Types of radiation

• Some atomic nuclei are unstable and radioactive

• This is because of an imbalance of protons or neutrons in the nucleus
• Carbon-14 is an example of an isotope of carbon which is unstable
• This is because it has two extra neutrons compared to a stable nucleus of carbon-
12

Stable and unstable isotopes of carbon

Carbon-12 is stable, whereas carbon-14 is unstable because it has two extra neutrons

• Unstable nuclei can emit radiation to become more stable

• Radiation can be in the form of a high-energy particle or wave
• This process is known as radioactive decay
• As the radiation moves away from the nucleus, it takes some energy with it
• This makes the nucleus more stable
 Radioactive decay of a nucleus

Unstable nuclei decay by emitting high energy particles or waves

• When an unstable nucleus decays, it emits radiation
• The different types of radiation that can be emitted are:
o Alpha (α) particles
o Beta (β-) particles
o Gamma (γ) radiation
• These changes are spontaneous and random

Detecting radiation

• Ionising radiation can be detected using

o photographic film
o a Geiger–Müller tube

Photographic film

• Photographic films detect radiation by becoming darker when it absorbs radiation,

similar to when it absorbs visible light
o The more radiation the film absorbs, the darker it is when it is developed
• People who work with radiation, such as radiographers, wear film badges which are
checked regularly to monitor the levels of radiation absorbed
• To get an accurate measure of the dose received, the badge contains different
materials that the radiation must penetrate to reach the film
o These materials may include aluminium, copper, paper, lead and plastic
 • The diagram shows what a typical radiation badge looks like:

A badge containing photographic film can be used to monitor a person’s exposure to

radiation

Geiger-Müller tube

• The Geiger-Müller tube is the most common device used to measure and detect
radiation
• Each time it absorbs radiation, it transmits an electrical pulse to a counting
machine
• This makes a clicking sound or displays the count rate
• The greater the frequency of clicks, or the higher the count rate, the more radiation
the Geiger-Müller tube is absorbing
o Therefore, it matters how close the tube is to the radiation source
o The further away from the source, the lower the count rate detected
 A Geiger-Müller tube (or Geiger counter) is a common type of radiation detector

Background radiation

• It is important to remember that radiation is a natural phenomenon

• Radioactive elements have always existed on Earth and in outer space
• However, human activity has added to the amount of radiation that humans are
exposed to on Earth
• Background radiation is defined as:

The radiation that exists around us all the time

• Every second of the day there is some radiation emanating from natural sources
such as:
o Rocks
o Cosmic rays from space
o Foods
 Chart of Background Radiation Sources

Background radiation is the radiation that is present all around in the environment.
Radon gas is given off from some types of rock

• There are two types of background radiation:

o Natural sources
o Artificial (man-made) sources

Natural Sources of Background Radiation

Radon gas from rocks and buildings

• Airborne radon gas comes from rocks in the ground, as well as building materials
e.g. stone and brick
• This is due to the presence of radioactive elements, such as uranium, which occur
naturally in small amounts in all rocks and soils
o Uranium decays into radon gas, which is an alpha emitter
 o This is particularly dangerous if inhaled into the lungs in large quantities
• Radon gas is tasteless, colourless and odourless so it can only be detected using a
Geiger counter
• Levels of radon gas are generally very low and are not a health concern, but they can
vary significantly from place to place

Cosmic rays from space

• The sun emits an enormous number of protons every second

• Some of these enter the Earth’s atmosphere at high speeds
• When they collide with molecules in the air, this leads to the production of gamma
radiation
• Other sources of cosmic rays are supernovae and other high energy cosmic events

Carbon-14 in biological material

• All organic matter contains a tiny amount of carbon-14

• Living plants and animals constantly replace the supply of carbon in their systems
hence the amount of carbon-14 in the system stays almost constant

Radioactive material in food and drink

• Naturally occurring radioactive elements can get into food and water since they are
in contact with rocks and soil containing these elements
• Some foods contain higher amounts such as potassium-40 in bananas
• However, the amount of radioactive material is minuscule and is not a cause for
concern

