Prof. Dr. Md.

Saifur Rahman
Dept. of Statistics

Graphical Representation of Data

One of the best ways of explaining statistical data is through graphs. A graphic
representation is the geometrical image of a set of data. It is a mathematical picture. A
picture is said to be more effective than words for describing a particular thing or
phenomenon. However, graphical representation of a frequency distribution is more
effective than tabular representation, being easily understandable even to a lay-man.
Diagrams are essential to convey the statistical information to the general public.

The advantages of graphic representation may be summarized as below:

1. The data can be presented in a more attractive from appealing to the eye.
2. It provides a more lasting effect on the brain.
3. Comparative analysis and interpretation may be effectively and easily made.
4. Various valuable statistics like median, mode, quartiles, may be easily computed.
5. The graphical representation helps in forecasting as it indicates the trend and movements
of the data in the past.

The following graphs are generally used in representing frequency distributions:

1. Histogram and Bar diagrams

2. Frequency Polygon and Frequency curve
3. Cumulative Frequency Curve or Ogive
4. Pie Chart

Histogram

The most common form of graphical representation of a frequency distribution is the

histogram or the column diagram, as it is sometimes called, is the most popular and widely
used in practice. The statistical meaning of histogram is that it is a graph that represents the
class frequencies in a frequency distribution by vertical adjacent rectangles. In drawing
histogram, the continuous classes are taken along X- axis and the frequencies are taken along
Y- axis. The class frequencies are plotted against the respective classes. Each class gives us
a rectangle. The combination of all rectangles constitutes a histogram.

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Example 1: The numbers of employees in an organization according to age group are given
below:

Age No. of
( in years) Employees
15-'25 50
25-35 67
35-45 43
45-55 15
55-65 5

Represent the above data by a histogram.

Figure 1: Histogram

Bar Diagram
Bar diagram is the most common type of diagrams used in practice. In drawing bar diagram,
the discrete groups or classes are taken along X- axis and the frequencies are taken along Y-
axis. The class frequencies are plotted against the respective classes. Each class gives us a
rectangle. The rectangles are generally called ‘bar’. The width of the bars should be equal
and gaps should be left between the bars to make them distinct.

Example 1: The numbers of employees in an organization according to age group are given
below:
Age No. of
( in years) Employees
15-'24 50
25-34 67
35-44 43
45-54 15
55-64 5
Represent the above data by a bar diagram.
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 Figure 1.1: Bar Diagram

 A bar diagram is more useful for presenting the information of a frequency distribution for
qualitative data. Bars of equal width are drawn to represent various classes (in this case,
expenditure). The height of each bar represents the frequencies of various classes. The
bar diagram consists of vertical or horizontal bars of equal widths.

There are various types of bar diagrams, some of which are Simple, Subdivided, Multiple,
Deviation and Rectangles Bar Diagrams. We will now look into each of them with examples.

Simple Bar Diagram

A simple bar diagram is used to represent only one variable. For example, the figures of
sales, production, population, etc., for various years may be shown by means of a simple
bar diagram. Since the bars are of the same width and only the length varies, it becomes
very easy for the reader to study the relationship. Simple bar diagrams are very popular in
practice. It may be vertical as well as horizontal.
However, an important limitation of such diagrams is that they can present only one
classification or one category of data.

Example 2: The following data relate to the weekly expenditure (in Tk.) of a family A.

Name of Family A
Expenditure
Food 1600
Clothing 800
Rent 600
Light and Fuel 200
Miscellaneous 800
Represent the above data by a simple bar diagram (vertical and horizontal).

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 Figure 2: Vertical Bar Diagram

Figure 2.1: Horizontal Bar Diagram

Subdivided Bar Chart/ Component Bar Chart

These diagrams are used to represent various parts of the total. For example, the number of
employees in various departments of a company may be represented by a subdivided bar
diagram. While constructing such a diagram, the various components in each bar should be
kept in the same order. A common and helpful arrangement is that of presenting each bar in
the order of magnitude from the largest component at the base of the bar to the smallest at
the end. To distinguish between the different components, it is useful to use different shades

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or colours. Index or key should be given explaining these differences. Sub-divided bar
diagrams may be vertical as well as horizontal.

Example 3: Draw a component bar diagram from the following data:

Year Sales Gross Profit Net Profit

('000 Tk.) ('000 Tk.) ('000 Tk.)
2000 120 40 20
2001 135 45 30
2002 140 55 35
2003 150 60 40

Represent the above data by a subdivided bar diagram or component bar diagram.

Figure 3: Subdivided Bar Diagram

Multiple Bar Diagram

In a multiple bar chart, two or more set of inter-related data are represented. The technique
of drawing such a diagram is the same as that of simple bar diagram. The only difference is
that since more than one phenomenon is represented, different shades, colours, dots, or
crossing are used to distinguish between the bars.

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Example 3: Draw a multiple bar diagram from the following data:

Year Sales Gross Profit Net Profit

('000 Tk.) ('000 Tk.) ('000 Tk.)
2000 120 40 20
2001 135 45 30
2002 140 55 35
2003 150 60 40

Represent the above data by a multiple bar diagram.

Figure 3.1: Multiple Bar Diagram

Deviation Bars

Deviation bars are popularly used for representing net quantities-excess or deficit, i.e., net
profit, net loss, net exports or imports, etc. Such bars can have both positive and negative
values. Positive values are shown above the horizontal line and negative values below it.
The following example would explain this type of diagram:

Example 4.Represent the following data by a deviation bar diagram showing Sales and Net
profits of a private industrial companies.

