Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of Employment and Training

Course : TNPSC Combined Civil Services Examination - IV(Group IV / VAO)

Subject : Zoology
Topic : Animals, plants and human life

© Copyright

The Department of Employment and Training has prepared the TNPSC Combined Civil Services
Examination - IV (Group-IV / VAO) study material in the form of e-Content for the benefit of
Competitive Exam aspirants and it is being uploaded in this Virtual Learning Portal. This e-Content study
material is the sole property of the Department of Employment and Training. No one (either an individual
or an institution) is allowed to make copy or reproduce the matter in any form. The trespassers will be
prosecuted under the Indian Copyright Act.

It is a cost-free service provided to the job seekers who are preparing for Competitive Exams.

Commissioner,
Department of Employment and Training.

1
 Animals, plants and human life

Origin Of Life on Earth

 The universe is very old – almost 13 billion years old. Huge clusters of galaxies comprise
the universe.
 The Big Bang theory attempts to explain to us the origin of universe. It talks of a singular
huge explosion unimaginable in physical terms.
 The universe expanded and hence, the temperature came down. Hydrogen and Helium
formed sometime later.
 The gases condensed under gravitation and formed the galaxies of the present day
universe.
 In the solar system of the milky way galaxy, earth was supposed to have been formed
about 5 billion years back.
 There was no atmosphere on early earth. Methane, carbondioxide and ammonia released
from molten mass covered the surface.
 The UV rays from the sun brokeup water into Hydrogen and Oxygen and the lighter H2
escaped. Oxygen combined with ammonia and methane to form water, CO2 and others.
 The ozone layer was formed. As earth cooled, the water vapor fell as rain, to fill all the
depressions and form oceans.
 Life appeared 500 million years after the formation of earth, i.e., almost four billion years
back. Some scientists believe that the life came from outerspace.
 The first non-cellular forms of life could have originated 3 billion years back. They would
have been giant molecules (RNA, Protein, Polysaccharides, etc.). These capsules
reproduced their molecules perhaps.
 The first cellular form of life did not possibly originate till about 2000 million years ago.
These were probably single-cells. All life forms were in water environment only.
2
  The version of a biogenesis, i.e., the first form of life arose slowly through evolutionary
forces from non-living molecules is accepted by majority.
 However, once formed, how the first cellular forms of life could have evolved into the
complex biodiversity of today is the fascinating story that will be discussed below.

Evolution of Life on Earth

 Evolutionary Biology is the study of history of life forms on earth.

 Homology indicates common ancestry. In the context of biology, homology is the
existence of shared ancestry between a pair of structures, or genes, in different species.
 A common example of homologous structures in evolutionary biology are the wings of bats
and the arms of primates.
 Homology is based on divergent evolution whereas Analogy refers to a situation exactly
opposite [convergent evolution].
 Wings of butterfly and of birds look alike. They are not anatomically similar structures
though they perform similar functions.
 Hence, analogous structures are a result of convergent evolution – different structures
evolving for the same function and hence having similarity.
 Other examples of analogy are the eye of the octopus and of mammals or the flippers of
Penguins and Dolphins.
 One can say that it is the similar habitat that has resulted in selection of similar adaptive
features in different groups of organisms but toward the same function: Sweet potato
(root modification) and potato (stem modification) is another example for analogy.

Q1. Which one of the following is a modified stem? [1996]

a. Carrot
b. Sweet potato
c. Coconut
d. Potato

Carrot → Modified root

3
Coconut → Modified seed

Adaptive Radiation

 During his journey, Charles Darwin went to Galapagos Islands. There he observed an
amazing diversity of creatures.
 Of particular interest, small black birds later called Darwin‟s Finches amazed him.
 He realized that there were many varieties of finches in the same island. All the varieties,
he conjectured, evolved on the island itself.
 From the original seed-eating features, many other forms with altered beaks arose,
enabling them to become insectivorous and vegetarian finches. This process of evolution
of different species in a given geographical area starting from a point and literally radiating
to other areas of geography (habitats) is called adaptive radiation.

Biological evolution

 The essence of Darwinian theory about evolution is natural selection. The rate of
appearance of new forms is linked to the life cycle or the life span.
 Microbes that divide fast have the ability to multiply and become millions of individuals
within hours.
 A colony of bacteria (say A) growing on a given medium has built- in variation in terms of
ability to utilise a feed component.
 A change in the medium composition would bring out only that part of the population (say
B) that can survive under the new conditions.
 In due course of time this variant population outgrows the others and appears as new
species. This would happen within days.
 For the same thing to happen in a fish or fowl would take million of years as life spans of
these animals are in years.
 Hence, there must be a genetic basis for getting selected and to evolve.
 Another way of saying the same thing is that some organisms are better adapted to
survive in an otherwise hostile environment. Adaptive ability is inherited. It has a genetic
basis. Fitness is the end result of the ability to adapt and get selected by nature.

4
A Brief Account of Evolution

 About 2000 million years ago (mya) the first cellular forms of life appeared on earth.
 The mechanism of how non-cellular aggregates of giant macromolecules could evolve
into cells with membranous envelop is not known.
 Some of these cells had the ability to release O2. The reaction could have been similar to
the light reaction in photosynthesis where water is split with the help of solar energy
captured and channelized by appropriate light harvesting pigments.
 Slowly single-celled organisms became multi-cellular life forms. By the time of 500
mya, invertebrates were formed and active. Jawless fish probably evolved around 350
mya. Sea weeds and few plants existed probably around 320 mya.
 We are told that the first organisms that invaded land were plants. They were widespread
on land when animals invaded land.
 Fish with stout and strong fins could move on land and go back to water. This was about
350 mya. These animals called lobefins evolved into the first amphibians that lived on
both land and water. These were ancestors of modern day frogs and salamanders.
 The amphibians evolved into reptiles. They lay thick-shelled eggs which do not dry up in
sun unlike those of amphibians. Again we only see their modern day descendents, the
turtles, tortoises and crocodiles.
 In the next 200 million years or so, reptiles of different shapes and sizes dominated on
earth. Giant ferns (pteridophytes) were present along with reptiles but they all fell to form
coal deposits slowly.
 Some of these land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish like reptiles probably
200 mya (e.g. Ichthyosaurs).
 The land reptiles were, of course, the dinosaurs. The biggest of
them were Tyrannosaurus and Ultrasaurus.
 About 65 mya, the dinosaurs suddenly disappeared from the earth. We do not know the
true reason. Some say climatic changes killed them. Some say most of them evolved into
birds. The truth may live in between. Small sized reptiles of that era still exist today.
 The first mammals were like shrews. Their fossils are small sized. Mammals
were viviparous and protected their unborn young inside the mother‟s body.
 Mammals were more intelligent in sensing and avoiding danger at least. When reptiles
came down mammals took over this earth. T
5
  here were in South America mammals resembling horse, hippopotamus, bear, rabbit, etc.
Due to continental drift, when South America joined North America, these animals were
overridden by North American fauna. Due to the same continental drift pouched mammals
of Australia survived because of lack of competition from any other mammal.

Q2. With reference to the evolution of living organisms, which one of the following
sequences is correct? [2009]

a. Octopus-Dolphin-Shark
b. Pangolin-Tortoise-Hawk
c. Salamander-Python-Kangaroo
d. Frog-Crab-Prawn

Answer: Evolution == Single cellular → Multicellular → Fishes → Amphibians → Reptiles →

Birds → Mammals.

 Octopus (Mollusc) – Dolphins and Whales (Mammals) – Shark (Fish)

 Pangolin (Mammal – always in news as it is an endangered one – its meat is consumed in
some South-East Asian countries) – Tortoise (Reptile) – Hawk (Bird)
 Salamander (Amphibian) – Python (Reptile) – Kangaroo (Mammal)
 Frog (Amphibian) – Crab (Crustaceans) – Prawn (Crustaceans)

6
Picture Credits: Wikipedia

7
8
Origin and Evolution of Man

 About 15 mya, primates called Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus were existing. They
were hairy and walked like gorillas and chimpanzees. Ramapithecus was more man-like
while Dryopithecus was more ape-like.
 Few fossils of man-like bones have been discovered in Ethiopia and Tanzania. These
revealed hominid features leading to the belief that about 3-4 mya, man-like primates
walked in eastern Africa. They were probably not taller than 4 feet but walked up right.
 Two mya, Australopithecines probably lived in East African grasslands. Evidence shows
they hunted with stone weapons but essentially ate fruit.
9
  Some of the bones among the bones discovered were different. This creature was called
the first human-like being the hominid and was called Homo habilis. The brain capacities
were between 650-800cc. They probably did not eat meat.
 Fossils discovered in Java in 1891 revealed the next stage, i.e., Homo erectus about 1.5
mya. Homo erectus had a large brain around 900cc. Homo erectus probably ate meat.
 The Neanderthal man with a brain size of 1400cc lived in near east and central Asia
between 1,00,000-40,000 years back. They used hides to protect their body and buried
their dead.
 Homo sapiens arose in Africa and moved across continents and developed into distinct
races. During ice age between 75,000-10,000 years ago modern Homo sapiens arose.
 Pre-historic cave art developed about 18,000 years ago. Agriculture came around 10,000
years back and human settlements started. The rest of what happened is part of human
history of growth and decline of civilisations.

Biodiversity

 Classification of life forms will be closely related to their evolution. Charles Darwin first
described this idea of evolution in 1859 in his book, The Origin of Species.
 The number of species that are known and described range between 1.7-1.8 million.
Rough estimates state that there are about ten million species on the planet. This refers
to biodiversity or the number and types of organisms present on earth.
 The warm and humid tropical regions of the earth, between the tropic of cancer and the
tropic of capricorn, are rich in diversity of plant and animal life. This is called the region
of megadiversity.
 Of the biodiversity of the planet, more than half is concentrated in a few countries within
tropics.

In alphabetical order, the 17 megadiverse countries are:

1. Australia
2. Brazil
3. China
4. Colombia

10
 5. Democratic Republic of the Congo
6. Ecuador
7. India
8. Indonesia
9. Madagascar
10. Malaysia
11. Mexico
12. Papua New Guinea
13. Peru
14. Philippines
15. South Africa
16. United States
17. Venezuela

Picture credits: Environment.gov.au

Classification of Biodiversity

 There is a need to standardize the naming of living organisms such that a particular
organism is known by the same name all over the world. This process is
called nomenclature.
 Obviously, nomenclature or naming is only possible when the organism is described
correctly and we know to what organism the name is attached to. This is identification.

11
 For plants, scientific names are based on agreed principles and criteria, which are
provided in International Code for Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).
 Animal taxonomists have evolved International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN).
The scientific names ensure that each organism has only one name.
 Biologists follow universally accepted principles to provide scientific names to known
organisms. Each name has two components – the Generic name and the specific
epithet.
 This system of providing a name with two components is called Binomial nomenclature.
This naming system given by Carolus Linnaeus is being practised by biologists all over
the world.
 The scientific name of mango is written as Mangifera indica. In this name Mangifera
represents the genus while indica, is a particular species, or a specific epithet. Other
universal rules of nomenclature are as follows:
 Biological names are generally in Latin and written in italics. They are Latinised or derived
from Latin irrespective of their origin.
 The first word in a biological name represents the genus while the second component
denotes the specific epithet.
 Both the words in a biological name, when handwritten, are separately underlined, or
printed in italics to indicate their Latin origin.
 The first word denoting the genus starts with a capital letter while the specific epithet starts
with a small letter. it can be illustrated with the example of Mangifera indica.
 Name of the author appears after the specific epithet, i.e., at the end of the biological
name and is written in an abbreviated form, e.g., Mangifera indica Linn. It indicates that
this species was first described by Linnaeus.
 Since it is nearly impossible to study all the living organisms, it is necessary to devise
some means to make this possible. This process is classification.
 Classification is the process by which anything is grouped into convenient categories
based on some easily observable characters.
 The scientific term for these categories is taxa. Here you must recognise that taxa can
indicate categories at very different levels. „Plants‟ – also form a taxa. „Wheat‟ is also a
taxa. Similarly, „animals‟, „mammals‟, „dogs‟ are all taxa – but you know that a dog is a
mammal and mammals are animals. Therefore, „animals‟, „mammals‟ and „dogs‟ represent
taxa at different levels.
12
  Hence, based on characteristics, all living organisms can be classified into different taxa.
This process of classification is taxonomy.
 External and internal structure, along with the structure of cell, process and ecological
information of organisms are essential and form the basis of modern taxonomic studies.
 Hence, characterisation, identification, classification and nomenclature are the
processes that are basic to taxonomy.
 Human beings were, since long, not only interested in knowing more about different kinds
of organisms and their diversities, but also the relationships among them. This branch of
study was referred to as systematics.
 The word systematics is derived from the Latin word „systema‟ which means systematic
arrangement of organisms. Linnaeus used Systema Naturae as the title of his publication.
 The scope of systematics was later enlarged to include identification, nomenclature and
classification.
 Systematics takes into account evolutionary relationships between organisms.

Taxonomic Categories

 Classification is not a single step process but involves hierarchy of steps in which each
step represents a rank or category.
 Since the category is a part of overall taxonomic arrangement, it is called the taxonomic
category and all categories together constitute the taxonomic hierarchy.

13
Species

 Taxonomic studies consider a group of individual organisms with fundamental

similarities as a species.
 Let us consider Mangifera indica, Solanum tuberosum (potato) and Panthera leo (lion). All
the three names, indica, tuberosum and leo, represent the specific epithets, while the first
words Mangifera, Solanum and Panthera are genera and represents another higher level
of taxon or category.
 Each genus may have one or more than one specific epithets representing different
organisms, but having morphological similarities. For example, Panthera has another
specific epithet called tigris (Panthera tigris) and Solanum includes species like nigrum and
melongena.
 Human beings belong to the species sapiens which is grouped in the genus Homo. The
scientific name thus, for human being, is written as Homo sapiens.

14
Genus

 Genus comprises a group of related species which has more characters in common in
comparison to species of other genera.
 We can say that genera are aggregates of closely related species. For example, potato
and brinjal are two different species but both belong to the genus Solanum.
 Lion (Panthera leo), leopard ( pardus) and tiger (P. tigris) with several common features,
are all species of the genus Panthera. This genus differs from another genus Felis which
includes cats.

Family

 The next category, Family, has a group of related genera with still less number of
similarities as compared to genus and species.
 Families are characterised on the basis of both vegetative and reproductive features of
plant species.
 Among animals for example, genus Panthera, comprising lion, tiger, leopard is put along
with genus, Felis (cats) in the family
 Similarly, if you observe the features of a cat and a dog, you will find some similarities and
some differences as well. They are separated into two different families – Felidae and
Canidae, respectively.

Order

 You have seen earlier that categories like species, genus and families are based on a
number of similar characters. Generally, order and other higher taxonomic categories are
identified based on the aggregates of characters.

Class

 This category includes related orders.

Phylum

15
  Classes comprising animals like fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds along with mammals
constitute the next higher category called Phylum.

Kingdom

 All animals belonging to various phyla are assigned to the highest category called
Kingdom Animalia in the classification system of animals.
 The Kingdom Plantae, on the other hand, is distinct, and comprises all plants from various
divisions. Henceforth, we will refer to these two groups as animal and plant kingdoms.

Taxonomical Aids

Herbarium

 Herbarium is a store house of collected plant specimens that are dried, pressed and
preserved on sheets. Further, these sheets are arranged according to a universally
accepted system of classification.
 The herbarium sheets also carry a label providing information about date and place of
collection, English, local and botanical names, family, collector‟s name, etc.
 Herbaria also serve as quick referral systems in taxonomical studies.

Botanical Gardens

 These specialized gardens have collections of living plants for reference.

 The famous botanical gardens are at Kew (England), Indian Botanical Garden, Howrah
(India) and at National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow (India).

Museum

 Museums have collections of preserved plant and animal specimens for study and
reference. Specimens are preserved in the containers or jars in preservative solutions.

Zoological Parks

16
  These are the places where wild animals are kept in protected environments under human
care and which enable us to learn about their food habits and behavior.

Key

 Key is used for identification of plants and animals based on the similarities and
dissimilarities.
 The keys are based on the contrasting characters generally in a pair called couplet.
 Flora, manuals, monographs and catalogues are some other means of recording
descriptions.

Biological Classification

 In Linnaeus‟ time a Two Kingdom system of classification

with Plantae and Animalia kingdoms was developed.
 This system did not distinguish between the eukaryotes and prokaryotes, unicellular
and multicellular organismsand photosynthetic (green algae) and non-
photosynthetic (fungi)
 Classification of organisms into plants and animals was easily done and was easy to
understand, but, a large number of organisms did not fall into either category. Hence the
two kingdom classification used for a long time was found inadequate.
 Biologists, such as Ernst Haeckel (1894), Robert Whittaker (1959) and Carl Woese (1977)
have tried to classify all living organisms into broad categories, called kingdoms.
 The classification Whittaker proposed has five kingdoms and is widely used:

1. Monera,
2. Protista,
3. Fungi,
4. Plantae and
5. Animalia

17
  The main criteria for classification used by him include cell structure, thallus organisation,
mode of nutrition, reproduction etc.
 It brought together the prokaryotic bacteria and the blue green algae with other groups
which were eukaryotic.
 It also grouped together the unicellular organisms and the multicellular ones.
 The classification did not differentiate between the heterotrophic group – fungi, and the
autotrophic green plants, though they also showed a characteristic difference in their walls
composition – the fungi had chitin in their walls while the green plants had
a cellulosic cell wall.
 When such characteristics were considered, the fungi were placed in a separate kingdom
– Kingdom Fungi.
 All prokaryotic organisms were grouped together under Kingdom Monera and
the unicellular eukaryotic organisms were placed in Kingdom Protista.
 Kingdom Protista has brought together Chlamydomonas, Chlorella (earlier placed in Algae
within Plants and both having cell walls) with Paramoecium and Amoeba (which were
earlier placed in the animal kingdom which lack cell wall).

At present the biological classification includes:

18
 1. Kingdom Monera
2. Kingdom Protista
3. Kingdom Fungi
4. Kingdom Plantae
5. Kingdom Animalia
6. Viruses, Viroids and Lichens

 Further classification is done by naming the sub-groups at various levels as given in the
following scheme: KPC OF GS

1. Kingdom,
2. Phylum (For Animals) / Division (For Plants),
3. Class,
4. Order,
5. Family,
6. Genus,
7. Species.

Biological Classification of Plants and Animals

 Biological classification of plants and animals was first proposed by Aristotle on the basis
of simple morphological characters.
 Linnaeus later classified all living organisms into two kingdoms – Plantae and Animalia.
 Whittaker proposed an elaborate five kingdom classification – Monera, Protista, Fungi,
Plantae and Animalia.
 The main criteria of the five kingdom classification were cell structure, body organisation,
mode of nutrition and reproduction, and phylogenetic relationships [evolutionary
development and diversification of a species].

19
At present, the biological classification includes:

1. Kingdom Monera

20
 2. Kingdom Protista
3. Kingdom Fungi
4. Kingdom Plantae
5. Kingdom Animalia
6. Viruses, Viroids and Lichens

 In the five kingdom classification, bacteria are included in Kingdom Monera.

 Kingdom Protista includes all single-celled eukaryotes such as Chrysophytes,
Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime-moulds and Protozoans.
 Members of Kingdom Fungi show a great diversity in structures and habitat. Most fungi are
saprophytic in their mode of nutrition.
 The plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms. Algae, bryophytes,
pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms are included in this group.
 The heterotrophic eukaryotic, multicellular organisms lacking a cell wall are included in the
Kingdom Animalia.
 Some acellular organisms like viruses and viroids as well as the lichens are not included in
the five kingdom system of classification.

Kingdom Monera

 The organisms in this group are

1. prokaryotes == do not have a defined nucleus or organelles {Prokaryotic Cells vs.

Eukaryotic Cells}.
2. unicellular == do any of them show multi-cellular body designs.

 This group includes all Some well-known bacteria include blue-green

algae or cyanobacteria [have cell walls], and mycoplasma [doesn‟t possess a Cell Wall].
 They are the most abundant micro-organisms and live in extreme habitats.
 Some of them have cell walls [bacteria] while some do not [mycoplasma].
 The mode of nutrition of organisms in this group can be either by synthesizing their own
food (autotrophic) or getting it from the environment (heterotrophic). Many of them live in
or on other organisms as parasites.
 Bacteria are grouped under four categories based on their shape
21
 1. the spherical Coccus
2. the rod-shaped Bacillus
3. the comma-shaped Vibrium
4. the spiral Spirillum

 Some of the bacteria are autotrophic, i.e., they synthesise their own food. They may
be photosynthetic autotrophic or chemosynthetic autotrophic (metabolic synthesis of
organic compounds by living organisms using energy derived from reactions involving
inorganic chemicals).

Archaebacteria

 These bacteria are special since they live in some of the most harsh habitats such as
 extreme salty areas (halophiles),
 hot springs (thermoacidophiles) and
 marshy areas (methanogens) {Microbes In Human Welfare | Useful Microbes}.
 Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria in having a different cell wall structure and this
feature is responsible for their survival in extreme conditions.
 Methanogens are present in the gut of several ruminant animals such as cows and
buffaloes and they are responsible for the production of methane (biogas) from the dung
of these animals.

Eubacteria

 There are thousands of different eubacteria or ‘true bacteria’.

 They are characterized by the presence of a rigid cell wall, and if motile, a flagellum.

Photosynthetic bacteria
22
  The cyanobacteria (also referred to as blue-green algae) have chlorophyll a similar to
green plants and are photosynthetic autotrophs.
 The cyanobacteria are unicellular, colonial, filamentous, freshwater/marine or
terrestrial algae. The colonies are generally surrounded by gelatinous sheath.
 They often form blooms [algal blooms] in polluted water bodies.
 Some of these organisms can fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialized cells
called heterocysts, e.g., Nostoc and Anabaena.

Chemosynthetic bacteria

 Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria oxidise various inorganic substances such as

nitrates, nitrites and ammonia and use the released energy for their ATP production.
 They play a great role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, iron and sulphur.

Heterotrophic bacteria

 Heterotrophic bacteria are the most abundant in nature. The majority are
important decomposers.
 Many of them have a significant impact on human affairs. They are helpful in making curd
from milk, production of antibiotics, fixing nitrogen in legume roots, etc {Microbes In
Human Welfare | Useful Microbes}.
 Some are pathogens causing damage to human beings, crops, farm animals and pets.
 Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker are well known diseases caused by different
bacteria {Diseases Caused by Microorganisms, Diseases | Acute, Chronic, Communicable
Diseases}.

Reproduction

 Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission.

 Sometimes, under unfavorable conditions, they produce spores.
 They also reproduce by a sort of sexual reproduction by adopting a primitive type of DNA
transfer from one bacterium to the other.

23
Mycoplasma

 The Mycoplasma are organisms that completely lack a cell wall.

 They are the smallest living cells known and can survive without oxygen.
 Many mycoplasma are pathogenic in animals and plants.

Kingdom Protista

 All single-celled eukaryotes are placed under Protista [Prokaryotic Cells vs. Eukaryotic
Cells].
 Boundaries of this kingdom are not well defined. This kingdom forms a link with the others
dealing with plants, animals and fungi.
 In this group we include Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds and
Protozoans. Examples are unicellular algae, diatoms and protozoans.
 Their mode of nutrition can be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
 Members of Protista are primarily aquatic. Some have flagella or cilia that helps in
movement.
 Protists reproduce asexually and sexually by a process involving cell fusion and zygote
formation.

