,
integration does not take place. The frequency response is shown in the Fig. 2.29.9
 Op-amp Integrator
Frequency Response of Practical Integrator

Key Point It can be seen from the frequency response that the bandwidth of practical integrator
is fa which is much higher than an ideal integrator.
 Op-amp Integrator
Frequency Response of Practical Integrator

▪ B.W. of Practical Integrator = fa

▪ For any input bias current or current due to offset voltage, the path of current is
through Rf rather than through the capacitor Cf.
▪ Thus, the output voltage is decided by the resistance ratio (Rf/ R1) which is typically
selected as ≥ 10.
▪ For (Rf/ R1) of 10, the frequency fa becomes (fb/10), this ensures the true integration
of the input signal.
▪ For proper integration, the time period T of the input signal has to be larger than or
equal to RfCf. So,
T ≥ RfCf
where RfCf = 1 / 2π fa
▪ The practical integrator circuit is also called lossy integrator as it behaves as
integrator only over the upper frequency range.
 Op-amp Integrator
Applications of Practical Integrator
The integrator circuits are most commonly used in the following applications :
▪ In the analog computers,
▪ In solving the differential equations,
▪ In analog to digital converters.
▪ Various signal wave shaping circuits,
▪ In ramp generators.
 Op-amp Integrator
Design a practical integrator circuit with a d.c. gain of 10, to integrate a square wave of
10 kHz.
Solution : The d.c. gain for the practical integrator is |A| d.c. = Rf / R1 i.e. 10 = Rf / R1
▪ The input frequency is f = 10 kHz.
▪ Now for the proper integration f ≥ 10 fa where fa is the break frequency of the
practical integrator.
 Op-amp Integrator
Design a practical integrator circuit with a d.c. gain of 10, to integrate a square wave of
10 kHz.
 Op-amp Integrator
Design a practical integrator circuit with a d.c. gain of 10, to integrate a square wave of
10 kHz.
 Op-amp Differentiator
Ideal Active Op-amp Differentiator

▪ The active differentiator circuit can be obtained by exchanging the positions of R

and C in the basic active integrator circuit.
▪ The node B is grounded. The node A is also at the ground potential hence VA = 0.
▪ As input current of op-amp is zero, entire current I flows through the resistance Rf.
 Op-amp Differentiator
Ideal Active Op-amp Differentiator
▪ From the input side we can write,

▪ Equation 2.30.4 shows that the output is C1Rf times the differentiation of the input
and product C1Rf is called time constant of the differentiator.
▪ The negative sign indicates that there is a phase shift of 180° between input and
output. The main advantage of such an active differentiator is the small time
constant required for differentiation.
 Op-amp Differentiator
Ideal Active Op-amp Differentiator
▪ By Miller's theorem, the effective resistance between input node A and ground
becomes Rf / 1 + Av ≈ Rf / Av where Av is the gain of the op-amp which is very large.
Hence effective Rf becomes very small and hence the condition Rf C1 << T gets
satisfied at all the frequencies.
▪ In practice a resistance Rcomp = Rf is connected to the non-inverting terminal to
provide the bias compensation. This is shown in the Fig. 2.30.2.
 Op-amp Differentiator
Input and Output Waveforms
▪ For simplicity of understanding, assume that the values of Rf and C1 are selected to
have time constant (RfC1) as unity.
i) Step input signal
▪ Let the input waveform is of step type with a magnitude of A units. Mathematically
it is expressed as,
Vin (t) = A for t ≥ 0 ………...... (2.30.5)
▪ Now mathematically, the output of the differentiator must be,
Vo (t) = - dVin / dt = - d(A) / dt = 0 …………….. (2.30.6)
▪ This is because A is constant.
▪ Actually, the step input takes a finite time to rise from 0 to A volts.
▪ Due to this finite time, the differentiator output is not zero but appears in the form of
a spike at t = 0.
▪ As the circuit acts as an inverting differentiator, the negative going spike or impulse
appears at t = 0 and after that output remains zero.
 Op-amp Differentiator
Input and Output Waveforms
▪ Both input and output waveforms of the differentiator with a step input, are shown
in the Fig. 2.30.3.
 Op-amp Differentiator
Input and Output Waveforms
ii) Square wave input signal
▪ Input and output for square wave input
▪ The square wave is made of steps i.e. step of A volts from t = 0 to t = T/2, while a
step of -A volts from t = T/2tot = T and so on.
▪ Mathematically it can be expressed as,
Vin (t) = A 0 < t < T/2
= - A T/2 < t < T ……………...… (2.30.7)
▪ The differentiator behaves similar to its behaviour to step input.
▪ For positive going impulse, the output shows negative going impulse and for
negative going input, the output shows positive going impulse.
▪ Hence the total output for the square wave input is in the form of train of impulses
or spikes.
 Op-amp Differentiator
Input and Output Waveforms
▪ The input and output waveforms are shown in the Fig. 2.30.4
 Op-amp Differentiator
Input and Output Waveforms
iii) Sine wave input
▪ Let the input waveform be purely
▪ sinusoidal with a frequency of ω rad/sec. Mathematically it can be expressed as,
Vin(t) = Vm sin ωt ………….…. (2.30.8)
▪ Where Vm is the amplitude of the sine wave and T is the period of the waveform.
Let us find out the expression for the output.