Net Profit or
Year Sales loss
2000-01 14% 49%
2001-02 10% -25%
2002-03 13% -5%

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 Figure 4: Deviation Bar Diagram

Rectangular Diagram

This form is quite popular. Since the area of a rectangle is equal to is equal to the product of
its length and width, while constructing such a diagram both length and width are
considered. The following example would explain this type of diagram:

Example 5. Represent the following data by a rectangular diagram.

Commodities A B
Price per unit of commodity (Tk.) 10 12
Cost of raw Other cost
Quantity sold
materials(Tk.) (Tk.) Profits(Tk.)
20 Units 100 60 40
24 Units 120 96 72

Figure 5: Rectangular Diagram

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The Frequency Polygon

A frequency polygon is a graph of frequency distribution. It is particularly effective in

comparing two or more frequency distributions.
In drawing frequency polygon, the mid-values of the classes are taken along X- axis and the
frequencies along Y- axis. The class frequencies are plotted against the mid-values of the
respective classes. The plotted consecutive points are then joined by straight lines one after
another. The two end-points are also joined to the x-axis at the mid-points of the empty
classes. The figure so drawn is the frequency polygon.

▪ We may draw a histogram of the given data and then join by straight lines the midpoint
of the upper horizontal side of each rectangle with the adjacent rectangle. The figure
so formed is called frequency polygon.

Example 1: The numbers of employees in an organization according to age group are

given below:

Age No. of
( in years) Employees
15-'25 50
25-35 67
35-45 43
45-55 15
55-65 5

Represent the above data by a frequency polygon.

Figure 6: Frequency Polygon

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The Frequency curves
If the number of observations is large and the length of class intervals can be reduced, the
frequency polygon will provide a smooth curve usually called frequency curve. Following
are the four different types of frequency curves.

i) Symmetrical curve.
ii)Moderately asymmetrical or skew curve.
iii) Extremely asymmetrical or J-shaped curve.
iv) U-shaped curve.

Symmetrical curve
A frequency curve is said to be symmetrical if the frequency at the mid-position is maximum
and the rate of decrease from the peak point of the curve is same in both the sides.

Figure 7: Symmetrical Curve

Extremely asymmetrical or J-shaped curve: A frequency curve is said to be J-shaped if

the maximum frequency occurs at the left end, then it gives a positively J-shaped curve. On
the other hand, if the maximum frequency occurs at the right end, then it gives a negatively
J-shaped curve. The curv of income distribution is an example of positive J-shaped curve.

U-shaped curve
A frequency curve is said to be U-shaped if it looks like the letter U. In this type of curve,
the maximum frequency occurs at both end of the distribution while the minimum at the
middle. Frequency distribution of age-specific human death rate exhibits a U-shaped curve.

Moderately asymmetrical or skew curve:

A frequency curve is said to be skew if it lacks of symmetry i.e. the rate of decrease from
the peak point of the curve in both the sides is not equal.
There are two types of skew curves
namely. i) Positively Skew Curve
ii) Negatively Skew Curve
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i) Positively Skew Curve: If a curve has a long tail on right side, it is called a positively
skewed curve.

Figure 7.1: Positively Skewed Curve

ii) Negatively Skew Curve: On the other hand, a curve having a long tail on the left is called
negatively skewed curve.

Figure 7.2: Negatively Skewed Curve

Cumulative frequency curve or Ogive

Sometimes one needs to know the answers to questions like ‘how many workers of a factory
earn more than Tk. 5000 per month’ or how many workers earn less than Tk. 4000 per
month’. To answer these questions it is necessary to add the frequencies. When frequencies
are added, they are called cumulative frequencies. These frequencies are then listed in a
table called a cumulative frequency table. The graph of such a distribution is called

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cumulative frequency curve or an Ogive . There are two methods of constructing ogive,
namely: a) The ‘less than’ method, b) The ‘more than’ method.

This type of curve obtained by taken the class limits along X-axis and cumulative
frequencies along Y-axis. The cumulative frequencies are plotted at the upper limits of the
classes. The successive points are then joined by a smooth free hand. This curve is known
as cumulative frequency curve or ogive (less than type).

Example 1: The numbers of employees in an organization according to age group are given
below:

Age No. of Cumulative

( in years) Employees frequency
15-'25 50 50
25-35 67 117
35-45 43 160
45-55 15 175
55-65 5 180

Represent the above data by an ogive (less than type).

Figure 8: Cumulative Frequency Curve

More than ogive: The continuous class intervals are taken along X-axis and cumulative
frequencies along Y-axis. When cumulative frequencies in descending order are plotted
against the lower limits of the class intervals and the points are then joined by a smooth free
hand. This curve is known as ‘more than ogive’.

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Example 1: The numbers of employees in an organization according to age group are given
below:

Age No. of Cumulative

( in years) Employees frequency
15-'25 50 180
25-35 67 130
35-45 43 63
45-55 15 20
55-65 5 5

Represent the above data by an ogive (more than type).

Figure 8.1: More than Ogive

Pie Chart

Pie Chart is used to display the frequency distribution. It is very popularly used in practice
to show percentage breakdowns. This type of diagram enables us to show the partitioning
of a otal into component parts. This is a useful device for presenting categorical data. The
following example would explain this type of diagram:

Example 5: The following data relate to the weekly expenditure (in Tk.) of a family B.

Name of Expenditure Family B Percentages

Food 1200 40
Clothing 600 20
Rent 500 17
Light and Fuel 100 3
Miscellaneous 600 20

Represent the above data by a pie chart.

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Figure 9 : Pie Chart

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