Chrysophytes

 This group includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids).

 Most of them are photosynthetic. Diatoms are the chief „producers‟ in the oceans.
 They are found in fresh water as well as in marine environments. They are microscopic
and float passively in water currents (plankton).
 In diatoms the cell walls form two thin overlapping shells. The walls are embedded with
silica and thus the walls are indestructible. Thus, diatoms have left behind large amount of
cell wall deposits in their habitat; this accumulation over billions of years is referred to
as ‘diatomaceous earth’. Being gritty this soil is used in polishing, filtration of oils and
syrups.

Dinoflagellates
24
  These organisms are mostly marine and photosynthetic.
 They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red depending on the main pigments present in
their cells.
 The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface.
 Most of them have two flagella; one lies longitudinally and the other transversely in a
furrow between the wall plates.
 Very often, red dinoflagellates (Example: Gonyaulax) undergo such rapid multiplication
that they make the sea appear red (red tides).
 Toxins released by such large numbers may even kill other marine animals such as fishes.

Euglenoids

 Majority of them are fresh water organisms found in stagnant water.

 Instead of a cell wall, they have a protein rich layer called pellicle which makes their body
flexible.
 They have two flagella, a short and a long one.
 Though they are photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight, when deprived of sunlight
they behave like heterotrophs by predating on other smaller organisms.
 Interestingly, the pigments of euglenoids are identical to those present in higher plants.
Example: Euglena.

Slime Moulds

 Slime moulds are saprophytic protists.

 The body moves along decaying twigs and leaves engulfing organic material.
 Under suitable conditions, they form an aggregation called plasmodium which may grow
and spread over several feet.
 During unfavorable conditions, the plasmodium differentiates and forms fruiting bodies
bearing spores at their tips. The spores possess true walls. They are extremely resistant
and survive for many years, even under adverse conditions. The spores are dispersed by
air currents.

Protozoans

25
 All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites. They are believed to
be primitive relatives of animals. There are four major groups of protozoans.

Amoeboid protozoans

 These organisms live in fresh water, sea water or moist soil.

 They move and capture their prey by putting out pseudopodia (false feet) as in Amoeba.
 Marine forms have silica shells on their surface. Some of them such as Entamoeba are
parasites.

Flagellated protozoans

 The members of this group are either free-living or parasitic. They have flagella.
 The parasitic forms cause diseases such as sleeping sickness. Example: Trypanosoma.

Ciliated protozoans

 These are aquatic, actively moving organisms because of the presence of thousands
of cilia.
 They have a cavity (gullet) that opens to the outside of the cell surface. The coordinated
movement of rows of cilia causes the water laden with food to be steered into the gullet.
Example: Paramoecium.

Sporozoans

 This includes diverse organisms that have an infectious spore-like stage in their life cycle.
 The most notorious is Plasmodium (malarial parasite) which causes malaria, a disease
which has a staggering effect on human population {Diseases Caused by
Microorganisms}.

26
Kingdom Fungi

 These are heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms.

 Most fungi are heterotrophic and absorb soluble organic matter from dead substrates and
hence are called saprophytes.
 Those that depend on living plants and animals are called parasites.
 Some fungal species live in permanent mutually dependent relationships with bluegreen
algae (or cyanobacteria). Such relationships are called symbiotic. These symbiobic life
forms are called lichens. They can also live as symbiontsin association with roots of
higher plants as mycorrhiza.
 Fungi + Bluegreen algae (Cyanobacteria) == Lichens. (Prelims 2014)

Q1. Lichens, which are capable of initiating ecological succession even on a bare rock,
are actually a symbiotic association of

a. algae and bacteria

b. algae and fungi
c. bacteria and fungi
d. fungi and mosses

 Reproduction in fungi can take place by vegetative means – fragmentation,

fission and budding.
 Asexual reproduction is by spores called conidia or sporangiospores or zoospores, and
sexual reproduction is by oospores, ascospores and basidiospores.
 The various spores are produced in distinct structures called fruiting bodies. The sexual
cycle involves the following three steps:
27
 1. Fusion of protoplasms between two motile or non-motile gametes called plasmogamy.
2. Fusion of two nuclei called karyogamy.
3. Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores {Meiosis | Mitosis – Meiosis Comparison}.

 When a fungus reproduces sexually, two haploid hyphae of compatible mating types come
together and fuse. In some fungi the fusion of two haploid cells immediately results in
diploid cells (2n).
 However, in other fungi (ascomycetes and basidiomycetes), an intervening dikaryotic
stage (n + n, i.e., two nuclei per cell) occurs; such a condition is called a dikaryon and the
phase is called dikaryophase of fungus. Later, the parental nuclei fuse and the cells
become diploid. The fungi form fruiting bodies in which reduction division occurs, leading
to formation of haploid spores.
 Many of fungi have the capacity to become multicellular organisms at certain stages in
their lives.
 They have cell-walls made of a tough complex sugar called chitin.
 Fungi are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water, soil and on animals and plants.
 They prefer to grow in warm and humid places. With the exception of yeasts which are
unicellular, fungi are filamentous.
 Their bodies consist of long, slender thread-like structures called hyphae. The network of
hyphae is known as mycelium.
 Some hyphae are continuous tubes filled with multinucleated cytoplasm – these are called
coenocytic hyphae.
 Others have septae or cross walls in their hyphae. The cell walls of fungi are composed
of chitin and polysaccharides {Carbohydrates | Monosaccharides | Polysaccharides}.
 When your bread develops a mould or your orange rots it is because of fungi.
 The common mushroom you eat and toadstools are also fungi.
 White spots seen on mustard leaves are due to a parasitic fungus.
 Some unicellular fungi, e.g., yeast are used to make bread and beer.
 Other fungi cause diseases in plants and animals; wheat rust-causing Puccinia is an
important example.
 Some are the source of antibiotics, e.g., Penicillium.

Phycomycetes

28
  Asexual reproduction takes place by zoospores (motile) or by aplanospores (non-motile).
 These spores are endogenously produced in sporangium.
 A zygospore is formed by fusion of two gametes.
 These gametes are similar in morphology (isogamous) or dissimilar (anisogamous or
oogamous).
 Some common examples are Mucor, Rhizopus (the bread mould mentioned earlier)
and Albugo (the parasitic fungi on mustard).

Ascomycetes

 Commonly known as sac-fungi, the as comycetes are mostly multicellular,

e.g., Penicillium, or rarely unicellular, e.g., yeast (Saccharomyces).

Basidiomycetes

 Commonly known forms of basidiomycetes are mushrooms, bracket fungi or puffballs.

 They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living plant bodies as parasites, e.g.,
rusts and smuts.
 The asexual spores are generally not found, but vegetative reproduction
by fragmentation is common.
 The sex organs are absent, but plasmogamy is brought about by fusion of two vegetative
or somatic cells of different strains or genotypes. The resultant structure is dikaryotic.

Deuteromycetes

 Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only the asexual or vegetative phases of
these fungi are known.

Kingdom Plantae

 These are multicellular eukaryotes with cell walls mainly made of cellulose {Plant Cell
vs. Animal Cell}.
 They are autotrophs and use chlorophyll for photosynthesis.

29
  A few members are partially heterotrophic such as the insectivorous
plants or parasites. Bladderwort and Venus fly trap are examples of insectivorous
plants and Cuscuta is a parasite.
 Plantae includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms.
 Life cycle of plants has two distinct phases – the diploid sporophytic and the haploid
gametophytic – that alternate with each other.
 The lengths of the haploid and diploid phases, and whether these phases are free-living or
dependent on others, vary among different groups in plants. This phenomenon is
called alternation of generation.

Kingdom Animalia

 These include all organisms which are multicellular eukaryotes without cell walls. They
are heterotrophs.
 They directly or indirectly depend on plants for food. They digest their food in an internal
cavity and store food reserves as glycogen or fat { Carbohydrates , Fats – Healthy Fats
and Unhealthy Fats}.
 Their mode of nutrition is holozoic – by ingestion of food.
 They follow a definite growth pattern and grow into adults that have a definite shape and
size.
 Higher forms show elaborate sensory and neuromotor mechanism. Most of them are
capable of locomotion.
 The sexual reproduction is by copulation of male and female followed by embryological
development.

Viruses, Viroids and Lichens

 In the five kingdom classification of Whittaker {Biological Classification} there is no mention

of some acellular organisms like viruses and viroids, and lichens. These are briefly
introduced here.
 Viruses did not find a place in classification since they are not truly „living‟, if we
understand living as those organisms that have a cell structure.

30
  The viruses are non-cellular organisms that are characterized by having an inert crystalline
structure outside the living cell.
 Viruses are obligate parasites. Once they infect a cell they take over the machinery of the
host cell to replicate themselves, killing the host.
 The name virus that means venom or poisonous fluid was given by Pasteur.
 In addition to proteins, viruses also contain genetic material, that could be either RNA or
DNA. No virus contains both RNA and DNA.
 In general, viruses that infect plants have single stranded RNA and viruses that infect
animals have either single or double stranded RNA or double stranded DNA.
 Bacterial viruses or bacteriophages (viruses that infect the bacteria) are usually double
stranded DNA viruses
 The protein coat called capsid made of small subunits called capsomeres, protects the
nucleic acid. These capsomeres are arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric forms.
 Viruses cause diseases like mumps, small pox, herpes and influenza. AIDS in humans is
also caused by a virus.
 In plants, the symptoms can be mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and
vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth.

Viroids

 Viroids are infectious agents that are smaller than viruses. A viroid was found to be a free
RNA; it lacked the protein coat that is found in viruses, hence the name viroid. The RNA
of the viroid was of low molecular weight. Viroids caused potato spindle tuber disease.

Lichens

 Lichens are symbiotic associations i.e. mutually useful associations, between algae and
fungi.
 The algal component is known as phycobiont and fungal component as mycobiont, which
are autotrophic and heterotrophic, respectively.
 Algae prepare food for fungi and fungi provide shelter and absorb mineral nutrients and
water for its partner.

31
  So close is their association that if one saw a lichen in nature one would never imagine
that they had two different organisms within them.
 Lichens are very good pollution indicators – they do not grow in polluted areas.

Basis for Animal Kingdom Classification

Classification of Animal Kingdom is based on various fundamental features like –

1. Levels of Organisation,

2. Symmetry,

3. Diploblastic and Triploblastic Organisation,

4. Coelom development,

5. Segmentation of the body and

6. Presense or absence of Notochord.

 The broad classification of Animalia based on common fundamental features:

Levels of Organisation

32
  Though all members of Animalia are multicellular, all of them do not exhibit the same
pattern of organisation of cells.

 For example, in sponges, the cells are arranged as loose cell aggregates, i.e., they
exhibit cellular level of organisation. Some division of labour (activities) occur among
the cells.

 In coelenterates, the arrangement of cells is more complex. Here the cells performing the
same function are arranged into tissues, hence is called tissue level of organisation.

 A still higher level of organisation, i.e., organ level [organ level of organisation] is
exhibited by members of Platyhelminthes and other higher phyla where tissues are
grouped together to form organs, each specialised for a particular function.

 In animals like Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs, Echinoderms and Chordates, organs

have associated to form functional systems, each system concerned with a specific
physiological function. This pattern is called organ system level of organisation.

 Organ systems in different groups of animals exhibit various patterns of complexities.

 For example, the digestive system in Platyhelminthes (incomplete digestive

system) has only a single opening to the outside of the body that serves as both mouth
and anus, and is hence called incomplete. A complete digestive system has two
openings, mouth and anus.

 Similarly, the circulatory system may be of two types: open type in which the blood is
pumped out of the heart and the cells and tissues are directly bathed in it and closed
type in which the blood is circulated through a series of vessels of varying diameters
(arteries, veins and capillaries).

Symmetry

 Animals can be categorised on the basis of their symmetry.

 Sponges are mostly asymmetrical, i.e., any plane that passes through the centre does
not divide them into equal halves.

33
  When any plane passing through the central axis of the body divides the organism into
two identical halves, it is called radial symmetry. Coelenterates, Ctenophores and
Echinoderms have this kind of body plan.

 Animals like Annelids, Arthropods, etc., where the body can be divided into identical left
and right halves in only one plane, exhibit bilateral symmetry.

Diploblastic and Triploblastic Organisation

 Animals in which the cells are arranged in two embryonic layers, an external
ectoderm and an internal endoderm, are called diploblastic animals, e.g.,
Coelenterates. An undifferentiated layer, mesoglea, is present in between the ectoderm
and the endoderm.

 Those animals in which the developing embryo has a third germinal layer, mesoderm, in
between the ectoderm and endoderm, are called triploblastic animals (platyhelminthes
to chordates).

34
Figure: Showing germinal layers : (a) Diploblastic (b) Triploblastic

Coelom

 Presence or absence of a cavity between the body wall and the gut wall is very important
in classification.

 The body cavity, which is lined by mesoderm is called coelom.

 Animals possessing coelom are called coelomates, e.g., Annelids, Molluscs, Arthropods,
Echinoderms, Hemichordates & Chordates.

 In some animals, the body cavity is not lined by mesoderm, instead, the mesoderm is
present as scattered pouches in between the ectoderm and endoderm. Such a body
cavity is called pseudocoelom and the animals possessing them are called
pseudocoelomates, e.g., Aschelminthes.

 The animals in which the body cavity is absent are called acoelomates, e.g.,
Platyhelminthes.

35
Segmentation

 In some animals, the body is externally and internally divided into segments with a serial
repetition of at least some organs.

 For example, in earthworm, the body shows this pattern called metameric
segmentation and the phenomenon is known as metamerism.

Notochord

 Notochord is a mesodermally [the middle layer of cells or tissues of an embryo, or the

parts derived from this (e.g. cartilage, muscles, and bone)] derived rod-like structure
formed on the dorsal side [posterior] during embryonic development in some animals.

 Animals with notochord are called chordates and those animals which do not form this
structure are called non-chordates, e.g., Porifera to Echinoderms.

Classification of Animal Kingdom

Animal Kingdom is classified into:

1. Phylum – Porifera

2. Phylum – Coelenterata (Cnidaria)

36
 3. Phylum – Ctenophora

4. Phylum – Platyhelminthes

5. Phylum – Aschelminthes (Nemotoda) Annelida

6. Phylum – Arthropoda

7. Phylum – Mollusca

8. Phylum – Echinodermata

9. Phylum – Hemichordata

10. Phylum – Chordata

Phylum – Porifera

 Phylum – Porifera includes organisms with holes.

 They are primitive multicellular animals and have cellular level of organisation.

 They are non-motile animals attached to some solid support.

 The body design involves very minimal differentiation and division into tissues.

 They are commonly called sponges.

 They are generally marine and mostly asymmetrical animals.

 Sponges have a water transport or canal system.

 Water enters through minute pores (ostia) in the body wall into a central
cavity, spongocoel, from where it goes out through the osculum.

 This pathway of water transport is helpful in food gathering, respiratory exchange and
removal of waste.

 The body is supported by a skeleton made up of spicules or spongin fibres.

 Sexes are not separate (hermaphrodite), i.e., eggs and sperms are produced by the
same individual.

37
  Sponges reproduce asexually by fragmentation and sexually by formation of gametes.

 Fertilisation is internal and development is indirect having a larval stage which is

morphologically distinct from the adult.

Figure: Examples of Porifera : (a) Sycon (b) Euspongia (c) Spongilla

 Examples: Sycon (Scypha), Spongilla (Fresh water sponge) and Euspongia (Bath
sponge).

Phylum – Coelenterata (Cnidaria)

 The name cnidaria is derived from the cnidoblasts or cnidocytes (which contain
the stinging capsules or nematocytes) present on the tentacles and the body.

 Cnidoblasts are used for anchorage, defense and for the capture of prey.

 Coelenterata (Cnidaria) are aquatic, mostly marine sessile or free-swimming radially

symmetrical

 They exhibit tissue level of organization [have more body design differentiation than
sponges].

 They have a central gastro-vascular cavity with a single opening.

38
  They are diploblastic.

 Some of these species live in colonies (corals).

 Some have a solitary [living alone] like–span (hydra).

 Some of the cnidarians, e.g., corals have a skeleton composed of calcium carbonate.

 Cnidarians exhibit two basic body forms called polyp and medusa. The former is a
sessile and cylindrical form like Hydra, Adamsia (Sea anemone), etc. whereas, the latter
is umbrella-shaped and free-swimming like Aurelia or jelly fish.

 Those cnidarians which exist in both forms exhibit alternation of generation

(Metagenesis), i.e., polyps produce medusae asexually and medusae form the polyps
sexually (e.g., Obelia).

 Jellyfish and sea anemones are common examples.

 Digestion is extracellular and intracellular.

 Examples: Aurelia (jelly fish), Physalia (Portuguese man-of-war), Adamsia (Sea

anemone), Pennatula (Sea-pen), Gorgonia (Sea-fan) and Meandrina (Brain coral).

Phylum – Ctenophora

 Ctenophora are commonly known as sea walnuts or comb jellies.

 They exclusively marine, radially symmetrical, diploblastic

39
  They exhinit tissue level of organisation.

 The body bears eight external rows of ciliated comb plates, which help in locomotion.

 Digestion is both extracellular and intracellular.

 Bioluminescence (the property of a living organism to emit light) is well-marked in

ctenophores.

 Sexes are not separate and reproduction takes place only by sexual means.

 Fertilisation is external [fertilization occurs outside the body] with indirect

development [zygote → larvae → animal].

 Examples: Pleurobrachia and Ctenoplana.

Phylum – Platyhelminthes

 Platyhelminthes are more complexly designed than the earlier groups.

40
 They are bilaterally symmetrical.

 They are triploblastic. This allows outside and inside body linings as well as some
organs to be made. There is thus some degree of tissue formation [organ level of
organisation].

 The body is flattened dorsiventrally, meaning from top to bottom, which is why these
animals are called flatworms.

 They may be freeliving or parasitic. Hooks and suckers are present in the parasitic
forms.

 Some examples are freeliving animals like planarians, or parasitic animals like

 Parisites are mostly endoparasites found in animals including human beings. Some of
them absorb nutrients from the host directly through their body surface.

 Acoelomate: There is no true internal body cavity or coelom, in which well developed
organs can be accommodated.

 Specialised cells called flame cells help in osmoregulation and excretion.

 Sexes are not separate.

 Fertilisation is internal and development is indirect.

 Some members like Planaria possess high regeneration capacity.

41
Phylum – Aschelminthes (Nemotoda)

 Body in aschelminthes (Nemotoda) is cylindrical [bilaterally symmetrical] rather than

flattened.

 They exhibit organ-system level of body organization [there are tissues, but no real
organs].

 They are triploblastic. A sort of body cavity or a pseudocoelom, is present.

 They are freeliving, aquatic, terrestrial or parasitic in plants and animals.

 These are very familiar as parasitic worms causing diseases, such as the worms
causing elephantiasis (filarial worms)or the worms in the intestines (roundworm or
pinworms).

 The body is circular in cross-section, hence, the name roundworms.

 Alimentary canal is complete.

 An excretory tube removes body wastes from the body cavity through the excretory pore.

 Sexes are separate (dioecious), i.e., males and females are distinct.

 Often females are longer than males.

 Fertilisation is internal and development may be direct (the young ones resemble the
adult) or indirect.

42
Phylum – Annelida

 Annelida are aquatic [marine and fresh water] or terrestrial; free-living, and sometimes
parasitic.

 Their body surface is distinctly marked out into segments or metameres [metamerically
segmented] and, hence, the phylum name Annelida (Latin, annulus: little ring).

 They exhibit organ-system level of body organization.

 They are coelomate [true body cavity]. This allows true organs to be packaged in the
body structure.

 They are bilateral symmetric and triploblastic.

 They possess longitudinal and circular muscles which help in locomotion.

 Aquatic annelids like Nereis possess lateral appendages, parapodia, which help in
swimming.

 A closed circulatory system is present.

 Nephridia (sing. nephridium) help in osmoregulation and excretion.

 Neural system consists of paired ganglia (sing. ganglion) connected by lateral nerves to
a double ventral nerve cord.

43
  Nereis, an aquatic form, is dioecious [Sexes are separate],
but earthworms and leeches are monoecious [having both the male and female
reproductive organs in the same individual].

 Reproduction is sexual.

Phylum – Arthropoda

 Insects, arachnids and crustaceans are members of the largest category of creatures
on the planet: arthropods.

 Arthropods have hard, external shells called “exoskeletons,” segmented bodies and
jointed legs.

 Some familiar examples are prawns, butterflies, houseflies, spiders, scorpions and
crabs and some

 They exhibit organ-system level of organisation.

 They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, segmented and coelomate The coelomic
cavity is blood-filled.

44
  The body of arthropods is covered by chitinous The body consists of head, thorax and
abdomen.

 There is an open circulatory system, and so the blood does not flow in well defined
blood vessels.

 Respiratory organs are gills, book gills, book lungs or tracheal system.

 Sensory organs like antennae, eyes (compound and simple), statocysts or balance
organs are present.

 Excretion takes place through malpighian tubules.

 They are mostly dioecious.

 Fertilisation is usually internal.

 They are mostly oviparous.

 Development may be direct or indirect.

Arachnids

45
  Spiders, harvestmen, mites, ticks and other arachnids are members of the class
Arachnida.

Crustaceans

 Crustaceans make up a large group of arthropods that includes animals such as crabs,
lobsters, crayfish and shrimp. They breathe with gills and have two pairs of antennae.

Insects

 In general, insects have three-part bodies, six jointed legs, compound eyes and two
antennae.

 Bees, wasps, beetles, mosquitoes, flies, grasshoppers, ants, butterflies and moths, and
dragonflies and damselflies are common types of insects.

Phylum – Mollusca

 Mollusca are the second largest animal phylum. They are terrestrial or aquatic.

 They exhibit organ-system level of organization.

 They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate animals. There is little

segmentation.

 They have an open circulatory system and kidney-like organs for excretion. The anterior
head region has sensory tentacles.

 The mouth contains a file-like rasping organ for feeding, called radula.

 They are usually dioecious and oviparous with indirect development.

 Body is covered by a calcareous shell and is unsegmented with a distinct head, muscular
foot and visceral hump. A soft and spongy layer of skin forms a mantle over the visceral
hump.

 Examples are octopus, snails and mussels.

46
Phylum – Echinodermata

 These animals have an endoskeleton of calcareous ossicles [calcium carbonate

structures] and, hence, the name Echinodermata (spiny skinned organisms).

 They are exclusively free-living marine animals with organ-system level of

organisation.

 They are triploblastic with a coelomic cavity [coelomate animals]. The adult
echinoderms are radially symmetricalbut larvae are bilaterally symmetrical.

 Water-driven tube system [water vascular system] are used for locomotion, capture and
transport of food and respiration.

 They are triploblastic and coelomate animals.

 Digestive system is complete. An excretory system is absent.

 Sexes are separate. Reproduction is sexual. Fertilisation is usually external.

 Development is indirect with free-swimming larva.

 Examples: Star fish, Sea urchin, Sea lily, Sea cucumber, Brittle star.

47
Phylum – Hemichordata

 Hemichordata was earlier considered as a sub-phylum under phylum Chordata. But now
it is placed as a separate phylum under non-chordata.