… and so on.
Op-amp Differentiator
▪ Thus, the output of the differentiator is a
cosine waveform, for a sine wave input. The
input and output waveform is shown in the
Fig. 2.30.5.
 Op-amp Differentiator
Disadvantages of an Ideal Differentiator

▪ The gain of the differentiator increases as frequency increases.

▪ Thus, at some high frequency, the differentiator may become unstable and break into
the oscillations. There is possibility that op-amp may go into the saturation.
▪ Also, the input impedance Xc1= (1 /2π f C1) decreases as frequency increases. This
makes the circuit very much sensitive to the noise.
▪ Thus, when such noise gets amplified due to high gain at high frequency, noise may
completely override the differentiated output.
▪ Hence the differentiator circuit suffers from the limitations on its stability and noise
problems, at high frequencies.
▪ These problems can be corrected using some additional parameters in the basic
differentiator circuit. Such a differentiator circuit is called Practical Differentiator.
 Op-amp Differentiator
Practical Differentiator

▪ The noise and stability at high frequency can be corrected, in the practical
differentiator circuit using the resistance R1 in series with C1 and the capacitor Cf in
parallel with resistance Rf.
▪ The circuit is shown in the Fig. 2.30.6. The resistance Rcomp is used for bias
compensation.
 Op-amp Differentiator
The Analysis of the Practical Differentiator
▪ As the input current of op-amp is zero, there is no current input at node B. Hence it
is at the ground potential. From the concept of the virtual ground, node A is also at
the ground potential and hence VB = VA = 0 V.
▪ For the current I, we can write
I = Vin -VA / Z1 = Vin / Z1 …………….. (2.30.10)
Where Z1 = R1 in series with C1
▪ So, in Laplace domain we can write,
 Op-amp Differentiator
The Analysis of the Practical Differentiator

f
 Op-amp Differentiator
The Analysis of the Practical Differentiator
▪ The time constant RfC1 is much greater than R1C1 or Rf Cf and hence the equation
(2.30.20) reduces to,

▪ Thus, the output voltage is the Rf C1 times the differentiation of the input.
▪ It may be noted that though Rf C1 is much larger than Rf Cf or R1 C1 it is less than or
equal to the time period T of the input, for the true differentiation.
▪ Rf C1 ≤ T …………………... (2.30.22)
 Op-amp Differentiator
Frequency Response of Practical Differentiator
▪ To determine the frequency response, let us obtain the expression for the gain of the
practical differentiator in terms of the frequency.
▪ From the equation (2.30.20) we can write,
 Op-amp Differentiator
Frequency Response of Practical Differentiator

▪ Now as RfC1 is much larger than R1C1 we can write, fa < fb …………….... (2.30.29)
▪ Hence as frequency increases, the gain increases till f = fb at a rate of +20
dB/decade. However, after f = fb the gain decreases at a rate of 20 dB/decade. This
40 dB/decade change at f = fb occurs due to the combination of R1C1 and Rf Cf.
 Op-amp Differentiator
Frequency Response of Practical Differentiator
▪ So, for RfC1 << T, the true
differentiation results.
▪ Also, the combination of R1C1
and RfCf help to reduce
effectively the impact of high
frequency noise and offsets.
▪ It is important to remember that
if fc is the Unity Gain
Bandwidth (UGB) then the
values of fa and fb must be
selected in such a way that,
▪ fa < fb < fc ……….. (2.30.30)
▪ Key Point It can be observed from the ▪ where fc is UGB of op-amp in
frequency response that the gain reduces as the open loop configuration.
frequency increases greater than fb- Hence
the problem of instability at high frequency
gets eliminated.
 Op-amp Differentiator
Steps to Design Practical Differentiator
By using following steps, a good practical differentiator can be designed :

i) Choose fa as the highest frequency of the input signal.

ii) Choose C1 to be less than 1 µF and calculate the value of Rf.

iii) Choose fb as 10 times fa which ensures that fa < fb

iv) Finally calculate the values of R1 and Cf from the expression R1C1 = RfCf.

v) The Rcomp can be selected as R1 || Rf but practically it is almost equal to R1.

Example : Design a practical differentiator circuit that will differentiate an input signal with the
fmax = 100 Hz.
Op-amp Differentiator
 Op-amp Differentiator
Steps to Design Practical Differentiator

Applications of Practical Differentiator

i) In the wave shaping circuits to detect the high frequency components in the input
signal.
ii) As a rate-of-change detector in the FM demodulators.
The differentiator circuit is avoided in the analog computers.
“Knowledge can only be got in one
way, the way of experience; there is
no other way to know.”
- Swami Vivekananda

Thank you…