Artificial Sources of Background Radiation

Nuclear medicine

• In medical settings, nuclear radiation is utilised all the time

• For example, X-rays, CT scans, radioactive tracers, and radiation therapy all use
radiation
Nuclear waste

• While nuclear waste itself does not contribute much to background radiation, it can
be dangerous for the people handling it

Nuclear fallout from nuclear weapons

• Fallout is the residue radioactive material that is thrown into the air after a nuclear
explosion, such as the bomb that exploded at Hiroshima
• While the amount of fallout in the environment is presently very low, it would
increase significantly in areas where nuclear weapons are tested

Nuclear accidents

• Nuclear accidents, such as the incident at Chornobyl, contribute a large dose of

radiation to the environment
• While these accidents are now extremely rare, they can be catastrophic and render
areas devastated for centuries

Accounting for background radiation

• Background radiation must be accounted for when taking readings in a laboratory

• This can be done by taking readings with no radioactive source present and then
subtracting this from readings with the source present
• This is known as the corrected count rate

Measuring background count rate

The background count rate can be measured using a Geiger-Müller (GM) tube with no
source present
 • For example, if a Geiger counter records 24 counts in 1 minute when no source is
present, the background radiation count rate would be:
o 24 counts per minute (cpm)
o 24/60 = 0.4 counts per second (cps)

Measuring the corrected count rate of a source

The corrected count rate can be determined by measuring the count rate of a source
and subtracting the background count rate

• Then, if the Geiger counter records, for example, 285 counts in 1 minute when a
source is present, the corrected count rate would be:
o 285 − 24 = 261 counts per minute (cpm)
o 261/60 = 4.35 counts per second (cps)
• When measuring count rates, the accuracy of results can be improved by:
o Repeating readings and taking averages
o Taking readings over a long period of time

Half life

• It is impossible to know when a particular unstable nucleus will decay

• It is possible to find out the rate at which the activity of a sample decreases
o This is known as the half-life
• Half-life is defined as:

The time it takes for the number of nuclei of a sample of radioactive isotopes to
decrease by half
 • In other words, the time it takes for the activity of a sample to fall to half its original
level
• Different isotopes have different half-lives and half-lives can vary from a fraction of
a second to billions of years in length

Measuring half life

• To determine the half-life of a sample, the procedure is:

o Measure the initial activity A0 of the sample
o Determine the half-life of this original activity
o Measure how the activity changes with time
• The time taken for the activity to decrease to half its original value is the half-life

Half life calculations

• Scientists can measure the half-lives of different isotopes accurately

• Uranium-235 has a half-life of 704 million years
o This means it would take 704 million years for the activity of a uranium-235
sample to decrease to half its original amount
• Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years
o So after 5700 years, there would be 50% of the original amount of carbon-14
remaining
o After two half-lives or 11 400 years, there would be just 25% of the carbon-14
remaining
• With each half-life, the amount remaining decreases by half
 A graph can be used to make half-life calculations

The graph shows how the activity of a radioactive sample changes over time. Each
time the original activity halves, another half-life has passed

• The time it takes for the activity of the sample to decrease from 100% to 50% is the
half-life
• It is the same length of time as it would take to decrease from 50% activity to 25%
activity
• The half-life is constant for a particular isotope
• The following table shows that as the number of half-life increases, the proportion
of the isotope remaining halves

Uses of radioactivity

• Radioactivity has many uses, such as:

o Smoke detectors (alarms)
o Monitoring the thickness of materials
o Medical procedures including diagnosis and treatment of cancer
o Sterilising food (irradiating food)
o Sterilising medical equipment
o Determining the age of ancient artefacts
 • The properties of the different types of radiation determine which one is used in a
particular application

Smoke detectors

• Alpha particles are used in smoke detectors

• The alpha radiation will normally ionise the air within the detector, creating a
current
• The alpha emitter is blocked when smoke enters the detector
• The alarm is triggered by a microchip when the sensor no longer detects alpha
When no smoke is present, alpha particles ionise the air and cause a current to flow.
When smoke is present, alpha particles are absorbed and current is prevented from
flowing which triggers the alarm
Measuring the thickness of materials