 This phylum consists of a small group of worm-like marine animals with organ-system
level of organisation.

 They are cylindrical [bilaterally symmetrical], triploblastic, coelomate animals.

 The body is Circulatory system is of open type.

 Respiration takes place through gills.

 Excretory organ is present.

 Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is external. Development is indirect.

 Examples: Balanoglossus and Saccoglossus.

Phylum – Chordata

48
  Animals belonging to phylum Chordata are fundamentally characterised by the presence
of a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord and paired pharyngeal gill slits.

 They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate with organ-system level of

organisation.

 They possess a post anal tail and a closed circulatory system.

 Phylum Chordata is divided into three subphyla: Urochordata or Tunicata,

Cephalochordata and Vertebrata.

 Subphyla Urochordata and Cephalochordata are often referred to as protochordates and

are exclusively marine.

 In Urochordata, notochord is present only in larval tail, while in Cephalochordata, it

extends from head to tail region and is persistent throughout their life.

 Examples: Urochordata – Ascidia, Salpa, Doliolum; Cephalochordata – Amphioxus or

Lancelet.

All chordates possess the following features:

1. have a notochord
49
 2. have a dorsal nerve cord

3. are triploblastic

4. have paired gill pouches

5. are coelomate.

Vertebrata

 These animals have a true vertebral column and internal skeleton, allowing a completely
different distribution of muscle attachment points to be used for movement.

 The members of subphylum Vertebrata possess notochord during the embryonic period.

 The notochord is replaced by a cartilaginous or bony vertebral column in the adult.

 Thus all vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates.

 Besides the basic chordate characters, vertebrates have a ventral muscular heart with
two, three or four chambers, kidneys for excretion and osmoregulation and paired
appendages which may be fins or limbs.

 Vertibrates are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomic and segmented, with

complex differentiation of body tissues and organs.

Comparison of Chordates and Non-chordates

S.No. Chordates Non-chordates

1. Notochord present. Notochord absent.

2. Central nervous system is dorsal, Central nervous system is ventral, solid

hollow and single. and double.

3. Pharynx perforated by gill slits. Gill slits are absent.

4. Heart is ventral. Heart is dorsal (if present).

5. A post-anal part (tail) is present. Post-anal tail is absent.

50
Sex Determination
 Henking (1891) could trace a specific nuclear structure all through spermatogenesis in a
few insects, and it was also observed by him that 50 per cent of the sperm received this
structure after spermatogenesis, whereas the other 50 per cent sperm did not receive it.

 Henking gave a name to this structure as the X body but he could not explain its
significance.

 Further investigations by other scientists led to the conclusion that the „X body‟ of
Henking was in fact a chromosome and that is why it was given the name X-
chromosome.

 It was also observed that in a large number of insects the mechanism of sex
determination is of the XO type, i.e., all eggs bear an additional X-chromosome besides
the other chromosomes (autosomes). On the other hand, some of the sperms bear the X-
chromosome whereas some do not.

 Eggs fertilized by sperm having an X-chromosome become females and, those fertilized
by sperms that do not have an X-chromosome become males.

 Due to the involvement of the X-chromosome in the determination of sex, it was

designated to be the sex chromosome, and the rest of the chromosomes were named
as autosomes.

 Grasshopper is an example of XO type of sex determination in which the males have

only one X-chromosome besides the autosomes, whereas females have a pair of X-
chromosomes.

 These observations led to the investigation of a number of species to understand the

mechanism of sex determination.

 In a number of other insects and mammals including man, XY type of sex determination
is seen where both male and female have same number of chromosomes.

51
52
  Among the males an X-chromosome is present but its counterpart is distinctly smaller
and called the Y-chromosome. Females, however, have a pair of X-chromosomes.

 Both males and females bear same number of autosomes. Hence, the males have
autosomes plus XY, while female have autosomes plus XX.

[one pair of sex chromosome (XX or XY) + 22 pairs of autosomes == total 23 pairs of
chromosomes in a human cell nucleus]

 In human beings and in Drosophila the males have one X and one Y chromosome,
whereas females have a pair of X-chromosomes besides autosomes.

 In the above description you have studied about two types of sex determining
mechanisms, i.e., XO type and XY type. But in both cases males produce two different
types of gametes, (a) either with or without X-chromosome or (b) some gametes with X-
chromosome and some with Y-chromosome. Such types of sex determination
mechanism is designated to be the example of male heterogamety.

 In some other organisms, e.g., birds, a different mechanism of sex determination is

observed. In this case the total number of chromosome is same in both males and
females. But two different types of gametes in terms of the sex chromosomes, are
produced by females, i.e., female heterogamety.

 In order to have a distinction with the mechanism of sex determination described earlier,
the two different sex chromosomes of a female bird has been designated to be the Z and
W chromosomes. In these organisms the females have one Z and one W chromosome,
whereas males have a pair of Z-chromosomes besides the autosomes.

Sex Determination in Humans

 It has already been mentioned that the sex determining mechanism in case of humans is
XY type. Out of 23 pairs of chromosomes present, 22 pairs are exactly same in both
males and females; these are the autosomes.

 A pair of X-chromosomes are present in the female, whereas the presence of an X and Y
chromosome are determinant of the male characteristic.

53
  During spermatogenesis among males, two types of gametes are produced. 50 per cent
of the total sperm produced carry the X-chromosome and the rest 50 per cent has Y-
chromosome besides the autosomes.

 Females, however, produce only one type of ovum with an X-chromosome. There is an
equal probability of fertilization of the ovum with the sperm carrying either X or Y
chromosome.

 In case the ovum fertilizes with a sperm carrying X-chromosome the zygote develops into
a female (XX) and the fertilization of ovum with Y-chromosome carrying sperm results
into a male offspring.

 Thus, it is evident that it is the genetic makeup of the sperm that determines the sex of
the child. It is also evident that in each pregnancy there is always 50 per cent probability
of either a male or a female child.

 It is unfortunate that in our society women are blamed for giving birth to female children
and have been ostracized and ill-treated because of this false notion.

Genetic Disorders

Pedigree Analysis

 The idea that disorders are inherited has been prevailing in the human society since long.
This was based on the heritability of certain characteristic features in families.

 After the rediscovery of Mendel‟s work the practice of analyzing inheritance pattern of
traits in human beings began.

 Since it is evident that control crosses that can be performed in pea plant or some other
organisms, are not possiblein case of human beings, study of the family history about
inheritance of a particular trait provides an alternative.

 Such an analysis of traits in a several of generations of a family is called the pedigree

analysis.

 In the pedigree analysis the inheritance of a particular trait is represented in the family
tree over generations.

54
  In human genetics, pedigree study provides a strong tool, which is utilized to trace the
inheritance of a specific trait, abnormality or disease.

 Each and every feature in any organism is controlled by one or the other gene located on
the DNA present in the chromosome. DNA is the carrier of genetic information. It is
hence transmitted from one generation to the other without any change or alteration.

 However, changes or alteration do take place occasionally. Such an alteration or change

in the genetic material is referred to as mutation.

 A number of disorders in human beings have been found to be associated with the
inheritance of changed or altered genes or chromosomes.

Mutation

 Mutation is a phenomenon which results in alteration of DNA sequences and

consequently results in changes in the genotype and the phenotype of an organism.

 In addition to recombination, mutation is another phenomenon that leads to variation in

DNA.

 DNA helix runs continuously from one end to the other in each chromatid, in a highly
supercoiled form. Therefore loss (deletions) or gain (insertion/duplication) of a
segment of DNA, result in alteration in chromosomes.

 Since genes are known to be located on chromosomes, alteration in chromosomes

results in abnormalities or aberrations. Chromosomal aberrations are commonly
observed in cancer cells.

 In addition to the above, mutation also arise due to change in a single base pair of DNA.
This is known as point mutation. A classic example of such a mutation is sickle cell
anemia.

 Deletions and insertions of base pairs of DNA, causes frame-shift mutations.

 There are many chemical and physical factors that induce mutations. These are referred
to as mutagens. UV radiations can cause mutations in organisms – it is a mutagen.

Mendelian Disorders
55
  Broadly, genetic disorders may be grouped into two categories – Mendelian
disorders and Chromosomal disorders.

 Mendelian disorders are mainly determined by alteration or mutation in the single

gene. These disorders are transmitted to the offspring on the same lines as we have
studied in the principle of inheritance.

 The pattern of inheritance of such Mendelian disorders can be traced in a family by

the pedigree analysis.

 Most common and prevalent Mendelian disorders are Haemophilia, Cystic fibrosis,
Sickle-cell anaemia, Colour blindness, Phenylketonuria, Thalassemia, etc.

 It is important to mention here that such Mendelian disorders may be dominant or

recessive.

 By pedigree analysis one can easily understand whether the trait in question is dominant
or recessive.

 Similarly, the trait may also be linked to the sex chromosome as in case of haemophilia.

 It is evident that this X-linked recessive trait shows transmission from carrier female to
male progeny.

Haemophilia

 This sex linked recessive disease, which shows its transmission from unaffected carrier
female to some of the male progeny has been widely studied.

 In this disease, a single protein that is a part of the cascade of proteins involved in
the clotting of blood is affected. Due to this, in an affected individual a simple cut will
result in non-stop bleeding.

 The heterozygous female (carrier) for haemophilia may transmit the disease to sons.

 The possibility of a female becoming a haemophilic is extremely rare because mother of

such a female has to be at least carrier and the father should be haemophilic (unviable in
the later stage of life).

56
  The family pedigree of Queen Victoria shows a number of haemophilic descendents as
she was a carrier of the disease.

Sickle-Cell Anaemia

 This is an autosome linked recessive trait that can be transmitted from parents to the
offspring when both the partners are carrier for the gene (or heterozygous). The disease
is controlled by a single pair of allele, HbA and HbS.

 Out of the three possible genotypes only homozygous individuals for HbS (HbSHbS)
show the diseased phenotype.

 Heterozygous (HbAHbS) individuals appear apparently unaffected but they are carrier of
the disease as there is 50 per cent probability of transmission of the mutant gene to the
progeny, thus exhibiting sickle-cell trait.

 The defect is caused by the substitution of Glutamic acid (Glu) by Valine (Val) at the
sixth position of the beta globin chain of the haemoglobin molecule.

 The substitution of amino acid in the globin protein results due to the single base
substitution at the sixth codon of the beta globin gene from GAG to GUG.

 The mutant haemoglobin molecule undergoes polymerization under low oxygen

tension causing the change in the shape of the RBC from biconcave disc to elongated
sickle like structure.

57
Phenylketonuria

 This inborn error of metabolism is also inherited as the autosomal recessive trait.

 The affected individual lacks an enzyme that converts the amino acid
phenylalanine into tyrosine.

 As a result of this phenylalanine is accumulated and converted into phenylpyruvic

acid and other derivatives.

 Accumulation of these in brain results in mental retardation. These are also excreted
through urine because of its poor absorption by kidney.

Chromosomal Disorders

 The chromosomal disorders on the other hand are caused due to absence or excess or
abnormal arrangement of one or more sex chromosomes.

58
  Failure of segregation of chromatids during cell division cycle results in the gain or
loss of a chromosome(s), called aneuploidy.

 For example, Down‟s syndrome results in the gain of extra copy of chromosome 21.

 Similarly, Turner‟s syndrome results due to loss of an X chromosome in human females.

 Failure of cytokinesis after telophase stage of cell division results in an increase in a

whole set of chromosomes in an organism and, this phenomenon is known
as polyploidy. This condition is often seen in plants.

 The total number of chromosomes in a normal human cell is 46 (23 pairs). Out of these
22 pairs are autosomes and one pair of chromosomes are sex chromosome.

 Sometimes, though rarely, either an additional copy of a chromosome may be included in

an individual or an individual may lack one of any one pair of chromosomes. These
situations are known as trisomy or monosomy of a chromosome, respectively.

 Such a situation leads to very serious consequences in the individual. Down’s

syndrome, Turner’s syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome are common examples of
chromosomal disorders.

Down’s Syndrome

 The cause of this genetic disorder is the presence of an additional copy of the
chromosome number 21 (trisomy of 21). This disorder was first described by Langdon
Down (1866).

 The affected individual is short statured with small round head, furrowed tongue and
partially open mouth. Palm is broad with characteristic palm crease. Physical,
psychomotor and mental development is retarded.

59
Klinefelter’s Syndrome

 This genetic disorder is also caused due to the presence of an additional copy of X-
chromosome resulting into a karyotype of 47, XXY.

 Such an individual has overall masculine development, however, the feminine

development (development of breast, i.e., Gynaecomastia) is also expressed. Such
individuals are sterile.

Turner’s Syndrome

 Such a disorder is caused due to the absence of one of the X chromosomes, i.e., 45 with
X0. Such females are sterileas ovaries are rudimentary besides other features including
lack of other secondary sexual characters.

Summary

 After knowing that the genes are located on the chromosomes, a good correlation was
drawn between Mendel‟s laws: segregation and assortment of chromosomes during
meiosis. The Mendel‟s laws were extended in the form of „Chromosomal Theory of
Inheritance‟.

 Later, it was found that Mendel‟s law of independent assortment does not hold true for
the genes that were located on the same chromosomes. These genes were called as
„linked genes‟.

60
 Closely located genes assorted together, and distantly located genes, due to
recombination, assorted independently. Linkage maps, therefore, corresponded to
arrangement of genes on a chromosome.

 Many genes were linked to sexes also, and called as sex-linked genes. The two sexes
(male and female) were found to have a set of chromosomes which were common, and
another set which was different.

 The chromosomes which were different in two sexes were named as sex chromosomes.
The remaining set was named as autosomes. In humans, a normal female has 22 pairs
of autosomes and a pair of sex chromosomes (XX).

 A male has 22 pairs of autosomes and a pair of sex chromosome as XY. In chicken, sex
chromosomes in male are ZZ, and in females are ZW.

 Mutation is defined as change in the genetic material. A point mutation is a change of a

single base pair in DNA.

 Sickle-cell anemia is caused due to change of one base in the gene coding for beta-
chain of hemoglobin.

 Inheritable mutations can be studied by generating a pedigree of a family.

 Some mutations involve changes in whole set of chromosomes (polyploidy) or change in

a subset of chromosome number (aneuploidy). This helped in understanding the
mutational basis of genetic disorders.

 Down‟s syndrome is due to trisomy of chromosome 21, where there is an extra copy of
chromosome 21 and consequently the total number of chromosome becomes 47.

 In Turner‟s syndrome, one X chromosome is missing and the sex chromosome is as XO,
and in Klinefelter‟s syndrome, the condition is XXY. These can be easily studied by
analysis of Karyotypes.

61
 Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of Employment and Training

Course : TNPSC Combined Civil Services Examination - IV(Group IV / VAO)

Subject : Zoology
Topic : Environment ecology

© Copyright

The Department of Employment and Training has prepared the TNPSC Combined Civil
Services Examination - IV (Group-IV / VAO) study material in the form of e-Content for the
benefit of Competitive Exam aspirants and it is being uploaded in this Virtual Learning Portal. This
e-Content study material is the sole property of the Department of Employment and Training. No
one (either an individual or an institution) is allowed to make copy or reproduce the matter in any
form. The trespassers will be prosecuted under the Indian Copyright Act.

It is a cost-free service provided to the job seekers who are preparing for Competitive
Exams.

Commissioner,
Department of Employment and Training.

1
 Environment, ecology

Biodiversity

 Biodiversity is the variety of plant and animal life in the world or in a particular habitat.

Measurement of Biodiversity

 Biodiversity is measured by two major components:

1. species richness, and

2. species evenness.

Species richness

 It is the measure of number of species found in a community

Alpha diversity

 It refers to the diversity within a particular area or ecosystem, and is usually expressed by
the number of species (i.e., species richness) in that ecosystem.

Beta diversity

 It is a comparison of diversity between ecosystems, usually measured as the change in

amount of species between the ecosystems.

Gamma diversity

 It is a measure of the overall diversity for the different ecosystems within a region.

Species evenness

2
 It measures the proportion of species at a given site, e.g. low evenness indicates that a
few species dominate the site.

Genetic diversity

 Genetic diversity is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a
species.
 A single species might show high diversity at the genetic level [E.g. Man: Chinese, Indian
American, African etc.]. India has more than 50,000 genetically different strains of rice,
and 1,000 varieties of mango.
 Genetic diversity allows species to adapt to changing environments. This diversity aims to
ensure that some species survive drastic changes and thus carry on desirable genes.

Species diversity

 It is the ratio of one species population over total number of organisms across all species
in the given biome. ‘Zero’ would be infinite diversity, and ‘one’ represents only one species
present.
 Species diversity is a measure of the diversity within an ecological community that
incorporates both species richness (the number of species in a community) and
the evenness of species.
 For example, the Western Ghats have a greater amphibian species diversity than the
Eastern Ghats. There are more than 200000 species in India of which several are
confined to India (endemic).
 Endemism is the ecological state of a species being unique to a defined geographic
location, such as an island, nation, country or other defined zone, or habitat type;
organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found
elsewhere. A particular type of animal or plant may be endemic to a zone, a state or a
country. The extreme opposite of endemism is cosmopolitan distribution.
 Species differ from one another, markedly in their genetic makeup, do not inter-breed in
nature. Closely-related species however have in common much of their hereditary

3
 characteristics. For instance, about 98.4 per cent of the genes of humans and
chimpanzees are the same.
 According to the IUCN (2004), the total number of plant and animal species described so
far is slightly more than 1.5 million, but we have no clear idea of how many species are yet
to be discovered and described. A large proportion of the species waiting to be discovered
are in the tropics. Estimate place the global species diversity at about 7 million.
 More than 70 per cent of all the species recorded are animals, while plants (including
algae, fungi, bryophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms) comprise no more than 22 per
cent of the total.
 Among animals, insects are the most species-rich taxonomic group, making up more than
70 per cent of the total. That means, out of every 10 animals on this planet, 7 are insects.

4
 The number of fungi species in the world is more than the combined total of the species of
fishes, amphibians, reptiles and mammals.
 It should be noted that these estimates do not give any figures for prokaryotes. Biologists
are not sure about how many prokaryotic species there might be.
 In general, species diversity decreases as we move away from the equator towards the
poles. With very few exceptions, tropics (latitudinal range of 23.5° N to 23.5° S) harbour
more species than temperate or polar areas.
 India, with much of its land area in the tropical latitudes, has more than 1,200 species of
birds.
 The largely tropical Amazonian rain forest in South America has the greatest biodiversity
on earth- it is home to more than 40,000 species of plants, 3,000 of fishes, 1,300 of birds,
427 of mammals, 427 of amphibians, 378 of reptiles and of more than 1,25,000
invertebrates.

Why tropics have greater biological diversity?

 Speciation is generally a function of time, unlike temperate regions subjected to frequent

glaciations in the past, tropical latitudes have remained relatively undisturbed for millions
of years and thus, had a long evolutionary time for species diversification.
 Tropical environments, unlike temperate ones, are less seasonal, relatively more constant
and predictable. Such constant environments promote niche specialization and lead to a
greater species diversity.
 There is more solar energy available in the tropics, which contributes to higher
productivity; this in turn might contribute indirectly to greater diversity.

The importance of Species Diversity to the Ecosystem

 For many decades, ecologists believed that communities with more species, generally,
tend to be more stable than those with less species.
 What exactly is stability for a biological community? A stable community should not show
too much variation in productivity from year to year; it must be either resistant or resilient

5
 to occasional disturbances (natural or man-made), and it must also be resistant to
invasions by alien species.
 Although, we may not understand completely how species richness contributes to the well-
being of an ecosystem, we know enough to realize that rich biodiversity is not only
essential for ecosystem health but imperative for the very survival of the human race on
this planet.

Bioprospecting: nations endowed with rich biodiversity explore molecular, genetic and
species-level diversity to derive products of economic importance.

Keystone species and Foundation Species

 Keystone species is a species whose addition to or loss from an ecosystem leads to

major changes in occurrence of at least one other species.
 Certain species in an ecosystem is considered more important in determining the
presence of many other species in that ecosystem.
 All top predators (Tiger, Lion, Crocodile, Elephant) are considered as keystone
species because it regulates all other animal population indirectly. Hence top
predators are given much consideration in conservation.
 If keystone species is lost, it will result in the degradation of whole ecosystem. For
example certain plant species (ebony tree, Indian-laurel) exclusively depends upon
bats for its pollination. If the bat population is reduced then regeneration of particular
plants becomes more difficult.
 Foundation species is a dominant primary producer in an ecosystem both in terms of
abundance and influence. Example: kelp in kelp forests and corals in coral reefs.

Flagship species

 A flagship species is a species chosen to represent an environmental cause, such as

an ecosystem in need of conservation.
 These species are chosen for their vulnerability, attractiveness or distinctiveness in

6
 order to engender support and acknowledgement from the public at large.
 Example: Indian tiger, African elephant, giant panda of China, mountain gorilla of
Central Africa, orangutan of Southeast Asia and the leatherback sea turtle.

Ecological diversity

 Ecological diversity refers to the different types of habitats. A habitat is the cumulative
factor of the climate, vegetation and geography of a region.
 It includes various biological zones, like lake, desert, coast, estuaries, wetlands,
mangroves, coral reefs etc.
 At the ecosystem level, India, for instance, with its deserts, rain forests, mangroves, coral
reefs, wetlands, estuaries, and alpine meadows has a greater ecosystem diversity than a
Scandinavian country like Norway.

Services provided by Biodiversity

 Ecosystem services.
 Protection of water resources.
 Soils formation and protection.
 Nutrient storage and recycling.
 Pollution breakdown and absorption.
 Contribution to climate stability.
 Maintenance of ecosystems.
 Recovery from unpredictable events.

Biological services

 Food and shelter.

 Medicinal resources.
 Wood products.

7
 Ornamental plants.
 Breeding stocks, population reservoirs.
 Future resources.
 Diversity in genes, species and ecosystems.

Social services

 Research, education and monitoring.

 Recreation and tourism.
 Cultural values.

Biodiversity of India

 India is a recognized as one of the mega-diverse countries, rich in biodiversity and

associated traditional knowledge.
 India has 23.39% of its geographical area under forest and tree cover.
 With just 2.4% of the land area, India accounts for nearly 7% of the recorded species even
while supporting almost 18% of human population.
 In terms of species richness, India ranks seventh in mammals, ninth in birds and fifth in
reptiles.
 In terms of endemism of vertebrate groups, India’s position is tenth in birds with 69
species, fifth in reptiles with 156 species and seventh in amphibians with 110 species.
 India’s share of crops is 44% as compared to the world average of 11%.

India Represents

 Two ‘Realms’
 Five Biomes
 Ten Bio-geographic Zones
 Twenty five Bio-geographic provinces

Realms

8
 Biogeographic realms are large spatial regions within which ecosystems share a broadly
similar biota.
 Realm is a continent or sub-continent sized area with unifying features of geography and
fauna & flora.
 The Indian region is composed of two realms. They are:

1. the Himalayan region represented by Palearctic Realm and

2. the rest of the sub-continent represented by Malayan Realm

 In world Eight terrestrial biogeographic realms are typically recognized. They are

1. Nearctic Realm
2. Palaearctic Realm
3. Africotropical Realm
4. Indomalayan Realm
5. Ocenaia Realm
6. Australian Realm
7. Antarctic Realm
8. Neotropical Realm

Biomes of India

 The term biome means the main groups of plants and animals living in areas of certain
climate patterns.
 It includes the way in which animals, vegetation and soil interact together. The plants and
animals of that area have adapted to that environment.

The five biomes of India are:

1. Tropical Humid Forests

2. Tropical Dry or Deciduous Forests (including Monsoon Forests)
3. Warm deserts and semi-deserts
4. Coniferous forests and

9
5. Alpine meadows.

Bio-geographic Zones

 Biogeography deals with the geographical distribution of plants and animals.

 Biogeographic zones were used as a basis for planning wildlife protected areas in India.
 There are 10 biogeographic zones which are distinguished clearly in India. They are as
follows:

Trans-Himalayas

 An extension of the Tibetan plateau, harboring high-altitude cold desert in Laddakh (J&K)
and Lahaul Spiti (H.P) comprising 5.7 % of the country’s landmass.

Himalayas

 The entire mountain chain running from north-western to northeastern India, comprising a
diverse range of biotic provinces and biomes, 7.2 % of the country’s landmass.

Desert

 The extremely arid area west of the Aravalli hill range, comprising both the salty desert of
Gujarat and the sand desert of Rajasthan. 6.9% of the country’s landmass.

Semi-arid

 The zone between the desert and the Deccan plateau, including the Aravalli hill range.
15.6 % of the country’s landmass.

Western Ghats

10
 The hill ranges and plains running along the western coastline, south of the Tapti river,
covering an extremely diverse range of biotic provinces and biomes. 5.8% of the country’s
landmass.

Deccan Peninsula

 The largest of the zones, covering much of the southern and southcentral plateau with a
predominantly deciduous vegetation. 4.3 % of the country’s landmass.

Gangetic plain

 Defined by the Ganges river system, these plains are relatively homogenous. 11% of the
country’s landmass.

North-east India

 The plains and non-Himalayan hill ranges of northeastern India, with a wide variation of
vegetation. 5.2% of the country’s landmass.

Islands

 The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal, with a highly diverse set of
biomes. 0.03% of the country’s landmass.

Coasts

 A large coastline distributed both to the west and east, with distinct differences between
the two; Lakshadweep islands are included in this with the percent area being negligible.

Bio-geographic provinces

 Bio-geographic Province is a ecosystematic or biotic subdivision of realms. India is divided

into 25 bio geographic zones.

11
 S.N Biogeographic Biogeographic Provinces (25)
o. Zones (10)
1 Trans Himalaya 1A: Himalaya – Ladakh Mountains
1B: Himalaya – Tibetan Plateau
1C: Trans – Himalaya Sikkim
2 The Himalaya 2A: Himalaya – North West Himalaya
2B: Himalaya – West Himalaya
2C: Himalaya – Central Himalaya
2D: Himalaya – East Himalaya
3 The Indian Desert 3A: Desert – Thar
3B: Desert – Katchchh
4 The Semi-Arid 4A: Semi – Arid – Punjab Plains
4B: Semi – Arid – Gujarat Rajputana
5 The Western 5A: Western Ghats - Malabar Plains
Ghats 5B: Western Ghats – Western Ghats Mountains
6 The Deccan 6A: Deccan Peninsular – Central Highlands
Peninsula 6B: Deccan Peninsular – Chotta Nagpur
6C: Deccan Peninsular - Eastern Highlands
6D: Deccan Peninsular – Central Plateau
6E: Deccan Peninsular - Deccan South
7 The Gangetic 7A: Gangetic Plain - Upper Gangetic Plains
Plains 7B: Gangetic Plain – Lower Gangetic Plains
8 The Coasts 8A: Coasts – West Coast
8B: Coasts – East Coast
8C: Coasts – Lakshadweep
9 Northeast India 9A: North – East – Brahmaputra Valley
9B: North – East – North East Hills
10 Islands 10A: Islands – Andaman
10B: Islands – Nicobars

12
 Wildlife Diversity Of India

Himalayan mountain system

 The west Himalayas have low rainfall, heavy snowfall (temperate conditions), whereas in
east Himalayas, there is heavy rainfall, snowfall only at very high altitudes, whereas at
lower altitudes conditions are similar to the tropical rain forests. Flora and fauna of both
Himalayas differ.

Himalayan foothills

 Flora: Natural monsoon evergreen and semi-evergreen forests; dominant species are sal,
silk-cotton trees, giant bamboos; tall grassy meadow with savannahs in terai.
 Fauna: Includes big mammals of like elephant, sambar, swamp deer, cheetal, hog deer,
barking deer, wild boar tiger, panther, hyena, black bear, sloth bear, Great Indian one-
horned rhinoceros, wild buffalo, Gangetic gharial, golden langur.

[Some of these which are threatened are explained in the next post: Red Data Book]

Western Himalayas (High altitude region)

 Flora: Natural monsoon evergreen and semi-evergreen forests; rhododendrons; dwarf

hill bamboo and birch forests mixed with alpine pastures.
 Fauna: Tibetan wild ass (kiang) [Don’t confuse this with Asiatic wild ass which in found in
Kutch region], wild goats (thar, ibex) and blue sheep; antelopes (Chiru and Tibetan
gazelle), deers (hangul of Kashmir stag and shou or Sikkim stag, musk deer); golden
eagle, snow cocks, snow partridges; snow leopard, black and brown bears; birds like
Griffon vultures.

What is the difference between the antelopes Oryx and Chiru?

13
1. Oryx is adapted to live in hot and arid areas whereas Chiru is adapted to live in steppes
and semi-desert areas of cold high mountains. .
2. Oryx is poached for its antlers whereas Chiru is poached for its musk.
3. Oryx exists in western India only whereas Chiru exists in north-east India only.
4. None of the statements a, b, and c given above is correct.

They are both antelopes.

Answer: a)

Eastern Himalayas

 Flora: Oaks, magnolias, laurels and birches covered with moss and ferns; coniferous
forests of pine, fir, yew and junipers with undergrowth of scrubby rhododendrons and
dwarf bamboos; lichens, mosses, orchids, and other epiphytes dominant (due to high
humidity and high rainfall).
 Fauna: Red panda, hog badgers, forest badgers, crestless porcupines, takins etc.

Peninsular – Indian sub-region

 It has two zones.

1. peninsular India and its extension into the drainage basin of the Ganges river system, and
2. desert region of Rajasthan-the Thar of Indian desert region.

Peninsular India

14
 It is home to tropical moist deciduous to tropical dry deciduous and scrub vegetation
depending upon the variation in rainfall and humidity.
 Flora: Sal in north and east extensions (higher rainfall) and teak in southern plateau are
dominant trees.
 West Ghats have evergreen vegetation (flora and fauna similar to evergreen rainforests of
north eastern of India. In dry areas of Rajasthan and Aravalli hills, trees are scattered and
thorny scrub species predominate. The forests give way to more open savannah habit.
 Fauna: Elephant, wild boar, deers (cheetal or axis deer), hog deer swamp deer or
barasinga, sambar, muntjak or barking deer, antelopes (four-hourned antelope, nilgiri,
blackbuck, chinkara gazelle), wild dog or dhole, tiger, leopard, cheetah, lion, wild pig,
monkey, striped hyena, jackal, gaur.

Indian desert

 Thar desert of Rajasthan has unique flora and fauna.

 Flora: Thorny trees with reduced leaves; cacti, other succulents are the main plants.
 Fauna: Animals are mostly burrowing ones. Among mammals rodents are the largest
group. The Indian desert gerbils are mouse like, rodents, other animals are, Asiatic wild
ass, black buck, desert cat, caracal, red fox; reptiles (snakes, lizards and tortoise) well
represented. Desert lizards include agamids, and geckos. Among birds the most
discussed is Great Indian bustard.

Tropical rain forest region

 Distributed in areas of western Ghats and north east India.

 Flora: Extensive grass lands interspersed with densely forested gorges of evergreen
vegetation known as sholas occur in the Nilgiris (an offshoot of Western
Ghats). Sholas also occur in Anamalai and Palani hills.
 The rain forests of the Western Ghats have dense and lofty trees with much species
diversity. Mosses, ferns, epiphytes, orchids, lianas and vines, herbs, shrubs make diverse
habitat. Ebony trees predominate in these forests.

15
 Fauna: It is very rich with all kinds of animals. There are wild elephants, gaur and other
larger animals. Most species are tree dwellers. The most prominent are hoolock gibbon
(only ape found in India), golden langur, capped langur or leaf monkey, Assam macaque
and the pig-tailed macaque, lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri langur slender loris, bats, gaint
squirrel, civets, flying squirrels, Nilgiri mongoose, spiny mouse.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

 Flora: These are home for tropical rain forests. Mangroves are distributed in the coastal
areas.
 Fauna: Among mammals, bats and rats; Andaman pig, crab-eating macaque, palm civet
and deers (spotted deer, barking deer, hog deer, sambar).
 Among marine mammals there are dugong, false killer whale, dolphin.
 Among birds are rare one is Narcondum hornbill, white-bellied sea-eagle.
 Salt-water crocodile, a number of marine turtles, coconut crab, lizards (the largest being
water monitor), 40 species of snakes including cobra, viper, coral and sea snake, python,
etc. are present.

Mangrove swamps of Sunderbans

 Sunderbans are delta of the Ganges where both the Brahmaputra and Ganges join and
drain into the Bay of Bengal.
 Flora: Various species of mangroves.
 Fauna. In the higher regions of mangroves, there are spotted deer, pigs, monitor lizard,
monkeys. The most interesting animal of Sunderbans is the Royal Bengal Tiger.

Biodiversity Conservation

 When we conserve and protect the whole ecosystem, its biodiversity at all levels is
protected. E.g. we save the entire forest to save the tiger. This approach is called in situ
(on site) conservation.

16
 However, when there are situations where an animal or plant is endangered or threatened
and needs urgent measures to save it from extinction, ex situ (off site)conservation is the
desirable approach.

Benefits of Biodiversity conservation

 Conservation of biological diversity leads to conservation of essential ecological diversity

to preserve the continuity of food chains.
 The genetic diversity of plants and animals is preserved.
 It ensures the sustainable utilization of life support systems on earth.
 It provides a vast knowledge of potential use to the community.
 A reservoir of wild animals and plants is preserved, thus enabling them to be introduced, if
need be, in the surrounding areas.
 Biodiversity conservation assures sustainable utilization of potential resources.

In situ conservation

 Faced with the conflict between development and conservation, many nations find it
unrealistic and economically not feasible to conserve all their biological wealth.
 On a global basis, this problem has been addressed by eminent conservationists. They
identified for maximum protection certain ‘biodiversity hotspots’ regions with very high
levels of species richness and high degree of endemism (that is, species confined to
that region and not found anywhere else).
 Initially 25 biodiversity hotspots were identified but subsequently nine more have been
added to the list, bringing the total number of biodiversity hotspots in the world to 34.
 These hotspots are also regions of accelerated habitat loss. Three of these hotspots –
Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, Indo-Burma and Eastern Himalayas cover our country’s
exceptionally high biodiversity regions.
 Although all the biodiversity hotspots put together cover less than 2 percent of the earth’s
land area, the number of species they collectively harbour is extremely high and strict
protection of these hotspots could reduce the ongoing mass extinctions by almost 30 per
cent.

17
 In India, ecologically unique and biodiversity-rich regions are legally protected
as biosphere reserves, national parks, sanctuaries, reserved forests, protected
forests and nature reserves.
 India now has 14 biosphere reserves, 90 national parks and 448 wildlife sanctuaries.
 Plantation, cultivation, grazing, felling trees, hunting and poaching are prohibited in
biosphere reserves, national parks and sanctuaries.

Protected Area Network in India

 National Board for Wildlife (NBWL), chaired by the Prime Minister of India provides for
policy framework for wildlife conservation in the country.
 The National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016) was adopted in 2002, emphasizing the
people’s participation and their support for wildlife conservation.

Reserved & Protected Forests

 As of present, reserved forests and protected forests differ in one important way:

1. Rights to all activities like hunting, grazing, etc. in reserved forests are banned unless
specific orders are issued otherwise.
2. In protected areas, rights to activities like hunting and grazing are sometimes given to
communities living on the fringes of the forest, who sustain their livelihood partially or
wholly from forest resources or products.

 The first reserve forest in India was Satpura National Park in Madhya Pradesh.
 Typically, reserved forests are often upgraded to the status of wildlife sanctuaries, which in
turn may be upgraded to the status of national parks, with each category receiving a
higher degree of protection and government funding.

Wildlife Sanctuaries or wildlife refuges

 Wildlife Sanctuaries or wildlife refuges are home to various endangered species.

 They are safe from hunting, predation or competition.

18
 They are safeguarded from extinction in their natural habitat.
 Certain rights of people living inside the Sanctuary could be permitted.
 Grazing, firewood collection by tribals is allowed but strictly regulated.
 Settlements not allowed (few exceptions: tribal settlements do exist constant; efforts are
made to relocate them).
 A Sanctuary can be promoted to a National Park.
 There are more than 500 wildlife sanctuaries in India.

National Park

 National parks are areas reserved for wild life where they can freely use the habitats and
natural resources.
 The difference between a Sanctuary and a National Park mainly lies in the vesting of
rights of people living inside.
 Unlike a Sanctuary, where certain rights can be allowed, in a National Park, no rights are
allowed.
 No grazing of any livestock shall also be permitted inside a National Park while in a
Sanctuary, the Chief Wildlife Warden may regulate, control or prohibit it.

Eco-Sensitive Zones

 The National Wildlife Action Plan (2002–2016) of MoEFCC stipulated that state
governments should declare land falling within 10 km of the boundaries of national parks
and wildlife sanctuaries as eco fragile zones or ESZs under the Environmental
(Protection) Act, 1986.
 The purpose of the ESZ was to provide more protection to the parks by acting as a shock
absorber or transition zone.
 Eco-Sensitive Zones would minimise forest depletion and man-animal conflict.
 The protected areas are based on the core and buffer model of management.
 The core area has the legal status of being a national park.
 The buffer area, however, does not have legal status of being a national park and could be
a reserved forest, wildlife sanctuary or tiger reserve.

19
 With reference to ‘Eco-Sensitive Zones’, which of the following statements is/are
correct?

 Eco-Sensitive Zones are the areas that are declared under the Wildlife (Protection) Act,
1972.
 The purpose of the declaration of Eco-Sensitive Zones is to prohibit all kinds of human
activities, in those zones except agriculture.

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

1. 1 only
2. 2 only
3. Both 1 and 2
4. Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: d) Neither

Biosphere Reserve

 Large areas of protected land for conservation of wild life, plant and animal resources and
traditional life of the tribals living in the area.
 May have one more national parks or wildlife sanctuaries in it.

Core area

 Comprises a strictly protected ecosystem for conserving ecosystems, species and genetic
variation. In core or natural zone human activity is not allowed.

Buffer zone

 Used for scientific research, monitoring, training and education.

Transition area

20
 Ecologically sustainable human settlements and economic activities (tourism) are
permitted.
 With the cooperation of reserve management and local people several human activities
like settlements, cropping, recreation, and forestry are carried out without disturbing the
environment.

Conserving Biodiversity

The most important strategy for the conservation of biodiversity together with traditional
human life is the establishment of

1. biosphere reserves
2. botanical gardens
3. national parks
4. wildlife sanctuaries

Answer: a)

Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB programme)

21
 It was first started by UNESCO in 1971.
 Later introduced in India in 1986.

Aim

1. Studying the effects of human interference and pollution on the biotic and abiotic
components of ecosystems.
2. Conservation the ecosystems for the present as well as future.

The main objects of MAB programme are to:

1. Conserve representative samples of ecosystem.

2. Provide long term in situ conservation of genetic diversity.
3. Provide opportunities for education and training.
4. Provide appropriate sustainable managements of the living resources.
5. Promote international co-operation.

Tiger Reserves

 Same as sanctuaries. But they are monitored by NTCA under Project tiger.
 The various tiger reserves were created in the country based on ‘core-buffer’ strategy.

Core area

 The core areas are freed of all human activities.

 It has the legal status of a national park or wildlife sanctuary.
 Collection of minor forest produce, grazing, and other human disturbances are not
allowed.

Buffer areas

 Twin objectives:

1. providing habitat supplement to spillover population of wild animals from core area.

22
2. provide site specific co-developmental inputs to surrounding villages for relieving their
impact on core area.

 Collection of minor forest produce and grazing by tribals is allowed on a sustainable basis.
 The Forest Rights Act passed by the Indian government in 2006 recognizes the rights of
some forest dwelling communities in forest areas.

Conservation Reserves

 Conservation Reserves can be declared by the State Governments in any area owned by
the Government, particularly the areas adjacent to National Parks and Sanctuaries and
those areas which link one Protected Area with another.
 Such declaration should be made after having consultations with the local communities.
 The rights of people living inside a Conservation Reserve are not affected.

Community Reserves

 Community Reserves can be declared by the State Government in any private or

community land, not comprised within a National Park, Sanctuary or a Conservation
Reserve, where an individual or a community has volunteered to conserve wildlife and its
habitat.
 As in the case of a Conservation Reserve, the rights of people living inside a Community
Reserve are not affected.

Sacred Groves

 India has a history of religious/cultural traditions that emphasised protection of nature.

 In many cultures, tracts of forest were set aside, and all the trees and wildlife within were
venerated and given total protection.
 Such sacred groves are found in Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya, Aravalli Hills of
Rajasthan, Western Ghat regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra and the Sarguja,
Chanda and Bastar areas of Madhya Pradesh.

23
 In Meghalaya, the sacred groves are the last refuges for a large number of rare and
threatened plants.

Ex situ Conservation

 In this approach, threatened animals and plants are taken out from their natural habitat
and placed in special setting where they can be protected and given special care.
 Zoological parks, botanical gardens, wildlife safari parks and seed banks serve this
purpose.
 There are many animals that have become extinct in the wild but continue to be
maintained in zoological parks.
 In recent years ex situ conservation has advanced beyond keeping threatened species.
Now gametes of threatened species can be preserved in viable and fertile condition for
long periods using cryopreservation techniques, eggs can be fertilized in vitro, and plants
can be propagated using tissue culture methods.
 Seeds of different genetic strains of commercially important plants can be kept for long
periods in seed banks.
 The national gene bank at National Bureau Of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR),
Delhi is primarily responsible for conservation of unique accessions on long-term basis, as
base collections for posterity, predominantly in the form of seeds.

Botanical garden

 Botanical garden refers to the scientifically planned collection of living trees, shrubs,
herbs, climbers and other plants from various parts of the globe.

Purpose of botanical gardens

 To study the taxonomy as well as growth of plants.

 To study the introduction and acclimatization process of exotic plants.
 It acts as a germplasm collection.
 It helps development of new hybrids.
 It augments conserving rare and threatened species.
24
 It facilitates training of staff.
 It acts as a source of recreation.

Zoo

 Zoo is an establishment, whether stationary or mobile, where captive animals are kept for
exhibition to the public and includes a circus and rescue centers but does not include an
establishment of a licensed dealer in captive animals.
 The initial purpose of zoos was entertainment, over the decades, zoos have got
transformed into centers for wildlife conservation and environmental education.
 Apart from saving individual animals, zoos have a role to play in species conservation too
(through captive breeding).
 Zoos provide an opportunity to open up a whole new world, and this could be used in
sensitizing visitors regarding the value and need for conservation of wildlife.

Which one of the following is not a site for in-situ method of conservation of flora?

1. Biosphere Reserves
2. Botanical Garden
3. National Park
4. Wildlife Sanctuary

In situ conservation = on the site conservation without displacing the affected organism.

Ex situ conservation = conserving the organism in an artificial habitat by displacing it from

its natural habitat.

Botanical Garden = Plants are bred in a protected environment far from their natural
home, especially for research purposes. So its Ex situ conservation.

Rest all along with protected forests and reserved forests are In situ conservation
methods.

25
 Answer: b) Botanical Garden

Constraints in biodiversity conservation

 Low priority for conservation of living natural resources.

 Exploitation of living natural resources for monetary gain.
 Values and knowledge about the species and ecosystem inadequately known.
 Unplanned urbanization and uncontrolled industrialization.

Historic Citizen Movements to Conserve Biodiversity

Chipko Movement

 It is a social-ecological movement that practiced the Gandhian methods of satyagraha and

nonviolent resistance, through the act of hugging trees to protect them from falling.
 The modern Chipko movement started in the early 1970s in the Garhwal Himalayas of
Uttarakhand, with growing awareness towards rapid deforestation.
 The landmark event in this struggle took place on March 26, 1974, when a group of
peasant women in Reni village, Hemwalghati, in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand, India,
acted to prevent the cutting of trees and reclaim their traditional forest rights that were
threatened by the contractor system of the state Forest Department.
 Their actions inspired hundreds of such actions at the grassroots level throughout the
region.
 By the 1980s the movement had spread throughout India and led to formulation of people-
sensitive forest policies, which put a stop to the open felling of trees in regions as far
reaching as Vindhyas and the Western Ghats.
 The first recorded event of Chipko however, took place in village Khejarli, Jodhpur district,
in 1730 AD, when 363 Bishnois, led by Amrita Devi sacrificed their lives while protecting
green Khejri trees, considered sacred by the community, by hugging them, and braved the
axes of loggers sent by the local ruler, today it is seen an inspiration and a precursor for
Chipko movement of Garhwal.

26
 Appiko Movement

 Appiko movement was a revolutionary movement based on environmental conservation in

India.
 The Chipko movement in Uttarakhand in the Himalayas inspired the villagers of the district
of Karnataka province in southern India to launch a similar movement to save their forests.
 In September 1983, men, women and children of Salkani ‘hugged the trees’ in Kalase
forest. (The local term for ‘hugging’ in Kannada is appiko.)
 Appiko movement gave birth to a new awareness all over southern India

Difference Between Wildlife Sanctuary And National Park

Wildlife Sanctuary National Park
Human activities are allowed. No human activities are allowed.
Main aim is to protect a particular flora or fauna. Can include flora, fauna or even any object of
historical significance.
There are no fixed boundaries. Boundaries are fixed and defined.
It is open to the general public Not usually open to the public.
Sanctuaries are usually formed by the order of National Parks are formed by the State or
Central or the State Government central Legislature.
A sanctuary can be upgraded to a national park But a national park cannot be downgraded to
a Sanctuary.