• When a material, such as aluminium foil, moves above a beta source, some beta
particles will be absorbed, but most will penetrate
o The amount of beta particles passing through the material can be monitored
using a detector
• If the material gets thicker, more particles will be absorbed, and the count rate will
decrease
• If the material gets thinner, fewer particles will be absorbed, and the count rate will
increase
• This allows the manufacturer to make adjustments to keep the thickness of the
material constant

Beta particles can be used to measure the thickness of thin materials such as paper,
cardboard or aluminium foil

• Beta radiation is used because the material will only partially absorb it
o If an alpha source were used, all alpha particles would be absorbed
regardless of material thickness
o If a gamma source were used, almost all gamma rays would be detected
regardless of material thickness

Diagnosis and treatment of cancer

• Radiotherapy is the name given to the treatment of cancer using radiation

 o Note: this is different to chemotherapy which is a drug treatment for cancer
• Although radiation can cause cancer, it is also highly effective at treating it
• Ionising radiation can kill living cells
o Some cells, such as bacteria and cancer cells, are more susceptible to
radiation than others
• Beams of gamma rays are directed at the cancerous tumour
o Gamma rays are used as they can penetrate the body and reach the tumour
o The beams are moved around to minimise harm to healthy tissue whilst still
being aimed at the tumour
• A tracer is a radioactive isotope that can be used to track the movement of
substances, like blood, around the body
• A PET scan can detect the emissions from a tracer to diagnose cancer and
determine the location of a tumour

Radiation therapy is a type of cancer treatment which targets the tumour with ionising
radiation

Sterilising food and medical equipment

• Gamma radiation is widely used to sterilise medical equipment

• Gamma is most suited to this because:
o It is the most penetrating out of all the types of radiation
o It is penetrating enough to irradiate all sides of the instruments
 o Instruments can be sterilised without removing the packaging
• Food can be irradiated in order to kill any microorganisms that are present on it
• This makes the food last longer and reduces the risk of food-borne infections

Food that has been irradiated carries this symbol, called the Radura. Different
countries allow different foods to be irradiated

Contamination & irradiation

Contamination
• Contamination is defined as:
The accidental transfer of a radioactive substance onto or into a material

• A substance is only radioactive if it contains a source of ionising radiation

• Contamination occurs when a radioactive isotope gets onto a material where it should not
be
o It is almost always a mistake or an accident e.g. a radiation leak
• As a result of this, the small amounts of the isotope in the contaminated areas will emit
radiation and the material becomes radioactive

Irradiation
• Irradiation is defined as:
The process of exposing a material to ionising radiation

• Irradiating a substance does not make it radioactive

o However, it can kill living cells
• Irradiation is usually a deliberate process, such as in the sterilisation of food or medical
equipment
o Surgical equipment is irradiated before being used in order to kill any micro-organisms on it
before surgery
o Food can be irradiated to kill any micro-organisms within it to make it last longer

This sign is the international symbol indicating the presence of a radioactive

material

Protection from irradiation and contamination

• Radiation can mutate DNA in cells and cause cancer through both irradiation and
contamination
o Therefore, it is important to reduce the risk of exposure to radiation
• Contamination is particularly dangerous if a radioactive source gets inside the human body
o For example, through the inhalation of radioactive gas particles, or ingesting contaminated
food
o The internal organs will be irradiated as the source emits radiation as it moves through the
body
• To prevent irradiation, shielding can be used to absorb radiation
o Lead-lined suits are used to reduce irradiation for people working with radioactive materials
o The lead absorbs most of the radiation that would otherwise hit the person
• To prevent contamination, an airtight suit is worn by people working in an area where a
radioactive source may be present
o This prevents radioactive atoms from getting on or into the person
Lead shielding is used when a person is getting an x-ray, as well as for people who
work with radiation. Contamination carries much greater risks than irradiation