List of National Parks (July, 2018)

Year of Area
S. No. Name of State/ Protected Area District(s)
Establishment (km2)

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

1 Campbell Bay NP 1992 426.23 Nicobar
2 Galathea Bay NP 1992 110.00 Nicobar
3 Mahatama Gandhi Marine (Wandoor) NP 1983 281.50 Andaman
4 Middle Button Island NP 1987 0.44 Andaman
5 Mount Harriett NP 1987 46.62 Andaman
6 North Button Island NP 1987 0.44 Andaman
7 Rani Jhansi Marine NP 1996 256.14 Andaman
8 Saddle Peak NP 1987 32.54 Andaman
9 South Button Island NP 1987 0.03 Andaman

27
 Andhra Pradesh
1 Papikonda NP 2008 1012.86 East & West Godavari
2 Rajiv Gandhi (Rameswaram) NP 2005 2.40 Kadapa
3 Sri Venkateswara NP 1989 353.62 Chittoor & Cuddapah

Arunachal Pradesh
1 Mouling NP 1986 483.00 Upper Siang
2 Namdapha NP 1983 1807.82 Changlang

Assam
1 Dibru-Saikhowa NP 1999 340.00 Tinsukia & Dibrugarh
2 Kaziranga NP 1974 858.98 Golaghat, Nagaon & Sonitpur
3 Manas NP 1990 500.00 Barpeta & Bongaigaon
4 Nameri NP 1998 200.00 Sonitpur
5 Rajiv Gandhi Orang NP 1999 78.81 Darrang & Sonitpur

Bihar
1 Valmiki NP 1989 335.65 West Champaran

Chhattisgarh
1 Guru Ghasidas (Sanjay) NP 1981 1440.71 Surguja & Koria
2 Indravati (Kutru) NP 1982 1258.37 Dantewada
3 Kanger Valley NP 1982 200.00 Bastar

Goa
1 Mollem NP 1992 107.00 North Goa

Gujarat
1 Vansda NP 1979 23.99 Navasari
2 Blackbuck (Velavadar) NP 1976 34.53 Bhavnagar
3 Gir NP 1975 258.71 Junagadh
4 Marine (Gulf of Kachchh) NP 1982 162.89 Jamnagar
.
Haryana
1 Kalesar NP 2003 46.82 Yamuna Nagar
2 Sultanpur NP 1989 1.43 Gurgaon

Himachal Pradesh
1 Great Himalayan NP 1984 754.40 Kullu
2 Inderkilla NP 2010 104.00 Kullu

28
3 Khirganga NP 2010 710.00 Kullu
4 Pin Valley NP 1987 675.00 Lahul & Spiti
5 Simbalbara NP 2010 27.88 Sirmaur

Jammu & Kashmir

1 City Forest (Salim Ali) NP 1992 9.00 Srinagar
2 Dachigam NP 1981 141.00 Srinagar & Pulwama
3 Hemis NP 1981 3350.00 Leh
4 Kishtwar NP 1981 425.00 Kishtwar & Doda

Jharkhand
1 Betla NP 1986 226.33 Latehar

Karnataka
1 Anshi NP 1987 417.34 Uttara Kannada
2 Bandipur NP 1974 874.20 Mysore & Chamarajanagar
3 Bannerghatta NP 1974 260.51 Bangalore
Dakshin Kannada, Udipi &
4 Kudremukh NP 1987 600.32
Chikmagalur
5 Nagarahole (Rajiv Gandhi) NP 1988 643.39 Kodagu & Mysore

Kerala
1 Anamudi Shola NP 2003 7.50 Idukki
2 Eravikulam NP 1978 97.00 Idukki
3 Mathikettan Shola NP 2003 12.82 Idukki
4 Pambadum Shola NP 2003 1.32 Idukki
5 Periyar NP 1982 350.00 Idukki & Quilon
6 Silent Valley NP 1984 89.52 Palakkad

Madhya Pradesh
1 Bandhavgarh NP 1968 448.85 Umaria & Katni
2 Fossil NP 1983 0.27 Mandla
6 Indira Priyadarshini Pench NP 1975 292.85 Seoni & Chhindwara
3 Kanha NP 1955 940.00 Mandla, Balaghat & Dindori
4 Madhav NP 1959 375.22 Shivpuri
5 Panna NP 1981 542.67 Panna & Chhatarpur
7 Sanjay NP 1981 466.88 Sidhi
8 Satpura NP 1981 585.17 Hoshangabad
9 Van Vihar NP 1979 4.45 Bhopal
10 Dinosaur NP 2011 0.8974 Dhar district, MP
Maharashtra

29
1 Chandoli NP 2004 317.67 Sangli, Satara, Kolhapur, Ratnagiri
2 Gugamal NP 1975 361.28 Amravati
3 Nawegaon NP 1975 133.88 Bhandara (Gondia)
4 Pench (Jawaharlal Nehru) NP 1975 257.26 Nagpur
5 Sanjay Gandhi (Borivilli) NP 1983 86.96 Thane & Mumbai
6 Tadoba NP 1955 116.55 Chandrapur

Manipur
1 Keibul-Lamjao NP 1977 40.00 Bishnupur

Meghalaya
1 Balphakram NP 1985 220.00 South Garo Hills
2 Nokrek Ridge NP 1986 47.48 East Garo Hills

Mizoram
1 Murlen NP 1991 100.00 Champhai
2 Phawngpui Blue Mountain NP 1992 50.00 Lawngtlai

Nagaland
1 Intanki NP 1993 202.02 Dimapur

Odisha
1 Bhitarkanika NP 1988 145.00 Kendrapara
2 Simlipal NP 1980 845.70 Mayurbhanj

Rajasthan
1 Mukundra Hills NP 2006 200.54 Kota & Chittourgarh
2 Desert NP 1992 3162.00 Barmer & Jaisalmer
3 Keoladeo Ghana NP 1981 28.73 Bharatpur
4 Ranthambhore NP 1980 282.00 Sawai Madhopur
5 Sariska NP 1992 273.80 Alwar

Sikkim
1 Khangchendzonga NP 1977 1784.00 North Sikkim

Tamil Nadu
1 Guindy NP 1976 2.82 Chennai
2 Gulf of Mannar Marine NP 1980 6.23 Ramanathpuram & Tuticorin
3 Indira Gandhi (Annamalai) NP 1989 117.10 Coimbatore
4 Mudumalai NP 1990 103.23 Nilgiris

30
5 Mukurthi NP 1990 78.46 Nilgiris

Telangana
1 Kasu Brahmananda Reddy NP 1994 1.43 Hyderabad
2 Mahaveer Harina Vanasthali NP 1994 14.59 Ranga Reddy
3 Mrugavani NP 1994 3.60 Ranga Reddy

Tripura
1 Clouded Leopard NP 2007 5.08 West Tripura
2 Bison (Rajbari) NP 2007 31.63 South Tripura

Uttar Pradesh
1 Dudhwa NP 1977 490.00 Lakhimpur-Kheri

Uttarakhand
1 Corbett NP 1936 520.82 Nainital & Pauri Garhwal
2 Gangotri NP 1989 2390.02 Uttarkashi
3 Govind NP 1990 472.08 Uttarkashi
4 Nanda Devi NP 1982 624.60 Chamoli
5 Rajaji NP 1983 820.00 Dehradun, Pauri Garhwal & Haridwar
6 Valley of Flowers NP 1982 87.50 Chamoli

West Bengal
1 Buxa NP 1992 117.10 Jalpaiguri
2 Gorumara NP 1992 79.45 Jalpaiguri
3 Jaldapara NP 2014 216.51 Jalpaiguri
4 Neora Valley NP 1986 159.89 Darjeeling
5 Singalila NP 1986 78.60 Darjeeling
6 Sunderban NP 1984 1330.10 North & South 24-Paraganas

(Source: Wildlife Institute of India)

Biosphere Reserves in India

S. Date of
Name Area (in km2) Location (State)
No. Notification
Part of Wayanad, Nagarhole,
5520 Bandipur and Madumalai,
1 Nilgiri 01.09.1986 (Core 1240 & Buffer Nilambur, Silent Valley and
4280) Siruvani hills (Tamil Nadu,
Kerala and Karnataka).

31
 5860.69
Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh,
(Core 712.12,
2 Nanda Devi 18.01.1988 and Bageshwar districts
Buffer 5,148.570) &
(Uttarakhand).
T. 546.34)
820
(Core 47.48 & Buffer Part of Garo hills
3 Nokrek 01.09.1988
227.92, Transition (Meghalaya).
Zone 544.60)
Southern most islands of
885 (Core 705 &
4 Great Nicobar 06.01.1989 Andaman And Nicobar (A&N
Buffer 180)
Islands).
10,500 km2
Indian part of Gulf of Mannar
Total Gulf area
5 Gulf of Mannar 18.02.1989 between India and Sri Lanka
(area of
(Tamil Nadu).
Islands 5.55 km2)
Part of Kokrajhar,
2837
Bongaigaon, Barpeta,
6 Manas 14.03.1989 (Core 391 & Buffer
Nalbari, Kamprup and
2,446)
Darang districts (Assam)
9630 Part of delta of Ganges and
7 Sunderbans 29.03.1989 (Core 1700 & Buffer Brahamaputra river system
7900) (West Bengal).
4374
(Core 845, Buffer Part of Mayurbhanj district
8 Simlipal 21.06.1994
2129 & Transition (Orissa).
1400
765
Part of Dibrugarh and
9 Dibru-Saikhowa 28.07.1997 (Core 340 & Buffer
Tinsukia Districts (Assam)
425)
5111.50
Part of Siang and Dibang
10 Dehang-Dibang 02.09.1998 (Core 4094.80
Valley in Arunachal Pradesh.
&Buffer 1016.70)
Parts of Betul, Hoshangabad
11 Pachmarhi 03.03.1999 4926 and Chindwara districts of
Madhya Pradesh.
2619.92
Parts of Khangchendzonga
12 Khangchendzonga 07.02.2000 (Core 1819.34 &
hills and Sikkim.
Buffer 835.92)
Neyyar, Peppara and
Shendurney Wildlife
13 Agasthyamalai 12.11.2001 1828
Sanctuaries and their
adjoining areas in Kerala.
Covers parts of Anupur and
3835.51
Achanakamar - Dindori districts of M.P. and
14 30.3.2005 (Core 551.55 &
Amarkantak parts of Bilaspur districts of
Buffer 3283.86)
Chhattishgarh State.
Part of Kachchh, Rajkot,
15 Kachchh 29.01.2008 12,454 km2 Surendra Nagar and Patan
Civil Districts of Gujarat State
Pin Valley National Park and
16 Cold Desert 28.08.2009 7770 surroundings; Chandratal
and Sarchu&Kibber Wildlife

32
 Sancturary in Himachal
Pradesh
Seshachalam Hill Ranges
covering parts of Chittoor
17 Seshachalam Hills 20.09.2010 4755.997
and Kadapa districts of
Andhra Pradesh
Part of Panna and
18 Panna 25.08.2011 2998.98 Chhattarpur districts in
Madhya Pradesh

Tamil Nadu
Protected Area Gazette Notification Database (Tamil Nadu)

National Park

S.No. Name of Protected Area

1 Guindy NP
2 Gulf of Mannar Marine NP
3 Indira Gandhi (Annamalai) NP
4 Mudumalai NP
5 Mukurthi NP

Wildlife Sanctuary

S.No. Name of Protected Area

1 Cauvery North Sanctuary
2 Chitrangudi WLS
3 Gangaikondam Spotted Deer WLS
4 Indira Gandhi (Annamalai) WLS
5 Kalakad WLS
6 Kanjirankulam WLS
7 Kanyakumari WLS
8 Karaivetti WLS
9 Karikili WLS
10 Kilaselvanur-Melaselvanur WLS
11 Kuthankulam-Kadankulam WLS
12 Nellai WLS
13 Point Calimere WLS
14 Pulicat Lake WLS
15 Satyamangalam WLS

33
16 Srivilliputhur (Giant Squirrel) WLS
17 Udayamarthandapuram Lake WLS
18 Vaduvoor WLS
19 Vedanthangal WLS
20 Vellanadu WLS
21 Vellode WLS
22 Vettangudi WLS

34
 Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of Employment and Training

Course : TNPSC Combined Civil Services Examination - IV(Group IV / VAO)

Subject : Zoology
Topic : REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

© Copyright

The Department of Employment and Training has prepared the TNPSC Combined Civil
Services Examination - IV (Group-IV / VAO) study material in the form of e-Content for the
benefit of Competitive Exam aspirants and it is being uploaded in this Virtual Learning Portal. This
e-Content study material is the sole property of the Department of Employment and Training. No
one (either an individual or an institution) is allowed to make copy or reproduce the matter in any
form. The trespassers will be prosecuted under the Indian Copyright Act.

It is a cost-free service provided to the job seekers who are preparing for Competitive
Exams.

Commissioner,
Department of Employment and Training.

1
 Reproductive system

 There are two modes by which animals reproduce. These are:

1. Sexual reproduction, and

2. Asexual reproduction.

 There are many organisms which do not reproduce (mules, sterile worker bees, infertile
human couples, etc.).

Sexual Reproduction

 The reproductive parts in animals produce gametes that fuse to form a zygote. It is the
zygote which develops into a new individual. This type of reproduction beginning from the
fusion of male and female gametes is called sexual reproduction.
 The male reproductive organs include a pair of testes (singular, testis), two sperm
ducts and a penis. The testes produce the male gametes called sperms.
 The female reproductive organs are a pair of ovaries, oviducts (fallopian tubes) and
the uterus. Ovary produces female gametes called ova (eggs).

 In human beings, a single matured egg is released into the oviduct by one of the ovaries
every month. Uterus is the part where development of the baby takes place. Like the
sperm, an egg is also a single cell.

2
 The first step in the process of reproduction is the fusion of a sperm and an ovum. When
sperms come in contact with an egg, one of the sperms may fuse with the egg. Such
fusion of the egg and the sperm is called fertilization.

Internal and External Fertilization

 During fertilization, the nuclei of the sperm and the egg fuse to form a single nucleus. This
results in the formation of a fertilized egg or zygote.
 Fertilization which takes place inside the female body is called internal fertilization.
Internal fertilization occurs in many animals including humans, cows, dogs and hens.
 During spring or rainy season, frogs and toads move to ponds and slow flowing streams.
When the male and female come together in water, the female lays hundreds of eggs.
 Unlike hen’s egg, frog’s egg is not covered by a shell and it is comparatively very delicate.
A layer of jelly holds the eggs together and provides protection to the eggs.
 As the eggs are laid, the male deposits sperms over them. Each sperm swims randomly in
water with the help of its long tail. The sperms come in contact with the eggs. This results
in fertilization.
 This type of fertilization in which the fusion of a male and a female gamete takes place
outside the body of the female is called external fertilization. It is very common
in aquatic animals such as fish, starfish, etc.

Asexual Reproduction

 In each hydra, there may be one or more bulges. These bulges are the developing new
individuals and they are called buds. In hydra, the new individuals develop as outgrowths
from a single parent. This type of reproduction in which only a single parent is involved is
called asexual reproduction. Since new individuals develop from the buds in hydra, this
type of asexual reproduction is called budding.
 Another method of asexual reproduction is observed in the microscopic organism,
amoeba. Reproduction in which an animal reproduces by dividing into two individuals is
called binary fission. Apart from budding and binary fission, there are other methods by
which a single parent reproduces the young ones.

3
 Human Reproductive System

 The reproductive events in humans include

4
1. formation of gametes (gametogenesis), i.e., sperms in males and ovum in females,
2. transfer of sperms into the female genital tract (insemination),
3. fusion of male and female gametes (fertilisation) leading to formation of zygote.
4. formation and development of blastocyst and its attachment to the uterine wall
(implantation),
5. embryonic development (gestation) and
6. delivery of the baby (parturition).

Male Reproductive System

 The male reproductive system is located in the pelvis region. It includes a pair
of testes along with accessory ducts, glands and the external genitalia.
 The testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch called scrotum. The
scrotum helps in maintaining the low temperature of the testes (2–2.50C lower than the
normal internal body temperature) necessary for spermatogenesis.
 Each testis has about 250 testicular lobules. Each lobule contains one to three highly
coiled seminiferous tubules in which sperms are produced.
 Each seminiferous tubule is lined on its inside by two types of cells called male germ
cells (spermatogonia) and Sertoli cells.
 The male germ cells undergo meiotic divisions finally leading to sperm formation, while
Sertoli cells provide nutrition to the germ cells.
 The regions outside the seminiferous tubules called interstitial spaces, contain small blood
vessels and interstitial cells or Leydig cells. Leydig cells synthesise and secrete testicular
hormones called androgens [a male sex hormone] , such as testosterone. Androgens
stimulates or controls the development and maintenance of male characteristics].

5
 The male sex accessory ducts include rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis and vas
deferens.
 The seminiferous tubules of the testis open into the vasa efferentia through rete testis.

6
 The vasa efferentia leave the testis and open into epididymis. The epididymis leads to vas
deferens that ascends to the abdomen and loops over the urinary bladder. It receives a
duct from seminal vesicle [gland that secrete many of the components of semen] and
opens into urethra as the ejaculatory duct. These ducts store and transport the sperms
from the testis to the outside through urethra.
 The urethra originates from the urinary bladder and extends through the penis to its
external opening called urethral meatus.
 The penis is the male external genitalia. It is made up of special tissue that helps in
erection of the penis to facilitate insemination. The enlarged end of penis called the glans
penis is covered by a loose fold of skin called foreskin.
 The male accessory glands include paired seminal vesicles, a prostate [releasing a fluid
component of semen] and paired bulbourethral glands.
 Secretions of these glands constitute the seminal plasma which is rich in fructose,
calcium and certain enzymes.
 The secretions of bulbourethral glands also helps in the lubrication of the penis.

Female Reproductive System

 The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries along with a pair
of oviducts, uterus, cervix, vagina and the external genitalia located in pelvic region.
 These parts of the system along with a pair of the mammary glands are integrated
structurally and functionally to support the processes of ovulation, fertilisation, pregnancy,
birth and child care.
 Ovaries are the primary female sex organs [testis in males] that produce the female
gamete (ovum) [sperm in males] and several steroid hormones (ovarian hormones).
 The ovaries are located one on each side of the lower abdomen. Each ovary is connected
to the pelvic wall and uterus by ligaments.
 Each ovary is covered by a thin epithelium which encloses the ovarian stroma. The stroma
is divided into two zones – a peripheral cortex and an inner medulla.
 The oviducts (fallopian tubes), uterus and vagina constitute the female accessory
ducts.

7
 Each fallopian tube extends from the periphery of each ovary to the uterus, the part closer
to the ovary is the funnel-shaped infundibulum.
 The edges of the infundibulum possess finger-like projections called fimbriae, which help
in collection of the ovum after ovulation. The infundibulum leads to a wider part of the
oviduct called ampulla.
 The last part of the oviduct, isthmus has a narrow lumen and it joins the uterus. The uterus
is single and it is also called womb. The shape of the uterus is like an inverted pear.
 It is supported by ligaments attached to the pelvic wall. The uterus opens into vagina
through a narrow cervix. The cavity of the cervix is called cervical canal which along with
vagina forms the birth canal.
 The wall of the uterus has three layers of tissue. The external thin membranous
perimetrium, middle thick layer of smooth muscle, myometrium and inner glandular layer
called endometrium that lines the uterine cavity.
 The endometrium undergoes cyclical changes during menstrual cycle while
the myometrium exhibits strong contraction during delivery of the baby.
 The female external genitalia include mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen and
clitoris.
 Mons pubis is a cushion of fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair. The labia majora
are fleshy folds of tissue, which extend down from the mons pubis and surround the
vaginal opening.

8
 The labia minora are paired folds of tissue under the labia majora. The opening of the
vagina is often covered partially by a membrane called hymen.
 The clitoris is a tiny finger-like structure which lies at the upper junction of the two labia
minora above the urethral opening.
 The hymen is often torn during the first coitus (intercourse). However, it can also be
broken by a sudden fall or jolt, insertion of a vaginal tampon, active participation in some
sports like horseback riding, cycling, etc.
 In some women the hymen persists even after coitus. In fact, the presence or absence of
hymen is not a reliable indicator of virginity or sexual experience.
 A functional mammary gland is characteristic of all female mammals. The mammary
glands are paired structures (breasts) that contain glandular tissue and variable amount
of fat.
 The glandular tissue of each breast is divided into 15-20 mammary lobes containing
clusters of cells called alveoli. The cells of alveoli secrete milk, which is stored in the
cavities (lumens) of alveoli. The alveoli open into mammary tubules.
 The tubules of each lobe join to form a mammary duct. Several mammary ducts join to
form a wider mammary ampulla which is connected to lactiferous duct through which milk
is sucked out.

Gametogenesis

 The primary sex organs – the testis in the males and the ovaries in the
females produce gametes, i.e, sperms and ovum, respectively, by the process
called gametogenesis.
 In testis, the immature male germ cells (spermatogonia) produce sperms by
spermatogenesis that begins at puberty.
 The spermatogonia (sing. spermatogonium) present on the inside wall of seminiferous
tubules multiply by mitotic division and increase in numbers. Each spermatogonium
is diploid and contains 46 chromosomes.
 Some of the spermatogonia called primary spermatocytes periodically undergo meiosis.

9
 A primary spermatocyte completes the first meiotic division (reduction division) leading to
formation of two equal, haploid cells called secondary spermatocytes, which have only
23 chromosomes each.
 The secondary spermatocytes undergo the second meiotic division to produce four
equal, haploid spermatids.

What would be the number of chromosome in the spermatids? 23 chromosomes.

 The spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa (sperms) by the process called
spermiogenesis. After spermiogenesis, sperm heads become embedded in the Sertoli
cells, and are finally released from the seminiferous tubules by the process called
spermiation.
 Spermatogenesis starts at the age of puberty due to significant increase in the secretion
of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). This, if you recall, is a hypothalamic
hormone.
 The increased levels of GnRH then acts at the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates
secretion of two gonadotropins – luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH).
 LH acts at the Leydig cells and stimulates synthesis and secretion of androgens.
Androgens, in turn, stimulate the process of spermatogenesis.

10
 FSH acts on the Sertoli cells and stimulates secretion of some factors which help in the
process of spermiogenesis.
 Sperm is a microscopic structure composed of a head, neck, a middle piece and a tail. A
plasma membrane envelops the whole body of sperm.
 The sperm head contains an elongated haploid nucleus, the anterior portion of which is
covered by a cap-like structure, acrosome. The acrosome is filled with enzymes that help
fertilization of the ovum.
 The middle piece possesses numerous mitochondria, which produce energy for the
movement of tail that facilitate sperm motility essential for fertilization.
 The human male ejaculates about 200 to 300 million sperms during a coitus of which, for
normal fertility, at least 60 per cent sperms must have normal shape and size and at least
40 per cent of them must show vigorous motility.
 Sperms released from the seminiferous tubules, are transported by the accessory ducts.
 Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle and prostate are essential
for maturation and motility of sperms.
 The seminal plasma along with the sperms constitute the semen. The functions of male
sex accessory ducts and glands are maintained by the testicular hormones
(androgens).
 The process of formation of a mature female gamete is called oogenesis which is
markedly different from spermatogenesis.
 Oogenesis is initiated during the embryonic development stage when a couple of million
gamete mother cells (oogonia) are formed within each fetal ovary; no more oogonia are
formed and added after birth.
 These cells start division and enter into prophase-I of the meiotic division and get
temporarily arrested at that stage, called primary oocytes.
 Each primary oocyte then gets surrounded by a layer of granulosa cells and is called
the primary follicle.
 A large number of these follicles degenerate during the phase from birth to puberty.
Therefore, at puberty only 60,000-80,000 primary follicles are left in each ovary.

11
 The primary follicles get surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells and a new theca
and are called secondary follicles. The secondary follicle soon transforms into a tertiary
follicle which is characterised by a fluid filled cavity called antrum.
 At this stage the primary oocyte within the tertiary follicle grows in size and completes its
first meiotic division. It is an unequal division resulting in the formation of a large haploid
secondary oocyte and a tiny first polar body.
 The secondary oocyte retains bulk of the nutrient rich cytoplasm of the primary oocyte.
 The tertiary follicle further changes into the mature follicle or Graafian follicle. The
secondary oocyte forms a new membrane called zona pellucida surrounding it.
 The Graafian follicle now ruptures to release the secondary oocyte (ovum) from the ovary
by the process called ovulation.

Menstrual Cycle

 The reproductive cycle in the female primates (e.g. monkeys, apes and human beings) is
called menstrual cycle. The first menstruation begins at puberty and is called menarche.
 In human females, menstruation is repeated at an average interval of about 28/29 days,
and the cycle of events starting from one menstruation till the next one is called
the menstrual cycle.

12
 One ovum is released (ovulation) during the middle of each menstrual cycle. The cycle
starts with the menstrual phase, when menstrual flow occurs and it lasts for 3-5 days.
 The menstrual flow results due to breakdown of endometrial lining of the uterus and its
blood vessels which forms liquid that comes out through vagina. Menstruation only occurs
if the released ovum is not fertilized.
 Lack of menstruation may be indicative of pregnancy. However, it may also be caused
due to some other underlying causes like stress, poor health etc.
 The menstrual phase is followed by the follicular phase. During this phase, the primary
follicles in the ovary grow to become a fully mature Graafian follicle and simultaneously
the endometrium of uterus regenerates through proliferation.
 These changes in the ovary and the uterus are induced by changes in the levels of
pituitary and ovarian hormones.

13
 The secretion of gonadotropins (LH and FSH) increases gradually during the follicular
phase, and stimulates follicular development as well as secretion of estrogens by the
growing follicles.
 Both LH and FSH attain a peak level in the middle of cycle (about 14 th day). Rapid
secretion of LH leading to its maximum level during the mid-cycle called LH surge induces
rupture of Graafian follicle and thereby the release of ovum (ovulation).
 The ovulation (ovulatory phase) is followed by the luteal phase during which the remaining
parts of the Graafian follicle transform as the corpus luteum.
 The corpus luteum secretes large amounts of progesterone which is essential for
maintenance of the endometrium. Such an endometrium is necessary for implantation of
the fertilised ovum and other events of pregnancy.
 During pregnancy all events of the menstrual cycle stop and there is no menstruation. In
the absence of fertilisation, the corpus luteum degenerates. This causes disintegration of
the endometrium leading to menstruation, marking a new cycle.
 In human beings, menstrual cycles ceases around 50 years of age; that is termed
as menopause.
 Cyclic menstruation is an indicator of normal reproductive phase and extends between
menarche and menopause.

Fertilisation And Implantation

 During copulation (coitus) semen is released by the penis into the vagina (insemination).
The motile sperms swim rapidly, pass through the cervix, enter into the uterus and finally
reach the ampullary region of the fallopian tube.
 The ovum released by the ovary is also transported to the ampullary region where
fertilisation takes place.
 Fertilisation can only occur if the ovum and sperms are transported simultaneously to
the ampullary region. This is the reason why not all copulations lead to fertilisation and
pregnancy.

14
 The process of fusion of a sperm with an ovum is called fertilisation. During fertilisation, a
sperm comes in contact with the zona pellucida layer of the ovum and induces changes
in the membrane that block the entry of additional sperms. Thus, it ensures that only one
sperm can fertilise an ovum.
 The secretions of the acrosome help the sperm enter into the cytoplasm of the ovum
through the zona pellucida and the plasma.

15
 Ovum surrounded by few sperm blastomeres is called a morula. The morula continues to
divide and transforms into blastocyst as it moves further into the uterus.
 The blastomeres in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer layer called trophoblast and
an inner group of cells attached to trophoblast called the inner cell mass. The trophoblast
layer then gets attached to the endometrium and the inner cell mass gets differentiated
as the embryo.
 After attachment, the uterine cells divide rapidly and covers the blastocyst. As a result, the
blastocyst becomes embedded in the endometrium of the uterus. This is
called implantation and it leads to pregnancy.

In Vitro Fertilization

 Have you heard of test tube babies? In some women oviducts are blocked. These
women are unable to bear babies because sperms cannot reach the egg for fertilization. In
such cases, doctors collect freshly released egg and sperms and keep them together for a
few hours for IVF or In Vitro Fertilization (fertilization outside the body).

16
 In case fertilization occurs, the zygote is allowed to develop for about a week and then it is
placed in the mother’s uterus. Complete development takes place in the uterus and the
baby is born like any other baby.
 Babies born through this technique are called test-tube babies. This term is actually
misleading because babies cannot grow in test tubes.

Pregnancy And Embryonic Development

 After implantation, finger-like projections appear on the trophoblast called chorionic villi
which are surrounded by the uterine tissue and maternal blood.
 The chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated with each other and jointly
form a structural and functional unit between developing embryo (foetus) and maternal
body called placenta.
 The placenta facilitate the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the embryo and also removal
of carbon dioxide and excretory/waste materials produced by the embryo.
 The placenta is connected to the embryo through an umbilical cord which helps in the
transport of substances to and from the embryo.
 Placenta also acts as an endocrine tissue and produces several hormones like human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human placental lactogen (hPL), estrogens, progestogens,
etc.
 In the later phase of pregnancy, a hormone called relaxin is also secreted by the ovary.
Let us remember that hCG, hPL and relaxin are produced in women only during
pregnancy.
 In addition, during pregnancy the levels of other hormones like estrogens, progestogens,
cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine, etc., are increased several folds in the maternal blood.
 Increased production of these hormones is essential for supporting the fetal growth,
metabolic changes in the mother and maintenance of pregnancy.
 Immediately after implantation, the inner cell mass (embryo) differentiates into an outer
layer called ectoderm and an inner layer called endoderm. A mesoderm soon appears
between the ectoderm and the endoderm [triploblastic]. These three layers give rise to all
tissues (organs) in adults.

17
 It needs to be mentioned here that the inner cell mass contains certain cells called stem
cells which have the potency to give rise to all the tissues and organs.
 The human pregnancy lasts 9 months. In human beings, after one month of pregnancy,
the embryo’s heart is formed. The first sign of growing foetus may be noticed by listening
to the heart sound carefully through the stethoscope.
 By the end of the second month of pregnancy, the foetus develops limbs and digits. By the
end of 12 weeks (first trimester), most of the major organ systems are formed, for
example, the limbs and external genital organs are well developed.
 The first movements of the foetus and appearance of hair on the head are usually
observed during the fifth month. By the end of about 24 weeks (end of second trimester),
the body is covered with fine hair, eye-lids separate, and eyelashes are formed. By the
end of nine months of pregnancy, the foetus is fully developed and is ready for delivery.

18
 Parturition And Lactation

 The average duration of human pregnancy is about 9 months which is called the gestation
period. Vigorous contraction of the uterus at the end of pregnancy causes
expulsion/delivery of the foetus. This process of delivery of the foetus (childbirth) is
called parturition.
 Parturition is induced by a complex neuroendocrine mechanism. The signals for parturition
originate from the fully developed foetus and the placenta which induce mild uterine
contractions called foetal ejection reflex. This triggers release of oxytocin from the
maternal pituitary.
 Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscle and causes stronger uterine contractions, which in
turn stimulates further secretion of oxytocin. The stimulatory reflex between the uterine
contraction and oxytocin secretion continues resulting in stronger and stronger
contractions. This leads to expulsion of the baby out of the uterus through the birth canal –
parturition.
 Soon after the infant is delivered, the placenta is also expelled out of the uterus. The
mammary glands of the female undergo differentiation during pregnancy and starts
producing milk towards the end of pregnancy by the process called lactation. This helps
the mother in feeding the newborn.
 The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called colostrum which
contains several antibodies absolutely essential to develop resistance for the new-born
babies.
 Breast-feeding during the initial period of infant growth is recommended by doctors for
bringing up a healthy baby.

Summary

 Humans are sexually reproducing and viviparous.

 The male reproductive system is composed of a pair of testes, the male sex accessory
ducts and the accessory glands and external genitalia.

19
 Each testis has about 250 compartments called testicular lobules, and each lobule
contains one to three highly coiled seminiferous tubules.
 Each seminiferous tubule is lined inside by spermatogonia and Sertoli cells.
 The spermatogonia undergo meiotic divisions leading to sperm formation, while Sertoli
cells provide nutrition to the dividing germ cells.
 The Leydig cells outside the seminiferous tubules, synthesise and secrete testicular
hormones called androgens.
 The male external genitalia is called penis.
 The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts, a uterus, a
vagina, external genitalia, and a pair of mammary glands.
 The ovaries produce the female gamete (ovum) and some steroid hormones (ovarian
hormones).
 Ovarian follicles in different stages of development are embedded in the stroma.
 The oviducts, uterus and vagina are female accessory ducts.
 The uterus has three layers namely perimetrium, myometrium and endometrium.
 The female external genitalia includes mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen and
clitoris.
 The mammary glands are one of the female secondary sexual characteristics.
 Spermatogenesis results in the formation of sperms that are transported by the male sex
accessory ducts.
 A normal human sperm is composed of a head, neck, a middle piece and tail.
 The process of formation of mature female gametes is called oogenesis.
 The reproductive cycle of female primates is called menstrual cycle.
 Menstrual cycle starts only after attaining sexual maturation (puberty).
 During ovulation only one ovum is released per menstrual cycle.
 The cyclical changes in the ovary and the uterus during menstrual cycle are induced by
changes in the levels of pituitary and ovarian hormones.
 After coitus, sperms are transported to the junction of the isthmus and ampulla, where the
sperm fertilizes the ovum leading to formation of a diploid zygote.
 The presence of X or Y chromosome in the sperm determines the sex of the embryo.

20
 The zygote undergoes repeated mitotic division to form a blastocyst, which is implanted
in the uterus resulting in pregnancy.
 After nine months of pregnancy, the fully developed foetus is ready for delivery.
 The process of childbirth is called parturition which is induced by a complex
neuroendocrine mechanism involving cortisol, estrogens and oxytocin.
 Mammary glands differentiate during pregnancy and secrete milk after child-birth.
 The new-born baby is fed milk by the mother (lactation) during the initial few months of
growth.

Modes Of Reproduction in Plants

 There are several ways by which plants produce their offspring. These are categorised
into two types: (i) asexual, and (ii) sexual
 In asexual reproduction plants can give rise to new plants without seeds, whereas in
sexual reproduction, new plants are obtained from seeds.

Asexual Reproduction in Plants

Asexual reproduction occurs through:

21
1. Vegetative Propagation,
2. Budding,
3. Fragmentation and
4. Spore formation.

Vegetative Propagation

 Most plants have roots, stems and leaves. These are called the vegetative parts of a
plant.
 Vegetative Propagation is a type of asexual reproduction in which new plants are
produced from roots, stems, leaves and buds. Since reproduction is through the
vegetative parts of the plant, it is known as vegetative propagation.
 Bryophyllum (sprout leaf plant) has buds in the margins of leaves. If a leaf of this plant
falls on a moist soil, each bud can give rise to a new plant.

Bryophyllum (sprout leaf plant)

22
 The roots of some plants can also give rise to new plants. Sweet potato and dahlia are
examples.
 Plants such as cacti produce new plants when their parts get detached from the main
plant body. Each detached part can grow into a new plant.
 Plants produced by vegetative propagation take less time to grow and bear flowers and
fruits earlier than those produced from seeds.
 The new plants are exact copies of the parent plant, as they are produced from a single
parent.

Budding

 Yeast is a single-celled organism. The small bulb-like projection coming out from the yeast
cell is called a bud.
 The bud gradually grows and gets detached from the parent cell and forms a new yeast
cell.
 The new yeast cell grows, matures and produces more yeast cells. If this process
continues, a large number of yeast cells are produced in a short time.

23
 Fragmentation

 When water and nutrients are available algae grow and multiply rapidly by fragmentation.
 An alga breaks up into two or more fragments. These fragments or pieces grow into new
individuals. This process continues and they cover a large area in a short period of time.

Spore formation

24
 Fungi on a bread piece grow from spores which are present in the air. When spores are
released they keep floating in the air.
 The spores are asexual reproductive bodies. As they are very light, they can cover long
distances.
 Each spore is covered by a hard protective coat to withstand unfavorable conditions such
as high temperature and low humidity. So they can survive for a long time.
 Under favourable conditions, a spore germinates and develops into a new individual.
 Plants such as moss and ferns also reproduce by means of spores.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants – Unisexual and Bisexual

 The flowers are the reproductive parts of a plant. The stamens are the male
reproductive part and the pistil is the female reproductive part.

25
 The flowers which contain either only the pistil or only the stamens are called unisexual
flowers. The flowers which contain both stamens and pistil are called bisexual flowers.

26
 Corn, papaya and cucumber produce unisexual flowers, whereas mustard,
rose and petunia have bisexual flowers.
 Both the male and the female unisexual flowers may be present in the same plant or in
different plants.
 Anther contains pollen grains which produce male gametes. A pistil consists of stigma,
style and ovary. The ovary contains one or more ovules. The female gamete or the egg is
formed in an ovule. In sexual reproduction a male and a female gamete fuse to form
a zygote.

Pollination

 Generally pollen grains have a tough protective coat which prevents them from drying up.
Since pollen grains are light, they can be carried by wind or water. Insects visit flowers and
carry away pollen on their bodies.
 Some of the pollen lands on the stigma of a flower of the same kind. The transfer of pollen
from the anther to the stigma of a flower is called pollination.
 If the pollen lands on the stigma of the same flower it is called self-pollination. When the
pollen of a flower lands on the stigma of another flower of the same plant, or that of a
different plant of the same kind, it is called cross-pollination.

27
 Self Pollination vs. Cross Pollination

Self-Pollination Cross-Pollination

1. Pollen grains are transferred to the 1. Pollen grains are carried to stigma of
stigma of the same flower. another flower.

2. Occurs in bisexual plants having anther 2. Occurs in bisexual flowers having

and stigma maturing at same time. anther and stigma maturing at different
times.
3. It takes place in plants like wheat, peas
etc. 3. It takes place in plants like lady-
finger, tomato, brinjal etc.

Fertilisation

 The cell which results after fusion of the gametes is called a zygote. The process of fusion
of male and female gametes (to form a zygote) is called fertilization. The zygote develops
into an embryo.

Fruits and seed formation

 After fertilization, the ovary grows into a fruit and other parts of the flower fall off. The
fruit is the ripened ovary.

28
 The seeds develop from the ovules. The seed contains an embryo enclosed in a
protective seed coat. Some fruits are fleshy and juicy such as mango, apple and orange.
Some fruits are hard like almonds and walnuts.

Seed dispersal

 Some seeds are dispersed by animals, especially spiny seeds with hooks which get
attached to the bodies of animals and are carried to distant places. Examples are
Xanthium and Urena.
 Some seeds are dispersed when the fruits burst with sudden jerks. The seeds are
scattered far from the parent plant. This happens in the case of Castor and Balsam.

Asexual reproduction vs Sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

a) Only one parent plant is involved. a) Both male and female parents are
involved.
b) Occurs in unisexual plants. b) Occurs in bisexual plants.
c) Occurs in lower plants. c) Occurs in higher plants.
d) Reproductive organs are not d) Fully developed reproductive parts are
present. present
e) In most of the methods the e) Original parents remain alive after process
original parent disappears. of reproduction.
f) Process like gamete formation or f) Fertilization of gametes give rises to
fertilization is not seen. zygote.
g) Characteristics of only one parent g) Characteristics of both parents are
is inherited. inherited.
h) No need of seeds. h) Seeds are used to get new plants from a
flower.

29
 Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of Employment and Training

Course : TNPSC Combined Civil Services Examination - IV(Group IV / VAO)

Subject : Zoology
Topic : Health and Hygiene

© Copyright

The Department of Employment and Training has prepared the TNPSC Combined Civil
Services Examination - IV (Group-IV / VAO) study material in the form of e-Content for the benefit
of Competitive Exam aspirants and it is being uploaded in this Virtual Learning Portal. This e-
Content study material is the sole property of the Department of Employment and Training. No one
(either an individual or an institution) is allowed to make copy or reproduce the matter in any form.
The trespassers will be prosecuted under the Indian Copyright Act.

It is a cost-free service provided to the job seekers who are preparing for Competitive
Exams.

Commissioner,
Department of Employment and Training.

1
 Health and hygiene

Primary and Secondary Metabolites

 In animal tissues, one notices the presence of all categories of compounds shown in Figure
9.1. These are called primary metabolites.
 However, when one analyses plant, fungal and microbial cells, one would see thousands of
compounds other than these called primary metabolites, e.g. alkaloids, flavonoids, rubber,
essential oils, antibiotics, colored pigments, scents, gums, spices. These are called
secondary metabolites.

2
 Vitamins

 Vitamins are organic compounds that are required in small amounts in our diet but their
deficiency causes specific diseases.
 Most of the vitamins cannot be synthesized in our body but plants can synthesize almost all
of them, so they are considered as essential food factors.
 However, the bacteria of the gut can produce some of the vitamins required by us.
 All the vitamins are generally available in our diet. Different vitamins belong to various
chemical classes and it is difficult to define them on the basis of structure.
 They are generally regarded as organic compounds required in the diet in small
amounts to perform specific biological functions for normal maintenance of optimum
growth and health of the organism.
 Vitamins are designated by alphabets A, B, C, D, etc. Some of them are further named as
sub-groups e.g. B1, B2, B6, B12, etc.
 Vitamin A keeps our skin and eyes healthy.
 Vitamin C helps body to fight against many diseases. Vitamin C gets easily destroyed by
heat during cooking.
 Vitamin D helps our body to use calcium for bones and teeth.
 Excess of vitamins is also harmful and vitamin pills should not be taken without the advice
of doctor.
 The term ―Vitamine‖ was coined from the word vital + amine since the earlier identified
compounds had amino groups.

3
 Later work showed that most of them did not contain amino groups, so the letter ‗e‘ was
dropped and the term vitamin is used these days.
 Vitamins are classified into two groups depending upon their solubility in water or fat.

Fat soluble vitamins

 Vitamins which are soluble in fat and oils but insoluble in water are kept in this group. These
are vitamins A, D, E and K. They are stored in liver and adipose (fat storing) tissues.

Water soluble vitamins

 B group vitamins and vitamin C are soluble in water so they are grouped together.
 Water soluble vitamins must be supplied regularly in diet because they are
readily excreted in urine and cannot be stored (except vitamin B12) in our body.

Deficiency Diseases

 A person may be getting enough food to eat, but sometimes the food may not contain a
particular nutrient. If this continues over a long period of time, the person may suffer from its
deficiency.
 Deficiency of one or more nutrients can cause diseases or disorders in our body. Diseases
that occur due to lack of nutrients over a long period are called deficiency diseases.

1. Vitamin A——— Night blindness

2. Vitamin B1———Beriberi
3. Vitamin B2——– Ariboflavinosis
4. Vitamin B3 ——–Pellagra
5. Vitamin B5 ——–Paresthesia
6. Vitamin B6 ——–Anemia
7. Vitamin B7 —— Dermatitis, enteritis
8. Vitamin B9 & Vitamin B12 —– Megaloblastic anemia
9. Vitamin C —— Scurvy, Swelling of Gums
10. Vitamin D —— Rickets & Osteomalacia
11. Vitamin E —— Less Fertility
12. Vitamin K —— Non-Clotting of Blood.

4
 Micronutrients – Vitamins and Minerals

 Micronutrients, as opposed to macronutrients (protein, carbohydrates and fat), are

comprised of vitamins and minerals which are required in small quantities to ensure
normal metabolism, growth and physically well.

Vitamins

 These are essential organic nutrients, most of which are not made in the body, or only in
insufficient amounts, and are mainly obtained through food.
 When their intake is inadequate, vitamin deficiency disorders are the consequence.
 Although vitamins are only present and required in minute quantities, compared to the
macronutrients, they are as vital to health and need to be considered when determining
nutrition security.

5
 Each of the 13 vitamins known today have specific functions in the body: vitamin A,
provitamin A (Beta‐carotene), vitamin B1, vitamin B2, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, biotin,
vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin E, folic acid, vitamin K, niacin and pantothenic acid.

Minerals

 These are inorganic nutrients that also play a key role in ensuring health and well.
 They include the trace elements copper, iodine, iron, manganese, selenium and
zinc together with the macro elements calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium.

Five Important Micronutrients

 As with vitamins, minerals they are found in small quantities within the body and they are
obtained from a wide variety of foods.
 No single food contains all of the vitamins and minerals we need and, therefore, a balanced
and varied diet is necessary for an adequate intake.
 Of course, we already know a huge amount about how these work, and the importance they
have in normal human growth and development.
 Based on this, an Expert Panel of nutritionist, NGOs and development agencies indentified
five micronutrients such as those below in their priority group:

Vitamin A

 This vital micronutrient is found in a range of different foods including carrots, spinach,
broccoli, milk, egg, liver and fish.
 It plays an essential role in vision (lack of Vitamin A is a common cause of blindness),
reproduction and growth, and the functioning of a healthy immune system (it plays a key
role in the development of white blood cells).
 Worldwide about 5 million children under the age of five are affected by xerophthalmia, a
serious eye disorder caused by vitamin A deficiency.
 These children are at risk of becoming blind and are more likely to die of common
childhood diseases.

Folate (folic acid)

 This is a generic term for a group of B vitamins including folic acid and naturally
occurring

6
 Folic acid is a synthetic folate compound used in vitamin supplements and fortified food
because of its increased stability.
 Folates are found in egg, dairy products, asparagus, orange juice, dark green leafy
vegetables, beans and brown bread.
 They play a key role in the metabolism of amino acids and the production of proteins,
the synthesis of nucleic acid(the molecules that carry genetic information in the cells),
and the formation of blood cells.

Iodine

 Seaweed and fish are rich sources but in many countries the addition of iodine (known as
iodization) to salt is an important source.
 Iodine is one of the most important elements required by the developing foetus due to its
effect on brain development.
 Iodine also serves a number of other important functions especially in the production of
hormones.
 Goitre is a visible sign of severe iodine deficiency.

Iron

 Iron has a number of key functions within the body. It acts as a carrier for oxygen from the
lungs to the body‘s tissues – it does so in the form of Haemoglobin – and it also integral to
the working of various tissues through the role that it plays in enzymatic reactions.
 Iron deficiency ultimately leads to iron deficiency anemia, the most common cause of
anemia, a condition in which the blood lacks healthy red bloods cells required to carry
oxygen, and which results in morbidity and death.
 Iron deficiency is the most widespread health problem in the world, impairing normal mental
development in 40‐60% of infants in the developing world.
 Iron‐rich foods include lentils, red meat, poultry, fish, lentils and leaf vegetables.

Zinc

 Found in a range of foodstuffs including liver, eggs, nuts, cereals and seafood.
 The absence of zinc is associated with a number of conditions including, short stature,
anemia, impaired healing of wounds, poor gonadal function, and impaired cognitive
and motor function.
 It can also lead to appetite disorders, as well as contributing to the increased severity and
incidence of diarrhoea and pneumonia.

7
 The most important effect of zinc deficiency is its impact on children‘s resistance to
infectious diseases including the risk of infection, the recurrence of infections and the
severity of infection. This is well documented in the case of diarrhoea. Zinc nutrition is
therefore an important determinant of mortality in children.

Food Sources of Vitamins and Minerals

Dietry Fibers

 Dietary fibres are also known as roughage. Roughage is mainly provided by plant products
in our foods.
 Whole grains and pulses, potatoes, fresh fruits and vegetables are main sources of
roughage.

8
 Roughage does not provide any nutrient to our body, but is an essential component of our
food and adds to its bulk. This helps our body get rid of undigested food.

Fats

 Fat is one of the three main macronutrients: fat, carbohydrate, and protein.
 Fat is a major source of energy and helps your body absorb vitamins.
 Carbohydrates | Monosaccharides | Polysaccharides
 Proteins | Amino Acids | Enzymes
 Vitamins and Minerals – Deficiency Diseases
Fat has the most calories compared to any other nutrient. Controlling fat intake is
one of the most important steps in losing or maintaining weight and preventing or delaying
type 2 diabetes.
Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains and
the alcohol glycerol.
Fats are solids at room temperature. Oil refers to a fat with unsaturated fatty acid
chains that is liquid at room temperature.
Fats, like other lipids, are generally insoluble in water.

Lipid

 A lipid is chemically defined as a substance that is insoluble in water and soluble in

alcohol and chloroform.
 Lipids are an important component of living cells. Together with carbohydrates and
proteins, lipids are the main constituents of plant and animal cells.
 Cholesterol and triglycerides are lipids. Lipid is not necessarily a triglyceride.
 Glycerol is a simple sugar alcohol compound. A triglyceride is an ester derived from glycerol
and three fatty acids (tri + glyceride)
 Triglycerides are the main constituent of body fat in humans and animals, as well as
vegetable fat.

9
 Fatty Acid

 A fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with a long aliphatic chain [organic compounds in which
carbon atoms form open chains], which is either saturated or unsaturated.
 Some fatty acids are called essential because they cannot be synthesized in the body from
simpler constituents.
 There are two essential fatty acids (EFAs) in human nutrition: alpha-linolenic acid (an
omega-3 fatty acid) and linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid).
 Fats and other lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called LIPASES produced in
the pancreas, mouth, and stomach
 Fats are made of long chains of carbon (C) atoms. Some carbon atoms are linked by single
bonds (-C-C-) and others are linked by double bonds (-C=C-).

10
 Saturated fat

 A saturated fat is a fat in which the fatty acids all have single bonds.
 A saturated fat has the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons, and
therefore is ‗saturated‘ with hydrogen atoms.
 Most animal fats are saturated whereas the fats of plants and fish are generally
unsaturated.
 Many experts recommend a diet low in saturated fat.
 Saturated fats are popular with manufacturers of processed foods because they are less
vulnerable to rancidity and are, in general, more solid at room temperature than
unsaturated fats.

Unsaturated fat

 An unsaturated fat is a fat or fatty acid in which there is at least one double bond within the
fatty acid chain.
 Where double bonds are formed, hydrogen atoms are eliminated.
 In cellular metabolism, unsaturated fat molecules contain somewhat less energy (i.e., fewer
calories) than an equivalent amount of saturated fat.
 The greater the degree of unsaturation in a fatty acid (i.e., the more double bonds in the
fatty acid) the more vulnerable it is to rancidity [lipid oxidation][rusting of fats].
 Antioxidants can protect unsaturated fat from lipid oxidation.

Healthy Fats – Omega-3 and Omega-6, Monounsaturated and Polyunsaturated

 The main types of ―healthy‖ fats are monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, alpha-linolenic

acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) and linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid).
 The fat is termed ―monounsaturated‖ if there is one double bond, and ―polyunsaturated‖ if
there are two or more double bonds.
 Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids are heart healthy fats and can help in lowering high
triglyceride values in blood. They are found in fish, soybean products, Walnuts etc.
 Both of these fatty acids are needed for growth and repair, but can also be used to make
other fatty acids.
 The omega-3 and omega-6 are fatty acids are both polyunsaturated. The difference is in
where the first of the double bonds occurs.
 Both omega-3 (ω-3) and omega-6 (ω-6) fatty acids are important components of cell
membranes.
 There is increasing support for omega-3 fatty acids in protecting against fatal heart disease
and it is known that they have anti-inflammatory effects.

11
 There is also growing interest in the role of omega-3 fatty acids in the prevention of
diabetes and certain types of cancer.
 Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat are considered ―heart healthy‖ and can help with
improving cholesterol when used in place of unhealthy fats.
 Some sources of these fats include almonds, cashews, pecans, peanuts, pine nuts,
pumpkin, sesame seeds, sunflower seeds, Olive oil and olives, vegetable oils (such as
sunflower, safflower, corn, soybean, and cottonseed).

PIC from Projectnext.edu

Unhealthy Fats – Saturated Fat and Trans Fat

 The main types of ―unhealthy‖ fats are saturated and trans-fat.

 Saturated fats are primarily found in foods that come from animals, such as meat and dairy.
 Saturated fats are unhealthy because they increase LDL (―bad‖ cholesterol) levels in your
body and increase your risk for heart disease.

12
 Many saturated fats are ―solid‖ fats that you can see, such as the fat in meat. Other sources
of saturated fats include high-fat cheeses, high-fat cuts of meat, butter, Ice cream, palm and
coconut oils, etc..
 Trans fats, or trans-unsaturated fatty acids, trans fatty acids, are a type of unsaturated fats
that are uncommon in nature.
 Trans fat is simply liquid oils turned into solid fats during food processing. There is also
a small amount of trans fat that occurs naturally in some meat and dairy products, but those
found in processed foods tend to be the most harmful to your health.
 Trans fats are worse than saturated fats. They increase LDL (―bad‖ cholesterol) and
decreasing HDL (―healthy‖ cholesterol).
 Trans fatty acids are used as preservative in packaged food items. Foods containing trans-
fat are usually labeled as ―partially hydrogenated‖.
 Partially hydrogenated oil is less likely to spoil, so foods made with it have a longer shelf
life.
 Trans fats are easy to use, inexpensive to produce and last a long time. Trans fats give
foods a desirable taste and texture.

Q1. Statements:

 Trans fats are considered beneficial for the human body

 Double bond chemistry of the fat molecules in Trans fats causes a Plaque formation
 Omega-3 fatty acids are considered healthier than the saturated fatty acids

Codes:

a. 1&3
b. 2&3
c. 1&2
d. 1, 2, 3

Ans. B

Adipose tissue

 In animals, adipose, or fatty tissue with adipose cells is the body‘s means of storing fat
derived from the diet and from liver metabolism.
 Under stress conditions, adipose cells degrade their stored fat to supply fatty acids and also
glycerol.

13
 These metabolic activities are regulated by several hormones (e.g., insulin, glucagon and
epinephrine).

Metabolic Basis for Living

 Metabolic pathways can lead to a more complex structure from a simpler structure (for
example, acetic acid becomes cholesterol) or lead to a simpler structure from a complex
structure (for example, glucose becomes lactic acid in our skeletal muscle).
 The former cases are called biosynthetic pathways or anabolic pathways. The latter
constitute degradation and hence are called catabolic pathways.
 Anabolic pathways, as expected, consume energy. Assembly of a protein from amino
acids requires energy input.
 On the other hand, catabolic pathways lead to the release of energy. For example, when
glucose is degraded to lactic acid in our skeletal muscle, energy is liberated.
 This metabolic pathway from glucose to lactic acid which occurs in 10 metabolic steps is
called glycolysis.
 Living organisms have learnt to trap this energy liberated during degradation and store it in
the form of chemical bonds.
 As and when needed, this bond energy is utilized for biosynthetic, osmotic and mechanical
work that we perform.
 The most important form of energy currency in living systems is the bond energy in a
chemical called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Amino Acids

 Amino acids are organic compounds containing an amino group [NH2] and an acidic
group [COOH] as substituents on the same carbon i.e., the a-carbon. Hence, they are
called a-amino acids. They are substituted methanes.

 All proteins are polymers of α-amino acids.

14
 Amino acids contain amino (–NH2) and carboxyl (–COOH) functional groups.
 Depending upon the relative position of amino group with respect to carboxyl group, the
amino acids can be classified as α, β, γ, δ and so on.
 Only α-amino acids are obtained on hydrolysis of proteins.
 All α-amino acids have trivial names, which usually reflect the property of that compound or
its source.
 Glycine is so named since it has sweet taste (in Greek glykos means sweet)
and tyrosine was first obtained from cheese (in Greek, tyros means cheese.)
 Amino acids are classified as acidic, basic or neutral depending upon the relative number of
amino and carboxyl groups in their molecule.

1. Equal number of amino and carboxyl groups makes it neutral;

2. more number of amino than carboxyl groups makes it basic and
3. more carboxyl groups as compared to amino groups makes it acidic.

 The amino acids, which can be synthesized in the body, are known as nonessential amino
acids.
 On the other hand, those which cannot be synthesized in the body and must be obtained
through diet, are known as essential amino acids.
 Amino acids are usually colorless, crystalline solids. These are water-soluble, high melting
solids and behave like saltsrather than simple amines or carboxylic acids.
 This behavior is due to the presence of both acidic (carboxyl group) and basic (amino
group) groups in the same molecule.
 In aqueous solution, the carboxyl group can lose a proton and amino group can accept a
proton, giving rise to a dipolar ion known as zwitter ion. This is neutral but contains both
positive and negative charges.
 In zwitter ionic form, amino acids show amphoteric behavior as they react both with acids
and bases.
 Except glycine, all other naturally occurring α-amino acids are optically active, since the
α-carbon atom is asymmetric.

Proteins

 Proteins are the most abundant biomolecules of the living system.

15
 Chief sources of proteins are milk, cheese, pulses, peanuts, fish, meat, etc.
 They occur in every part of the body and form the fundamental basis of structure and
functions of life.
 They are also required for growth and maintenance of body.
 The word protein is derived from Greek word, ―proteios‖ which means primary or of prime
importance.
 Proteins are polypeptides.

[Peptide == a compound consisting of two or more amino acids linked in a chain].

 Proteins are linear chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.

 Each protein is a polymer of amino acids.

[Monomer == a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a

polymer].

 Dietary proteins are the source of essential amino acids.

 Therefore, amino acids can be essential or non-essential.

[Non-Essential Amino Acids == Amino Acids that our body can make].

[Essential Amino Acids == We get them through our diet/food].

 Collagen is the most abundant protein in animal world.

16
 Ribulose bisphosphate Carboxylase-Oxygenase (RuBisCO) is the most abundant
protein in the whole of the biosphere.

Structure of Proteins

 You have already read that proteins are the polymers of α-amino acids and they are
connected to each other by peptide bond or peptide linkage.
 Chemically, peptide linkage is an amide [an organic compound containing the group -
C(O)NH2] formed between –COOH group and –NH2
 The reaction between two molecules of similar or different amino acids, proceeds through
the combination of the amino group of one molecule with the carboxyl group of the
other.
 This results in the elimination of a water molecule and formation of a peptide bond –CO–
NH–. The product of the reaction is called a dipeptide because it is made up of two amino
acids.
 If a third amino acid combines to a dipeptide, the product is called a tripeptide.
 A tripeptide contains three amino acids linked by two peptide linkages.
 Similarly when four, five or six amino acids are linked, the respective products are known as
tetrapeptide, pentapeptide or hexapeptide, respectively.
 When the number of such amino acids is more than ten, then the products are
called polypeptides.
 A polypeptide with more than hundred amino acid residues, having molecular mass higher
than 10,000u is called a protein.
 However, the distinction between a polypeptide and a protein is not very sharp.
 Polypeptides with fewer amino acids are likely to be called proteins if they ordinarily have a
well-defined conformation of a protein such as insulin which contains 51 amino acids.
 Proteins can be classified into two types on the basis of their molecular shape: Fibrous
Proteins and Globular proteins.

Fibrous proteins

 When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together
by hydrogen and disulphide bonds, then fibre– like structure is formed.
 Such proteins are generally insoluble in water. Some common examples
are keratin (present in hair, wool, silk) and myosin (present in muscles), etc.

Globular proteins

17
 This structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil around to give a spherical
shape.
 These are usually soluble in water. Insulin and albumins are the common examples of
globular proteins.

Primary structure of proteins

 Proteins may have one or more polypeptide chains. Each polypeptide in a protein has
amino acids linked with each other in a specific sequence and it is this sequence of amino
acids that is said to be the primary structure of that protein.
 Any change in this primary structure i.e., the sequence of amino acids creates a different
protein.

Secondary structure of proteins

 The secondary structure of protein refers to the shape in which a long polypeptide chain
can exist.
 Protein found in a biological system with a unique three-dimensional structure and
biological activity is called a native protein.
 When a protein in its native form, is subjected to physical change like change in
temperature or chemical change like change in pH, the hydrogen bonds are disturbed. Due
to this, globules unfold and helix get uncoiled and protein loses its biological activity.
This is called denaturation of protein.
 During denaturation 2° and 3° structures are destroyed but 1º structure remains intact.
The coagulation of egg white on boiling is a common example of denaturation. Another
example is curdling of milk which is caused due to the formation of lactic acid by the
bacteria present in milk.

18
 Role of Proteins

1. Some transport nutrients across cell membrane,

2. some fight infectious organisms,
3. some are hormones,
4. some are enzymes, etc.

19
 Enzymes

 Life is possible due to the coordination of various chemical reactions in living organisms. An
example is the digestion of food, absorption of appropriate molecules and ultimately
production of energy. This process involves a sequence of reactions and all these reactions
occur in the body under very mild conditions. This occurs with the help of
certain biocatalysts called enzymes.

Catalyst == a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself
undergoing any permanent chemical change.

 Almost all the enzymes are globular proteins.

 Enzymes are very specific for a particular reaction and for a particular substrate.
 They are generally named after the compound or class of compounds upon which they
work. For example, the enzyme that catalyses hydrolysis of maltose into glucose is named
as maltase.
 Sometimes enzymes are also named after the reaction, where they are used. For example,
the enzymes which catalyse the oxidation of one substrate with simultaneous reduction of
another substrate are named as oxidoreductase The ending of the name of an enzyme is -
ase.
 Almost all enzymes are proteins.
 There are some nucleic acids that behave like enzymes. These are called ribozymes.
 An enzyme like any protein has a primary structure, i.e., amino acid sequence of the
protein.
 Enzyme catalysts differ from inorganic catalysts in many ways. Inorganic catalysts work
efficiently at high temperatures and high pressures, while enzymes get damaged at high
temperatures (say above 40°C).
 However, enzymes isolated from organisms who normally live under extremely high
temperatures (e.g., hot vents and sulphur springs), are stable and retain their catalytic
power even at high temperatures (up to 80°-90°C). Thermal stability is thus an important
quality of such enzymes isolated from thermophilic organisms.

Thermophile == a bacterium or other microorganism that grows best at high temperatures

(above 45°C).

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

 The activity of an enzyme can be affected by a change in the conditions which can alter the
structure of the protein. These include temperature, pH, change in substrate concentration
or binding of specific chemicals that regulate its activity.

20
 Temperature and pH

 Enzymes generally function in a narrow range of temperature and pH.

 Each enzyme shows its highest activity at a particular temperature and pH called
the optimum temperature and optimum pH.
 Activity declines both below and above the optimum value.
 Low temperature preserves the enzyme in a temporarily inactive state whereas high
temperature destroys enzymatic activity because proteins are denatured by heat.

Concentration of Substrate

 With the increase in substrate concentration, the velocity of the enzymatic reaction rises at
first. The reaction ultimately reaches a maximum velocity (Vmax) which is not exceeded by
any further rise in concentration of the substrate. This is because the enzyme molecules are
fewer than the substrate molecules and after saturation of these molecules, there are no
free enzyme molecules to bind with the additional substrate molecules.
 The activity of an enzyme is also sensitive to the presence of specific chemicals that bind to
the enzyme. When the binding of the chemical shuts off enzyme activity, the process is
called inhibition and the chemical is called an inhibitor.
 When the inhibitor closely resembles the substrate in its molecular structure and inhibits the
activity of the enzyme, it is known as competitive inhibitor.

Summary

 Proteins are the polymers of about twenty different α-amino acids which are linked
by peptide bonds.
 Ten amino acids are called essential amino acids because they cannot be synthesised by
our body, hence must be provided through diet.
 Proteins perform various structural and dynamic functions in the organisms.
 Proteins which contain only α-amino acids are called simple proteins.
 The secondary or tertiary structure of proteins get disturbed on change of pH or
temperature and they are not able to perform their functions. This is called denaturation of
proteins.
 Enzymes are biocatalysts which speed up the reactions in biosystems. They are very
specific and selective in their action and chemically all enzymes are proteins.

21
 Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of Employment and Training

Course : TNPSC Combined Civil Services Examination - IV(Group IV / VAO)

Subject : Zoology
Topic : Blood and blood circulation

© Copyright

The Department of Employment and Training has prepared the TNPSC Combined Civil
Services Examination - IV (Group-IV / VAO) study material in the form of e-Content for the
benefit of Competitive Exam aspirants and it is being uploaded in this Virtual Learning Portal.
This e-Content study material is the sole property of the Department of Employment and
Training. No one (either an individual or an institution) is allowed to make copy or reproduce the
matter in any form. The trespassers will be prosecuted under the Indian Copyright Act.

It is a cost-free service provided to the job seekers who are preparing for Competitive
Exams.

Commissioner,
Department of Employment and Training.

1
 BLOOD AND BLOOD CIRCULATION

Blood circulation means, blood is transported from one part of a body to another part of
the body. The essentials are

1. Blood

2. Pumping organ - Heart

3. Vessels - Arteries, Veins, Capillaries

Circulatory System

 The English physician, William Harvey (A.D.1578–1657), discovered the

circulation of blood.
 The circulatory patterns are of two types – open or closed.
 Open circulatory system is present in arthropods and molluscs in which blood
pumped by the heart passes through large vessels into open spaces or body
cavities called sinuses.
 Annelids and chordates have a closed circulatory system in which the blood
pumped by the heart is always circulated through a closed network of blood
vessels. This pattern is considered to be more advantageous as the flow of fluid
can be more precisely regulated.
 All vertebrates possess a muscular chambered heart. Fishes have a 2-
chambered heart with an atrium and a ventricle. Amphibians and the reptiles
(except crocodiles) have a 3-chambered heart with two atria and a single
ventricle, whereas crocodiles, birds and mammals possess a 4-chambered
heart with two atria and two ventricles.
 In fishes the heart pumps out deoxygenated blood which is oxygenated by the
gills and supplied to the body parts from where deoxygenated blood is returned
to the heart (single circulation).
 In amphibians and reptiles, the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the
gills/lungs/skin and the right atrium gets the deoxygenated blood from other body

2
 parts. However, they get mixed up in the single ventricle which pumps out mixed
blood (incomplete double circulation).
 In birds and mammals, oxygenated and deoxygenated blood received by the left
and right atria respectively passes on to the ventricles of the same sides. The
ventricles pump it out without any mixing up, i.e., two separate circulatory
pathways are present in these organisms, hence, these animals have double
circulation. Let us study the human circulatory system.
 Does sponges and hydra also have blood? Animals such as sponges and Hydra
do not possess any circulatory system. The water in which they live brings food
and oxygen as it enters their bodies. The water carries away waste materials and
carbon dioxide as it moves out. Thus, these animals do not need a circulatory
fluid like the blood.

Human Circulatory System

3
Heart

 The heart has four chambers. The two upper chambers are called the atria
(singular: atrium) and the two lower chambers are called the ventricles.
 The partition between the chambers helps to avoid mixing up of blood rich in
oxygen with the blood rich in carbon dioxide.

Heartbeat

 The walls of the chambers of the heart are made up of muscles. These muscles
contract and relax rhythmically. This rhythmic contraction followed by its
relaxation constitutes a heartbeat.
 Human circulatory system, also called the blood vascular system consists of a
muscular chambered heart, a network of closed branching blood vessels and
blood, the fluid which is circulated.
 Heart, the mesodermally derived organ [the middle layer of cells or tissues of an
embryo, or the parts derived from this (e.g. cartilage, muscles, and bone)], is
situated in the thoracic cavity, in between the two lungs, slightly tilted to the left. It
has the size of a clenched fist.
 It is protected by a double walled membranous bag, pericardium, enclosing the
pericardial fluid.
 Our heart has four chambers, two relatively small upper chambers called atria
and two larger lower chambers called ventricles.
 A thin, muscular wall called the interatrial septum separates the right and the
left atria, whereas a thick-walled, the inter-ventricular septum, separates the
left and the right ventricles.
 The atrium and the ventricle of the same side are also separated by a thick
fibrous tissue called the atrio-ventricular septum. However, each of these septa
are provided with an opening through which the two chambers of the same side
are connected.
 The opening between the right atrium and the right ventricle is guarded by a
valve formed of three muscular flaps or cusps, the tricuspid valve, whereas a

4
 bicuspid or mitral valve guards the opening between the left atrium and the left
ventricle.
 The openings of the right and the left ventricles into the pulmonary artery and
the aorta respectively are provided with the semilunar valves.
 The valves in the heart allows the flow of blood only in one direction, i.e., from
the atria to the ventricles and from the ventricles to the pulmonary artery or aorta.
These valves prevent any backward flow.
 The entire heart is made of cardiac muscles. The walls of ventricles are much
thicker than that of the atria.
 A specialized cardiac musculature called the nodal tissue is also distributed in
the heart. A patch of this tissue is present in the right upper corner of the right
atrium called the sino-atrial node (SAN).
 Another mass of this tissue is seen in the lower left corner of the right atrium
close to the atrio-ventricular septum called the atrio-ventricular node (AVN).
 A bundle of nodal fibres, atrioventricular bundle (AV bundle) continues from the
AVN which passes through the atrio-ventricular septa to emerge on the top of the
interventricular septum and immediately divides into a right and left bundle.
These branches give rise to minute fibres throughout the ventricular musculature
of the respective sides and are called purkinje fibres. These fibres along with
right and left bundles are known as bundle of His.
 The nodal musculature has the ability to generate action potentials without any
external stimuli, i.e., it is autoexcitable.
 However, the number of action potentials that could be generated in a minute
vary at different parts of the nodal system.
 The SAN can generate the maximum number of action potentials, i.e., 70-75/min,
and is responsible for initiating and maintaining the rhythmic contractile activity of
the heart. Therefore, it is called the pacemaker. Our heart normally beats 70-75
times in a minute (average 72 beats/min).

5
Cardiac Cycle

 To begin with, all the four chambers of heart are in a relaxed state, i.e., they are
in joint diastole.
 As the tricuspid and bicuspid valves are open, blood from the pulmonary veins
and vena cava flows into the left and the right ventricle respectively through the
left and right atria. The semilunar valves are closed at this stage.
 The SAN now generates an action potential which stimulates both the atria to
undergo a simultaneous contraction – the atrial systole. This increases the flow
of blood into the ventricles by about 30 per cent.
 The action potential is conducted to the ventricular side by the AVN and AV
bundle from where the bundle of His transmits it through the entire ventricular
musculature. This causes the ventricular muscles to contract, (ventricular
systole), the atria undergoes relaxation (diastole), coinciding with the ventricular
systole.
 Ventricular systole increases the ventricular pressure causing the closure of
tricuspid and bicuspid valves due to attempted backflow of blood into the atria.
 As the ventricular pressure increases further, the semilunar valves guarding the
pulmonary artery (right side) and the aorta (left side) are forced open, allowing
the blood in the ventricles to flow through these vessels into the circulatory
pathways.
 The ventricles now relax (ventricular diastole) and the ventricular pressure falls
causing the closure of semilunar valves which prevents the backflow of blood into
the ventricles.
 As the ventricular pressure declines further, the tricuspid and bicuspid valves are
pushed open by the pressure in the atria exerted by the blood which was being
emptied into them by the veins. The blood now once again moves freely to the
ventricles. The ventricles and atria are now again in a relaxed (joint diastole)
state, as earlier.
 Soon the SAN generates a new action potential and the events described above
are repeated in that sequence and the process continues.

6
  This sequential event in the heart which is cyclically repeated is called the
cardiac cycle and it consists of systole and diastole of both the atria and
ventricles.
 As mentioned earlier, the heart beats 72 times per minute, i.e., that many cardiac
cycles are performed per minute. From this it could be deduced that the duration
of a cardiac cycle is 0.8 seconds.
 During a cardiac cycle, each ventricle pumps out approximately 70 mL of blood
which is called the stroke volume. The stroke volume multiplied by the heart rate
(no. of beats per min.) gives the cardiac output.
 Therefore, the cardiac output can be defined as the volume of blood pumped out
by each ventricle per minute and averages 5000 mL or 5 litres in a healthy
individual.
 The body has the ability to alter the stroke volume as well as the heart rate and
thereby the cardiac output. For example, the cardiac output of an athlete will be
much higher than that of an ordinary man.
 During each cardiac cycle two prominent sounds are produced which can be
easily heard through a stethoscope. The first heart sound (lub) is associated with
the closure of the tricuspid and bicuspid valves whereas the second heart
sound (dub) is associated with the closure of the semilunar valves. These
sounds are of clinical diagnostic significance.

Electrocardiograph (ECG)

 Electro-cardiograph is used to obtain an electrocardiogram (ECG). ECG is a

graphical representation of the electrical activity of the heart during a cardiac
cycle.
 To obtain a standard ECG, a patient is connected to the machine with three
electrical leads (one to each wrist and to the left ankle) that continuously monitor
the heart activity.
 For a detailed evaluation of the heart’s function, multiple leads are attached to
the chest region. Here, we will talk only about a standard ECG.

7
  Each peak in the ECG is identified with a letter from P to T that corresponds to a
specific electrical activity of the heart.
 The P-wave represents the electrical excitation (or depolarisation) of the atria,
which leads to the contraction of both the atria.
 The QRS complex represents the depolarisation of the ventricles, which initiates
the ventricular contraction. The contraction starts shortly after Q and marks the
beginning of the systole.
 The T-wave represents the return of the ventricles from excited to normal state
(repolarization). The end of the T-wave marks the end of systole.
 Obviously, by counting the number of QRS complexes that occur in a given time
period, one can determine the heart beat rate of an individual.
 Since the ECGs obtained from different individuals have roughly the same shape
for a given lead configuration, any deviation from this shape indicates a possible
abnormality or disease. Hence, it is of a great clinical significance.

Double Circulation

 As mentioned earlier, the blood pumped by the right ventricle enters the
pulmonary artery, whereas the left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta. The
deoxygenated blood pumped into the pulmonary artery is passed on to the lungs
from where the oxygenated blood is carried by the pulmonary veins into the left
atrium. This pathway constitutes the pulmonary circulation.
 The oxygenated blood entering the aorta is carried by a network of arteries,
arterioles and capillaries to the tissues from where the deoxygenated blood is

8
 collected by a system of venules, veins and vena cava and emptied into the right
atrium. This is the systemic circulation.

 The systemic circulation provides nutrients, O2 and other essential substances to

the tissues and takes CO2 and other harmful substances away for elimination.
 A unique vascular connection exists between the digestive tract and liver called
hepatic portal system. The hepatic portal vein carries blood from intestine to
the liver before it is delivered to the systemic circulation.
 A special coronary system of blood vessels is present in our body exclusively for
the circulation of blood to and from the cardiac musculature.

Regulation of Cardiac Activity

 Normal activities of the heart are regulated intrinsically, i.e., auto regulated by
specialized muscles (nodal tissue), hence the heart is called myogenic.

9
  A special neural center in the medulla oblangata can moderate the cardiac
function through autonomic nervous system (ANs).
 Neural signals through the sympathetic nerves (part of ANS) can increase the
rate of heart beat, the strength of ventricular contraction and thereby the cardiac
output.
 On the other hand, parasympathetic neural signals (another component of
ANS) decrease the rate of heart beat, speed of conduction of action potential and
thereby the cardiac output. Adrenal medullary hormones can also increase the
cardiac output.

Disorders of Circulatory System

High Blood Pressure (Hypertension)

 Hypertension is the term for blood pressure that is higher than normal (120/80).
 In this measurement 120 mm Hg (millimetres of mercury pressure) is the systolic,
or pumping, pressure and 80 mm Hg is the diastolic, or resting, pressure.
 If repeated checks of blood pressure of an individual is 140/90 (140 over 90) or
higher, it shows hypertension.
 High blood pressure leads to heart diseases and also affects vital organs like
brain and kidney.

Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)

 Coronary Artery Disease, often referred to as atherosclerosis, affects the

vessels that supply blood to the heart muscle. It is caused by deposits of
calcium, fat, cholesterol and fibrous tissues, which makes the lumen of
arteries narrower.

Angina

 It is also called ‘angina pectoris’. A symptom of acute chest pain appears when
no enough oxygen is reaching the heart muscle.

10
  Angina can occur in men and women of any age but it is more common among
the middle-aged and elderly. It occurs due to conditions that affect the blood flow.

Heart Failure

 Heart failure means the state of heart when it is not pumping blood effectively
enough to meet the needs of the body. It is sometimes called congestive heart
failure because congestion of the lungs is one of the main symptoms of this
disease.
 Heart failure is not the same as cardiac arrest (when the heart stops beating)
or a heart attack (when the heart muscle is suddenly damaged by an inadequate
blood supply).

Summary

 Vertebrates circulate blood, a fluid connective tissue, in their body, to transport

essential substances to the cells and to carry waste substances from there.
Another fluid, lymph (tissue fluid) is also used for the transport of certain
substances.
 Blood comprises of a fluid matrix, plasma and formed elements. Red blood cells
(RBCs, erythrocytes), white blood cells (WBCs, leucocytes) and platelets
(thrombocytes) constitute the formed elements. Blood of humans are grouped
into A, B, AB and O systems based on the presence or absence of two surface
antigens, A, B on the RBCs.
 Another blood grouping is also done based on the presence or absence of
another antigen called Rhesus factor (Rh) on the surface of RBCs. The spaces
between cells in the tissues contain a fluid derived from blood called tissue fluid.
This fluid called lymph is almost similar to blood except for the protein content
and the formed elements.
 All vertebrates and a few invertebrates have a closed circulatory system. Our
circulatory system consists of a muscular pumping organ, heart, a network of
vessels and a fluid, blood.

11
 Heart has two atria and two ventricles. Cardiac musculature is auto-excitable.
Sino-atrial node (SAN) generates the maximum number of action protentials per
minute (70-75/min) and therefore, it sets the pace of the activities of the heart.
Hence it is called the Pacemaker.
 The action potential causes the atria and then the ventricles to undergo
contraction (systole) followed by their relaxation (diastole). The systole forces the
blood to move from the atria to the ventricles and to the pulmonary artery and the
aorta. The cardiac cycle is formed by sequential events in the heart which is
cyclically repeated and is called the cardiac cycle.
 A healthy person shows 72 such cycles per minute. About 70 mL of blood is
pumped out by each ventricle during a cardiac cycle and it is called the stroke or
beat volume.
 Volume of blood pumped out by each ventricle of heart per minute is called the
cardiac output and it is equal to the product of stroke volume and heart rate
(approx 5 litres).
 The electrical activity of the heart can be recorded from the body surface by
using electrocardiograph and the recording is called electrocardiogram (ECG)
which is of clinical importance.
 We have a complete double circulation, i.e., two circulatory pathways, namely,
pulmonary and systemic are present.
 The pulmonary circulation starts by the pumping of deoxygenated blood by the
right ventricle which is carried to the lungs where it is oxygenated and returned to
the left atrium.
 The systemic circulation starts with the pumping of oxygenated blood by the left
ventricle to the aorta which is carried to all the body tissues and the
deoxygenated blood from there is collected by the veins and returned to the right
atrium.
 Though the heart is autoexcitable, its functions can be moderated by neural and
hormonal mechanisms

12
S.N. Characteristics Arteries Veins
1. Blood Circulation Arteries carry blood away Veins carry blood from the
from the heart to the tissues of the body back to
tissues of the body. the heart.
2. Blood Type Arteries carry oxygenated Veins carry deoxygenated
blood expect pulmonary blood except pulmonary
artery. vein.
3. Thickness Arteries have thick elastic Veins have thin non elastic
muscular walls. less muscular walls.
4. Position Arteries are usually Veins are usually
positioned deeper within positioned closer beneath
the body. the surface of the skin.
5. Valves Valves are absent. Valves are present.
6. Lumen These possess narrow These possess wide lumen
lumen.
7. Pressure Blood flows under high Blood flows under low
pressure. pressure.
8. Color These are reddish in color. These are bluish in color.
9. Types Pulmonary and systemic Superficial veins, deep
arteries. veins, pulmonary veins and
systemic veins.
10. Internal Diameter Narrower (4mm) Wider (5mm)
11. Volume Low (15%) High (65%)
12. Movement These show spurty These show sluggish
movement of blood giving movement of blood.
pulse.
13. Pulse Pulse is detectable in the Pulse not detectable in the
arteries. veins.
14. Walls Arterial walls are more Veins have collapsible
rigid. walls.
15. Thickest layer Tunica media Tunica adventitia

13
16. Time of Death Arteries empty up at the Veins get filled up at time of
time of death. death.
17. Oxygen level Oxygen levels is quite high Oxygen level is low
in arterial blood. comparatively.
18. Carbon-dioxide CO2 level is low in arterial CO2 level is high in venous
level blood. blood.
19. Injury to the Blood Squirting blood Pooling of blood
Vessel
20. Contraction of Present Absent
muscle
21. Diseases Atherosclerosis, Angina Deep vein thrombosis,
Pectoris, Artherogenesis- varicose veins.
myocardial ischemia.

Valves Situated at

1. Biauspid valve (or) mitral valve – left auriculas ventricular opening

2.Tricuspid valve – right auriculas ventricular opening

3.Semilunar valve – at the opening of aorta from ventricle

4. Haversian valve – end of opening of superior vena cava

5. Eustactian valve – end of opening of inferior vena cava

6. Thebesian valve – opening of coronary sinus

Circulation of blood

1) The impure blood of body is collected by inferior vena cava, superior vena cava and it
is poured in to right atrium by coronary sinus (coronary sinus – collects impure blood
from heart walls)

14
2) Its pours in to right ventricle by tricuspid valves

3) From here its departs through pulmonary artery to lungs after purification it starts by
pulmonary veins and reach leftatrium

4) By bicuspid valve it reaches left ventricle from here it starts from aorta in the supply
to all over the body parts.

HEART INDUCTION AND SPREADING OF IMPULSE

SA node/ Sino – auricular node /Pacemaker / Keith & Flock Node

A patch of nodal tissue present in upper corner of right atrium 1.5cm x 3 mm

The another mass of tissue seen in the lower left corner of right atrium close to
the atrio ventricular septum called atrio – ventricular node

The impulse passes from AV node to bundle of His and purkinje fibres

The regular heart beat starts.

HEART BEAT
1. Rhythmic contraction and relaxation of auricles & ventricles
2. A single cardiac cycle represented by a single heart beat
3. It includes one systole and one diastole
4. Heart beat in man = 72 per minute
5. In children = 100 per minute

15
In newborn baby = 120-140 per minute
Single cardiac cycle
Auricular systole - 0.1 min
0.8 min
Auricular diastole - 0.7 min

Ventricular systole - 0.3 min

0.8 min
Ventricular diastole -0.5 min

Less number of heart beat than normal – Bradycardia

More rate of heart beat than normal – Tachycardia

Rate of heart beat increases

1) Due to increased respiration

2) By hot drinks

3) Shock and tension

4) Fall in PH value of blood

5) High blood pressure

6) Excess quantity of food intake

Rate of heart beat decreases:

16
1) Heart failure - When SA node does not initiate any impulse

2) Heart block - When AV node damage

3) Circulator arrest - blood flow completely stops

4) Arteriosclerosis – Excessive deposition of cholesterol with calcium salts.

Heart Sounds
1. Sounds were produced in a regular series
2. Heard by stethoscope invented by Rene Laennec
3. I sound : Its known as L.U.B.B prolonged time 0.16 - 0.9 s dull sound
4. Created by closer of atrio ventricular valve at the time of ventricular systole
5. II sound : Its known as D-U-B-B Short time 0. 10 sec High pitch sound
6. Created by closer of semilunar valves at the time of ventricular diastole

Blood Pressure
Developed by flow of blood on the wall of blood vessel factors :

1) Amount of blood

2) Viscosity of blood

3) Flow of blood

4) Elasticity of blood vessel

1. Measuring instrument : Sphygmomanometer (Karot koff 1905)

2. It is measured at the point of branchial artery of fore arm
3. Higher limit – systolic blood pressure / atrical contraction
4. Lower limit – diastolic blood pressure/ ventricular contraction
5. Normal B.P. of man = 120 (systolic) / 80 (diastolic) mm Hg

Factors influence the B.P

1. Thickening of arteries

17
2. During exercise

3. During Tension

4. During fear

5. By adrenal secretion

6. Increase of age

7. during nephritidis

8. hereditary condition

9. due to obesity

Electrocardiogram E.C.G

1. Invented by Einthoven 1906

2. It is first recorded by waller 1907
3. Its recorded activities of heart on paper
4. P wave - due to activation of SA node
5. PQ wave - Its interval representation when article contracts
6. RS wave - Speed of impulse from AV node to bundle of His purkinje
7. ST wave - interval period of ventricular ejection.
8. P wave - 0.20 sec
9. P-R interval - 0.25 sec
10. QRS interval - 0.35 sec
11. T wave - 0.20 sec
12. First heart transplant operation : Dr. Christian Bernad
13. First artificial heart operation : Dr. Alexis Koral

Blood

 It transports substances like digested food from the small intestine to the other
parts of the body. It carries oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body. It also
transports waste for removal from the body.

 Blood is a liquid, which has cells of various kinds suspended in it. The fluid part
of the blood is called plasma.

18
  One type of cells are the red blood cells (RBC) which contain a red pigment
called haemoglobin.

 Haemoglobin bind with oxygen and transports it to all the parts of the body and
ultimately to all the cells. The presence of haemoglobin makes blood appear red.

 The blood also has white blood cells (WBC) which fight against germs that
may enter our body.

 The clot is formed because of the presence of another type of cells in the blood,
called platelets.

Blood Vessels

 They are two types of blood vessels namely arteries and veins.

 Veins are the blood vessels that carry carbon dioxide-rich blood [impure
blood] from all parts of the body back to the heart. Pulmonary vein is an
exception as it carries oxygen-rich blood [pure blood] from lungs to heart. The
veins have thin walls.

 Arteries are the blood vessels that carry oxygen-rich blood from heart to all
parts of the body. Pulmonary artery is an exception as it carries carbon dioxide-
rich blood from heart to lungs. The arteries have thick walls as the pressure
acting on then is high.

Blood FROM Heart → Artery

Blood TO Heart → Vein

 Arteries divide into smaller vessels. On reaching the tissues, they divide further
into extremely thin tubes called capillaries. The capillaries join up to form veins
which empty into the heart.

Body Fluids and Circulation

 Blood is a special connective tissue consisting of a fluid matrix, plasma, and

formed elements.

Plasma

19
  Plasma is a straw coloured, viscous fluid constituting nearly 55 per cent of the
blood.

 90-92 per cent of plasma is water and proteins contribute 6-8 per cent of it.

 Fibrinogen, globulins and albumins are the major proteins.

 Fibrinogens are needed for clotting or coagulation of blood.

 Globulins primarily are involved in defense mechanisms of the body

 Albumins help in osmotic balance.

 Plasma also contains small amounts of minerals like Na+, Ca++, Mg++, HCO3-,
Cl-, etc. Glucose, amino acids, lipids, etc., are also present in the plasma as they
are always in transit in the body.

 Factors for coagulation or clotting of blood are also present in the plasma in an
inactive form. Plasma without the clotting factors is called serum.

Formed Elements

 Erythrocytes, leucocytes and platelets are collectively called formed

elements and they constitute nearly 45 per cent of the blood.

Red Blood Cells (RBC)

 Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC) are the most abundant of all the cells in
blood.

 A healthy adult man has, on an average, 5 million to 5.5 million of RBCs

millimetre cube of blood.

 RBCs are formed in the red bone marrow in the adults. RBCs are devoid of
nucleus in most of the mammals and are biconcave in shape.

 They have a red coloured, iron containing complex protein called haemoglobin,
hence the colour and name of these cells.

 RBCs have an average life span of 120 days after which they are destroyed in
the spleen (graveyard of RBCs).

White Blood Cells (WBC)

20
  Leucocytes are also known as white blood cells (WBC) as they are colorless
due to the lack of haemoglobin. They are nucleated and are relatively lesser in
number which averages 6000-8000 millimeter cube of blood. Leucocytes are
generally short lived. We have two main categories of WBCs – granulocytes
and agranulocytes.

 Neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils are different types of granulocytes,

while lymphocytes and monocytes are the agranulocytes.

 Neutrophils are the most abundant cells (60-65 per cent) of the total WBCs and
basophils are the least (0.5-1 per cent) among them.

 Neutrophils and monocytes (6-8 per cent) are phagocytic cells which destroy
foreign organisms entering the body.

 Basophils secrete histamine, serotonin, heparin, etc., and are involved in

inflammatory reactions.

 Eosinophils (2-3 per cent) resist infections and are also associated with
allergic reactions.

 Lymphocytes (20-25 per cent) are of two major types – ‘B’ and ‘T’ forms. Both B
and T lymphocytes are responsible for immune responses of the body.

Platelets

 Platelets also called thrombocytes, are cell fragments produced from

megakaryocytes (special cells in the bone marrow).

 Blood normally contains 1,500,00-3,500,00 platelets millimetre cube.

 Platelets can release a variety of substances most of which are involved in the
coagulation or clotting of blood.

Coagulation of Blood

 Blood exhibits coagulation or clotting in response to an injury or trauma. This is a

mechanism to prevent excessive loss of blood from the body.

21
  Dark reddish brown scum is formed at the site of a cut or an injury over a period
of time. It is a clot or coagulam formed mainly of a network of threads called
fibrins in which dead and damaged formed elements of blood are trapped.

 Fibrins are formed by the conversion of inactive fibrinogens in the plasma by the
enzyme thrombin.

 Thrombins, in turn are formed from another inactive substance present in the
plasma called prothrombin. An enzyme complex, thrombokinase, is required
for the above reaction. This complex is formed by a series of linked enzymic
reactions (cascade process) involving a number of factors present in the plasma
in an inactive state.

 An injury or a trauma stimulates the platelets in the blood to release certain

factors which activate the mechanism of coagulation. Certain factors released by
the tissues at the site of injury also can initiate coagulation. Calcium ions play a
very important role in clotting.

Lymph (Tissue Fluid)

 As the blood passes through the capillaries in tissues, some water along with
many small water soluble substances move out into the spaces between the cells
of tissues leaving the larger proteins and most of the formed elements in the
blood vessels. This fluid released out is called the interstitial fluid or tissue
fluid.

 Interstitial fluid or tissue fluid has the same mineral distribution as that in
plasma. Exchange of nutrients, gases, etc., between the blood and the cells
always occur through this fluid.

 An elaborate network of vessels called the lymphatic system collects this fluid
and drains it back to the major veins. The fluid present in the lymphatic system is
called the lymph.

 Lymph is a colourless fluid containing specialized lymphocytes which are

responsible for the immune responses of the body. Lymph is also an important
carrier for nutrients, hormones, etc.

22
  Fats are absorbed through lymph in the lacteals present in the intestinal villi.

Blood Groups

 As you know, blood of human beings differ in certain aspects though it appears
to be similar. Various types of grouping of blood has been done. Two such
groupings – the ABO and Rh – are widely used all over the world.

ABO grouping

 ABO grouping is based on the presence or absence of two surface antigens

(chemicals that can induce immune response) on the RBCs namely A and B.

 Similarly, the plasma of different individuals contain two natural antibodies

(proteins produced in response to antigens).

 The distribution of antigens and antibodies in the four groups of blood, A, B, AB

and O are given in Table below.

 ABO blood groups are controlled by the gene I. The plasma membrane of the
red blood cells has sugar polymers that protrude from its surface and the kind of
sugar is controlled by the gene. The gene (I) has three alleles IA, IB and i.

 The alleles IA and IB produce a slightly different form of the sugar while
allele i does not produce any sugar.

 Because humans are diploid organisms, each person possesses any two of the
three I gene alleles.

23
  IA and IB are completely dominant over i, in other words when IA and i are
present only IA expresses (because i does not produce any sugar), and when IB
and i are present IB expresses.

 But when IA and IB are present together they both express their own types of
sugars: this is because of co-dominance. Hence red blood cells have both A
and B types of sugars.

 Since there are three different alleles, there are six different combinations of
these three alleles that are possible, and therefore, a total of six different
genotypes of the human ABO blood types. How many phenotypes are possible?

Here there are 6 Genotypes and 4 Phenotypes [A, B, AB and O]. [Inheritance –
Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance]

 You probably know that during blood transfusion, any blood cannot be used; the
blood of a donor has to be carefully matched with the blood of a recipient before
any blood transfusion to avoid severe problems of clumping (destruction of
RBC).

 From the above mentioned table it is evident that group ‘O’ blood can be donated
to persons with any other blood group and hence ‘O’ group individuals are called
‘universal donors’.

24
  Persons with ‘AB’ group can accept blood from persons with AB as well as the
other groups of blood. Therefore, such persons are called ‘universal recipients’.

Rh grouping

 Another antigen, the Rh antigen similar to one present in Rhesus monkeys

(hence Rh), is also observed on the surface of RBCs of majority (nearly 80 per
cent) of humans. Such individuals are called Rh positive (Rh+ve) and those in
whom this antigen is absent are called Rh negative (Rh-ve).

 An Rh-ve person, if exposed to Rh+ve blood, will form specific antibodies against
the Rh antigens. Therefore, Rh group should also be matched before
transfusions.

 A special case of Rh incompatibility (mismatching) has been observed between

the Rh-ve blood of a pregnant mother with Rh+ve blood of the foetus.

 Rh antigens of the foetus do not get exposed to the Rh-ve blood of the mother in
the first pregnancy as the two bloods are well separated by the placenta.

 However, during the delivery of the first child, there is a possibility of exposure of
the maternal blood to small amounts of the Rh+ve blood from the foetus.

 In such cases, the mother starts preparing antibodies against Rh antigen in her
blood.

 In case of her subsequent pregnancies, the Rh antibodies from the mother (Rh-
ve) can leak into the blood of the foetus (Rh+ve) and destroy the foetal RBCs.

 This could be fatal to the foetus or could cause severe anaemia and jaundice to
the baby. This condition is called erythroblastosis foetalis.

 This can be avoided by administering anti-Rh antibodies to the mother

immediately after the delivery of the first child.

25